November 26

Survey
Camp 2014
What is surveying …..?
Surveying an area and levelling corridors to find the
optimal location of linear engineering structures such as
roads, bridges, canals, air fields, pipelines, power lines A.T.S FERNANDO
and such are carried out along an alignment that must first
have been established on the map
Simple Circular Curve

Figure 1.0

 Once the alignment of a route is finalized, such as AVCD in Figure 1.0 the change in
direction is achieved through provision of circular curves.
 In Figure 1.0, to change the direction from AV to VC, a circular curve T1 GT2 is
provided. Similarly, from VC to CD, T'1G'T'2 is provided. The straight alignments,
between which a curve is provided, are tangential to the curve. Thus, AT1 V and
VT2C are tangential to T1 GT2.
 The tangent line before the beginning of the curve is called the Back tangent or the
rear tangent. The tangent line after the end of the curve is called the Forward tangent .
 The line AT1 is the back tangent and the line T2C is the forward tangent for the curve
T1GT2.
 The distinction of the back tangent from the forward tangent depends on the direction
of the route surveying. The point at which extension of the back tangent and the
forward tangent meet is known as the Vertex (V) or point of intersection (P.I.).
 The exterior angle at the vertex or point of intersection is known as the Intersection
angle (I). It is also known as Deflection angle (D) as it represents the deflection angle
between the back tangent and the forward tangent. Thus, angle between the line AV
produced beyond the vertex V and the line VC represents I (or D).
 The point on the back tangent where the curve begins is known as the Point of
Curvature (P.C.). At this point, the alignment of the route changes from a straight line
to a curve. This is represented by T1 in Figure 1.0.
 The point on the forward tangent where the curve ends is known as the Point of
tangency (P.T.). At this point, the alignment of the route changes from a curve to a
straight line. It is represented by T2 in Figure 1.0
 The distance between the point of curvature (T1) to the point of intersection (V) along
the extension of back tangent is known as Tangent distance (T).

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  It is also equal to the distance between the points of tangency (T2) to the point of
intersection along the extension of forward tangent.
 The distance between the point of intersection (V) and the middle point of the curve is
called as External distance (E).
 The longest possible chord of the circular curve is known as Long chord (L). It is the
line joining the point of curvature (T1) and the point of tangency (T2).
 The distance between the middle point of the curve and the middle point of the long
chord is Mid-ordinate (M). The length of the alignment along the curve between the
point of curvature (T1) and the point of tangency (T2) is known as the Length of
curve (l).
 During the progress of the route, if the direction of deflection is to the right then it is
called Right-hand curve (T1GT2) and it is called left -hand curve, if the curve deflects
to the left T'1G'T'2.

Elements of a Simple Circular Curve

Let T1GT2 be the circular curve that has been provided between the tangents AV and VC.
The deflection angle, D between the tangents is measured in the field. The radius of curvature
is the design value as per requirement of the route operation and field topography. The line
joining O and V bisects the internal angles at V and at O, the chord T1T2 and arc T1GT2 . It
is perpendicular to the chord T1T2 at F. From the Figure 37.1, RT1 O T2 =  and

To compute the elements of a circular curve, consider the radius of the curve OT1 = OT2 =
R. Further, it is known that the RVT1 O = RVT2 O = 90° (since the tangent to a circle is
perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangency). The elements of a circular curve
required to lay it out in the field with reference to Figure 37.1 are as follows:

Length of Curve,

l = T1 GT2

--------------Equation (1.1)

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Tangent Length,

T = length T1 V = length T2 V

--------------Equation (1.2)

Changes of tangent point: The changes of the point of intersection (V) are generally known.
Thus,

Chainage of T1 = Chainage of V - tangent length (T) --------------Equation (1.3)

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + length of curve (l) --------------Equation (1.4)

Length of the long chord (L) : Length of the long chord,

L = length T1 FT2

--------------Equation (1.5)

External distance (E):

E = length VG

= VO - GO

--------------Equation (1.6)

Mid-ordinate (M):

M = length GF = OG-OF

--------------Equation (1.7)

Formulas for Circular Curves- Review

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The formulas we are about to present need not be memorized. All we need is geometry plus
names of all elements in simple curve. Note that we are only dealing with circular arc, it is in
our great advantage if we deal it at geometry level rather than memorize these formulas. For
easy reference, the figure shown in the previous page will be shown again here.

Length of tangent, T

Length of tangent (also referred to as sub tangent) is the distance from PC to PI. It is the same
distance from PI to PT. From the right triangle PI-PT-O,

External distance, E

External distance is the distance from PI to the midpoint of the curve. From the same right
triangle PI-PT-O,

Middle ordinate, m

Middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the chord.
From right triangle O-Q-PT,

Length of long chord, L

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Length of long chord or simply length of chord is the distance from PC to PT. Again, from
right triangle O-Q-PT,

Length of curve, Lc

Length of curve from PC to PT is the road distance between ends of the simple curve. By
ratio and proportion,

An alternate formula for the length of curve is by ratio and proportion with its degree of
curve.

SI units: 1 station = 20 m

English system: 1 station = 100 ft.

If given the stationing of PC and PT

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Degree of curve, D
The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by an arc (arc basis) or chord (chord basis)
of one station. It will define the sharpness of the curve. In English system, 1 station is equal
to 100 ft and in SI, 1 station is equal to 20 m. It is important to note that 100 ft is equal to
30.48 m not 20 m.

Arc Basis
In arc definition, the degree of curve is the central angle angle subtended by one station of
circular arc. This definition is used in highways. Using ratio and proportion,

SI units (1 station = 20 m):

English system (1 station = 100 ft):

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Chord Basis
Chord definition is used in railway design. The degree of curve is the central angle subtended
by one station length of chord. From the right triangle shaded in green color,

SI units (half station = 10 m):

English system (half station = 50 ft):

Minimum Radius of Curvature

Vehicle traveling on a horizontal curve may either skid or overturn off the road due to
centrifugal force. Side friction f and superelevation e are the factors that will stabilize this
force.

The superelevation e = tan (theta) and the friction factor f = tan (phi). The minimum radius of
curve so that the vehicle can round the curve without skidding is determined as follows.

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From the force polygon shown in the right

The quantity v2/gR is called impact factor.

Impact factor

Back to the equation tan (theta + phi) = v2/gR

Recall that and

But , thus

Radius of curvature with R in meter and v in meter per second

For the above formula, v must be in meter per second (m/s) and R in meter (m). For v in
kilometre per hour (kph) and R in meter, the following convenient formula is being used.

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Radius of curvature with R in meter and v in kilometre per hour

Using the above formula, R must be in meter (m) and v in kilometre per hour (kph).

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Contouring
Contouring is the science of representing the vertical dimension of the terrain on a two
dimensional map. We can understand contouring by considering a simple example.Let us
assume that a right circular cone of base 5m diameter and vertical height 5m is standing
upright on its base. Let the base be resting on a horizontal plane at zero level as shown in
Figure1.

At zero level, the outline of the cone will be a circle of 5m diameter. This circle is the contour
line at 0m elevation for the cone. We draw this first contour line on paper to a convenient
scale.

Let us now slice the cone at 1m height from the base. This will produce another circular
outline corresponding to the diameter of the cone at 1m elevation. Let us draw this second
circle on our contour map using the same scale. The second circle being smaller in diameter
than the first will appear as a concentric circle within the first circle.

Similarly, we continue to draw the outline of the cone at 2m, 3m, 4m and 5m levels on our
contour map. Our contour map for the conical object is now ready. The circles on the map are
called contour lines. (see figure-2)

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Like the cone in our example, hills project upwards from ground level. The contour map of a
hilly terrain will be similar to that of the cone, except that instead of perfect circles, the
contour lines would be of
irregular shapes. The important point of similarity to note here is that hilly terrain would be
represented by contour lines with increasing elevation towards the centre.

In contrast to this, a pond or depression would be represented by contour lines with

decreasing elevation towards the centre.

Define Contour Line

A Contour line is an imaginary outline of the terrain obtained by joining its points of equal
elevation. In our example of the cone, each circle is a contour line joining points of same
level.

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Define Contour Interval (CI)
Contour interval is the difference between the levels of consecutive contour lines on a map.
The contour interval is a constant in a given map. In our example, the contour interval is 1m.

Define Horizontal Equivalent (HE)

Horizontal equivalent is the horizontal distance between two consecutive contour lines
measured to the scale of the map.

Gradient
Gradient represents the ascending or descending slope of the terrain between two consecutive
contour lines. The slope or gradient is usually stated in the format 1 in S, where 1 represents
the vertical component of the slope and S its corresponding horizontal component measured
in the same unit.

The gradient between two consecutive contour lines can also be expressed in terms of Tan
Q(theta) as follows:

Tan Q (theta) = CI / HE … both measured in the same unit.

There are three main differences between contour interval and horizontal equivalent as
follows:

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S.No Contour Interval Horizontal Equivalent

1 It is based on vertical levels Represents horizontal distance

2 No measurement or scaling is required The distance must be measured on the map

since the contour levels are indicated on and converted to actual distance by
the contour lines multiplying with the scale of the map

3 In a given map the contour interval is a The horizontal equivalent varies with slope.
constant Closer distance indicates steep slope and
wider distance gentle slope

The survey leader has to decide an appropriate contour interval for his project before start of
survey work. The following factors govern the selection of contour interval for a project:

S.No Factor Select High CI like 1m, 2m, 5m Select Low CI like 0.5m,
or more 0.25m, 0.1m or less

1 Nature of ground If the ground has large variation If the terrain is fairly level
in levels, for instance, hills and
ponds

2 Scale of the map For small scale maps covering a For large scale maps
wide area of varying terrain
showing details of a small area

3 Extent of survey For rough topographical map For preparation of detailed map
for execution of work
meant for initial assessment only

4 Time and If less time and resources are If more time and resources are
resources available
available
available

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Contours show distinct characteristic features of the terrain as follows:

 All points on a contour line are of the same elevation.

 No two contour lines can meet or cross each other except in the rare case of an
overhanging vertical cliff or wall
Closely spaced contour lines indicate steep slope

 Widely spaced contour lines indicate gentle slope

 Equally spaced contour lines indicate uniform slope

 Closed contour lines with higher elevation towards the centre indicate hills

 Closed contour lines with reducing levels towards the centre indicate pond or other
depression.

 Contour lines of ridge show higher elevation within the loop of the contours. Contour
lines cross ridge at right angles.

 Contour lines of valley show reducing elevation within the loop of the contours.
Contour lines cross valley at right angles.

 All contour lines must close either within the map boundary or outside.

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2nd DAY- Total Station Surveying
Total station is a combination of Electromagnetic Distance Measuring Instrument and
electronic theodolite. It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data collector and
storage system. The instrument can be used to measure horizontal and vertical angles as well
as sloping distance of object to the instrument. Microprocessor unit processes the data
collected to compute:

1. average of multiple angles measured

2. average of multiple distance measured

3. horizontal distance

4. distance between any two points

5. elevation of objects and

6. all the three coordinates of the observed points.

Data collected and processed may be down-loaded to computers for further processing. Total
station is a compact instrument and weighs 50 to 55 N. A person can easily carry it to the
field. Total stations with different accuracies, in angle measurement and different range of
measurements are available in the market.

Advantages of Using Total Stations

The following are some of the major advantages of using total station over the conventional
surveying instruments:

1. Field work is carried out very fast.

2. Accuracy of measurement is high.

3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.

4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for temperature
and pressure are automatically made.

5. Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-sections.
Contour intervals and scales can be changed in no time.

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Brief Description of Important Operations

Distance Measurement: Electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument is a major part of

total station. Its range varies from 2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accuracy of measurement varies
from 5 mm to 10 mm per km measurement. They are used with automatic target recognisers.
The distance measured is always sloping distance from instrument to the object. Angle
Measurements: The electronic theodolite part of total station is used for measuring vertical
and horizontal angle. For measurement of horizontal angles any convenient direction may be
taken as reference direction. For vertical angle measurement vertical upward (zenith)
direction is taken as reference direction. The accuracy of angle measurement varies from 2 to
6 seconds.

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Data Processing : This instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. The
microprocessor averages multiple observations. With the help of slope distance and vertical
and horizontal angles measured, when height of axis of instrument and targets are supplied,
the microprocessor computes the horizontal distance and X, Y, Z coordinates. The processor
is capable of applying temperature and pressure corrections to the measurements, if
atmospheric temperature and pressures are supplied.

Display: Electronic display unit is capable of displaying various values when respective keys
are pressed. The system is capable of displaying horizontal distance, vertical distance,
horizontal and vertical angles, difference in elevations of two observed points and all the
three coordinates of the observed points.

Electronic Book: Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book (like compact disc).
The capacity of electronic note book varies from 2000 points to 4000 points data. Surveyor
can unload the data stored in note book to computer and reuse the note book.

Use of Total Station

The instrument is mounted on a tripod and is levelled by operating levelling screws. Within a
small range instrument is capable of adjusting itself to the level position. Then vertical and
horizontal reference directions are indexed using onboard keys. It is possible to set required
units for distance, temperature and pressure (FPS or SI). Surveyor can select measurement
mode like fine, coarse, single or repeated.

When target is sighted, horizontal and vertical angles as well as sloping distances are
measured and by pressing appropriate keys they are recorded along with point number.
Heights of instrument and targets

can be keyed in after measuring them with tapes. Then processor computes various
information about the point and displays on screen. This information is also stored in the
electronic note book. At the end

of the day or whenever electronic note book is full, the information stored is downloaded to
computers.

The point data downloaded to the computer can be used for further processing. There are
software like auto civil and auto plotter clubbed with AutoCad which can be used for plotting
contours at any specified interval and for plotting cross-section along any specified line.

 However, surveyor should check the working condition of the instruments before
using. For this standard points may be located near survey office and before taking
out instrument for field work, its working is checked by observing those standard
points from the specified instrument station

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