UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA

FACULTATEA DE LITERE
DEPARTAMENTUL DE STUDII ANGLO - AMERICANE SI GERMANE

ASPECTS OF MODALITY IN ENGLISH

TEACHING THE CONCEPTS OF POSSIBILITY AND
PROBABILITY

Coordonator Științific:
Lect. Univ. Dr. ANA – MARIA TRANTESCU

Candidat:
GEICU (RǍDUCU) LILIANA
LICEUL TEHNOLOGIC NR.1
ALEXANDRIA, JUD. TELEORMAN

2015 – 2017
 Contents

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................5
Chapter 1 – Introductory Issues………………………………………………………………...9
1.1 Motivation ……………………………………………………………………………………9
1.2 Working Hypothesis ………………………………………………………………………...10
1.3 Objectives of the Research ………………………………………………………………….11
Chapter 2 - Mood and Modality in English …………………………………………………13
2.1 Aspects of Modality …………………………………………………………………………13
2.2 Lexical and Grammatical Means of Expressing Modality ………………………………….14
Chapter 3 - The Modal Verbs in English ……………………………………………………21
3.1 Auxiliary and Modal Auxiliary Verbs ………………………………….…………………...21
3.2 Modal Expressions and Semi – auxiliaries …………………………………………………26
3.3 The Modal Verbs. Classification …………………………………………………..……….27
3.4 Modal Verbs. General Characteristics ………………………………………………..….…27
3.5 Epistemic vs. Deontic Modality …………………………………………………………….30
Chapter 4 - Means of Expressing Possibility and Probability …………………………….34
4.1 Means of Expressing Probability ……………………………………………………………36
4.2 Means of Expressing Possibility ………………………………………………….…………40
4.3 Other Parts of Speech Expressing Possibility and Probability ……………………………...45
Chapter 5 - Approaches to teaching Possibility and Probability …………………………...49
5.1 Approaches to Teaching Grammar …………………………………………………………49
5.2 Research Methods…………………………………………………………………………...58
Chapter 6 - The Experiment .....................................................................................................63
6.1 Instruments and Design……………………………………………………………………...64
6.2 The Grammar Translation Method………………………………………………………….70
6.3 The Communicative Approach………………………………………………………………82
6.4 Analysis of the Experiment………………………………………………………………….98
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................101
Bibliography...............................................................................................................................104

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 INTRODUCTION

The ever-growing need for good communication skills in English has created a huge
demand for English teaching around the world. Millions of people today want to improve their
command of English or to ensure that their children achieve a good command of English. And
opportunities to learn English are provided in many different ways such as through formal
instruction, travel, study abroad, as well as through the media and the Internet. The worldwide
demand for English has created an enormous demand for quality language teaching and language
teaching materials and resources. Learners set themselves demanding goals. They want to be
able to master English to a high level of accuracy and fluency. Employers, too, insist that their
employees have good English language skills, and fluency in English is a prerequisite for success
and advancement in many fields of employment in today’s world. The demand for an appropriate
teaching methodology is therefore as strong as ever. (Richards, 2006:1)
People start learning languages for various reasons. Adult people usually need it for their
job. They want to learn the language and improve their level when they know it is connected
with their promotion. Such people learn the language because of extrinsic motivation. We can
talk about the extrinsic motivation also in the case of pupils and students who did not choose
learning languages voluntarily but they have to study it at school they attend. Sometimes they are
not interested in the language at all and when we ask them why they learn the language, their
answer may be: “Because I want to pass the test, or because I want to have good marks.”
Different group of people have an intrinsic motivation. It means that the needs of learning
languages come from themselves. In case of English, they can be for example interested in the
culture of English-speaking countries or they simply do not want to look uneducated when they
travel abroad. The basic task for an English teacher is definitely to motivate his or her students.
He or she must show the importance of English knowledge.
Over the centuries, foreign language educators have alternated between favoring
teaching approaches which focus on having students analyze language in order to learn it and
those which encourage students’ using language in order to acquire it. Earlier this century, this
distinctive pattern was observable in the shift from the analytic grammar-translation approach to
the use-oriented direct method. Although the character of the field is somewhat more
heterogeneous today, a recent example of the shift, this time in the opposite direction, is the loss
of popularity of the Chomsky-inspired cognitive code approach, in which analyzing structures
and applying rules were common practices, and the rise in popularity of more communicative
approaches which emphasize language use over rules of language usage.
Language in the L2 classroom traditionally is strongly teacher-controlled. With the

5
introduction, in the course of the last decade, of varieties of communication into the classroom
which are less stringly teacher-controlled learner language made its entry into foreign language
teaching as a variety of the L2 that deserves our serious attention. It given real scope, learner
language will be in need of the kind of support that is not normally offered in the traditional
foreign language class.
The learner will be in need of language to express himself as he would in non-
pedagogic situations. He will need to be able to use his innate strategic and discourse
competence. He will be in need of some basic awareness of what happens in face-to-face
interaction and may benefit from instruction about communication strategies. In this article
suggestions are made for instruction about the practice in the use of communication strategies in
the L2.
The motivation for language instruction is not simply to supply what is minimally
necessary for learning to take place, but rather to create the optimal conditions for effective and
efficient L2 (foreign language being taught) pedagogy.
Whereas opponents of a language-analytic approach have usually equated the teaching
of grammar with the teaching of explicit linguistic rules, we submit that whether or not the
students are provided with explicit rules is really irrelevant to what it means to teach grammar.
Neither should the teaching of grammar require a focus on form or structure alone. A concession
by those who would abandon language analysis must also be made: communicative competence
should be seen to subsume linguistic competence, not to replace it.
That linguistic accuracy is as much a part of communicative competence as being able
to get one’s meaning across or to communicate in a sociolinguistically appropriate manner. Thus,
a more satisfactory characterization of teaching grammar, is that teaching grammar means
enabling language students to use linguistic forms accurately, meaningfully and appropriately.
It is important to develop our understanding of the grammatical facts of the language we
are teaching, we are not interested in filling our students with grammatical paradigms and
syntactic rules. What we hope to do is to cultivate linguistic performance in our students. In
other words, grammar teaching is not so much knowledge transmission as it is skill development.
By recognizing this, we can take advantage of several insights from second language acquisition
(SLA) research concerning how students naturally develop their ability to interpret and produce
grammatical utterances.
Teachers also need to relate teaching grammar and pattern drills to meaning and use
instead of teaching grammar traditionally and drilling grammar patterns. Thus, language
structure practice must be used in contexts that are appropriate for students.
That is the area that the traditional English foreign language teaching has long
6
overlooked- namely teaching English for communicative purpose- that is why, when teaching
grammar we should make the language situations as realistic as possible.
The purpose of the present paper is to find evidence of the effectiveness and usefulness of
teaching and learning grammar, and especially of teaching how to express possibility and
probability in English using the Grammar – Translation Method and the Communicative
Language Teaching Method.
This paper contains an introduction, six main chapters, conclusions, annexes and
bibliography.

Structure of the paper

The aims of the present work could be divided into two distinct categories:
a) theoretical aims that refer to general problems related to educational research and a
general presentation of modality and modal verbs expressing possibility and probability.
b) methodological aims which consists in an attempt of finding, showing and
implementing the best methods, techniques and activities that could be efficient in teaching
modal verbs expressing possibility and probability so that the learners’ performance in the area
should be improved.
The first chapter “Introductory Issues” deals with motivation, structure and methods to
approach the paper.
The second chapter “Mood and Modality in English” concerns the introduction into the
aspects of modality and the Lexical and Grammatical Means of expressing modality in English.
The third chapter “The Modal Verbs in English” deals with theoretical aspects
regarding the modal verbs in contemporary English and it makes a clear distinction between the
deontical and epistemical values of modal verbs.
The fourth chapter “Means of Expressing Possibility and Probability” leads into
presenting the means of expressing possibility and probability in English.
The fifth chapter “Approaches to teaching Possibility and Probability” begins with
examining relevant research on different approaches to teach grammar and goes on with the
experiment of using the traditional method (the Grammar Translation Method) and the Modern
Approach (Communicative Approach) in teaching the modal verbs to the intermediate students.
It focuses on the problems that learners might meet while using them. Different types of
activities and exercises that can be used while learning this structure are presented in this part of
the paper. It provides a practical usage of modals when teaching high-school learners. There are
various practical activities that can be used by English teachers. On one hand, some basis
theoretical facts regarding the methodology of modal verbs are presented. On the other hand, I

7
present the way I applied those theoretical principles in my teaching practice. Both aspects are
part of the experiment I conducted, which was meant to verify the working hypothesis, as well as
the efficiency of certain activities devised for classroom use.
There are presented the methods of teaching: from Traditional Approach-“The Grammar
- Translation Method” and from Communicative Approach— “The Communicative Language
Teaching Method”, accompanied by different activities, samples of tests, recordings of common
mistakes and conclusions.
The last part – Conclusions – includes final comments and represents a synthesis of the
whole paper.
The paper also contains annexes that comprise lesson plans, examples of games,
exercises and activities.

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTORY ISSUES

1.1 MOTIVATION
As a teacher of English for Romanian students, I am concerned about the negative
attitudes that many students have towards grammar, many of them finding it boring and difficult.
Grammar is essential when learning a second language. It is central to the teaching and
learning of languages, but also one of the more difficult aspects to teach well. Students cannot
gain fluency in the target language unless they acquire a deep mastery of its grammar and an
adequate awareness of the interrelationship between semantics and syntax.
People try to learn and apply English wherever needed to keep pace with the rest of the
world. But they are reluctant when it is the question of learning “English Grammar”. Many
people in the world speak their own native language without having studied its grammar.
Children start to speak before they even know the word "grammar". But serious students of a
language need grammar to learn a language more quickly and more efficiently.
Due to the new place of our country in the international institutions and, generally, in
the democratic world, most Romanians become more and more interested in learning and
speaking English accurately. But it cannot be done without an accurate grammar; in fact, I think
that grammar is vital to speak English fluently.
Therefore, English as a foreign language is studied in Romania, as the first foreign
language (being studied starting with the third grade or even the first grade, optionally) or as the
second foreign language (beginning with the fifth grade).
Along the time, we noticed that our students encountered difficulties related to the
understanding of the moods and especially difficulties concerning the uses of modal verbs.
In the majority of traditional language teaching activities, the conscious element is
strong: we specify dialogues to be learnt, structures to be practiced, work to be memorized, and
so on. The subconscious element demands a new range of activities, where learners are focused
not on the language itself, but on the communications of meanings. In these conditions, linguistic
competences can develop through the learners internal processing mechanisms. Teachers‘
experiences with audio-lingual and audio-visual courses have demonstrated that, on their own,
habit formation techniques are not sufficient to develop the ability to communicate in a language.
Learners also need opportunities for communicative use, so that they can integrate separate
structures into a creative system for expressing meanings.
It is very important how grammar is taught but is more important how grammar is
9
learned. There is a difference. I can teach my students the modal verbs in English and I can even
do it with flair, humor, brilliance and insight. But this is no guarantee that they are going to learn
it. They may remember me, the teacher, and the circumstances of the lesson. They may even
remember some facts about the mood itself. Traces of that memory of those facts may get them
through the end-of-year exam. But, placed in a situation of real language use, can they access the
means of expressing possibility and probability? Unlikely.
These contexts should enable learners to construct their own representation of language
in the same way as they would in a natural environment.
Collecting useful data and making written records of student language production, we
got involved in this interesting research in order to demonstrate that learning the use of modal
verbs has to be achieved through communication.
Methods of approach: hypothesis of work and objectives of research
The main purpose of the present paper is to scientifically explore the possibility of
improving language accuracy, especially intermediate students’ poor performance in the field of
modality

1.2 Working Hypothesis

Hypothesis is an idea that attempts to explain something but has not yet been tested or
proved to be correct. It suggests the possible links between the elements of the problem, links
that are about to be explained during the process of research.
The hypothesis in the pedagogical research has to assure a balance between the purpose,
the development and the final outcome of the education activity. The starting point of a research
is the wording of the problem, its delimitation from a wide context of activities or from the
practical activity.
The assumptions made by the person involved in the research have to assure us that the
formative results of the research are not inferior to the situation in which the activity would have
traditionally taken place.
If the issue of modal verbs is visualized in a communicative, integrative way and not as
a distinct, isolated compartment of the English language, students’ performance will be
improved and we obtain both enrichment of students’ grammar and reach a higher level of
accuracy and expressivity in terms of language.
For this reason, the working hypothesis of this paper may be formulated as follows:
- If we use the communicative approach in teaching the Romanian students modal verbs
will they make fewer mistakes in using them?
- If we create contexts for the use of modals in the classroom, by means such as
10
listening and reading activities, discussion, communication tasks and role-playing, will the
Romanian learners be able to better understand and to properly use them?
From a methodology point of view, the teacher should not limit him/herself within the
borders of one approach, but be open to a wide range of different approaches in order to adjust
his/her teaching to the needs and capabilities of every student.
In this extremely fast era of globalization, English has gained an essential role because it
is one of the international languages which are being used in most aspects of life such as
business, tourism, and economy, social and nevertheless education. So English language is not
merely used to communicate with people from foreign countries, but also to carry out the
educational institutions, considering the fact that many English learners want to get a certificate
for “International English Language Test (IELT)” or “First Certificate in English (FCE)” or
“Certificate of Advanced English (CAE)”.

1.3 Objectives of the Research

The research plan had a few general objectives which, during its carrying out were
reformulated as a complex of particular objectives specific to each stage of the programme.
These objectives were the following:
a. Check on the students’ knowledge of modal verbs with a view to pointing out to the
most common mistakes;
b. Devise ways and activities to improve students’ knowledge in the area and apply
them in the classroom in order to check their efficiency;
c. Prove the need for more attention to be paid to the issue of modality both in the
national curriculum and course syllabi and in actual teaching practice.
In order to accomplish the above-stated objectives, a research programme was devised.
The research was conducted in two directions:
a. A theoretical one, which comprises a study of different methodological theories and
trends
b. A practical one which consisted in conducting an experiment on a group of students
Thus, the research could be described as intra-disciplinary meant at the same time
establish and improve certain facts from the reality of teaching practice. It started as from the
spontaneous observation of students’ faulty performance in a specific area of English language-
the modal verbs - and developed into systematic research with a definite plan of measures and
clear objectives to be fulfilled.
The research was conducted over a given period of time on two different groups of
students with the same level of English- intermediate. This meant that:
11
 a. A study programme was conceived in order to improve students’ performance.
b. A test was taken by the students of both groups. The test was meant to check on the
efficiency of the methods introduced during the study programme in both classes.
The research aims to discover whether learners in the experimental class can make a
significant progress in grammar learning after experiencing an experimental semester. The
research is designed for the purpose of seeing through the experimental semester whether
learners in the experimental class can make more progress in grammar learning than those in the
control class. It also aims to find out which is more effective in improving learners’ learning
confidence and motivation the Grammar Translation Method or the Communicative Approach.
As for the methodological principles that formed the basis of our experimental research,
I tried not to be the slave of one or another theory, but an attempt to combine them in such a way
as to appeal to every student involved in the experiment so as to enable them all to reach better
performance. A wide range of activities were used going from wholly-controlled to totally free
ones and representing different approaches from the traditional one (the Grammar Translation
Method) to modern types such as the Communicative Approach.
Irrespective of the methods and activities used at a certain moment of the experiment,
the basic element that they all have in common was the fact that at the center of all efforts were
the students, their need, their particularities and their performance.

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 CHAPTER 2
MOOD AND MODALITY IN ENGLISH

2.1 Aspects of Modality

The interest of linguists in the category of Mood and Modality is quite recent and
closely related to the development of pragmatics. The understanding of the terminology is
necessary in order to analyze the modality in English in terms of typological study. Firstly, it is
necessary to establish the notions of mood and modality in order to begin the study of moods and
modal verbs.
Modality, as a noun, can be used with the same meaning as mood. Modality is the heart
of the sentence; like thinking, it is generally formed as a result of an active operation of the
speaking subject.
In linguistics, the attitude of a transmitter (speaker) towards the content of the
communication (in more specific sense, his attitude towards the content of the sentence or the
principal verbs of the sentence) is called Modality. Consequently, a sentence cannot be called a
sentence unless modality, in some measure, finds its expression in it.
Mood and modality express the speaker’s attitude or opinion regarding “the contents of
the sentence” (Palmer, 1986: 14) or “the proposition that the sentence expresses” (Lyons, 1977:
452). Palmer (1986: 21) defines mood as realized by the verbal morphology, whereas modality is
defined as a linguistic feature generated by a variety of linguistic phenomena among which
modal verbs play a central role, as Downing and Locke (1992: 383-384) describe. Quirk et al.
(1985: 219), discussing modality, speak of “constraining factors of meaning” namely in terms of
intrinsic and extrinsic modality. In other words, the meaning of some kind of intrinsic human
control over events would signify “permission”, “obligation” and “volition” (deontic, according
to Lyons, Palmer, and Downing & Locke). On the other hand, where such intrinsic control is not
involved, the meaning would indicate “possibility”, “necessity”, and “prediction” (epistemic,
using Lyons’, Palmer’s, and Downing & Locke’s terminology).
The term mood can be used in free variation instead of that of modality. But generally it
refers to the contrastive grammatical expressions of different modalities. The Mood is a set of
distinctive forms, so it belongs to the sphere of morpho-syntax while modality concerns with the
meaning expressed grammatically or lexically, so it belongs to the semantic domain.
Modality can be expressed grammatically or lexically.
There are two ways in which languages deal grammatically with an overall category of
modality:
13
  Modal verbs
E.g. She must be at home; it is 4 p.m.
She can’t be at work; It’s 8 p.m. and she has already finished her program.
 Mood system
E.g. It is possible that man may be able to colonize mercury.
Mood is a grammatical term used to denote the forms that a verb takes to show the
intention of the speaker (e.g. expressing a statement, a command, a wish, etc.) and the manner in
which the action or state is thought by the speaker.

2.2 Lexical and Grammatical Means of Expressing Modality

A. The Lexical Means by which the modality is expressed and of which some mention
has already been made in lexicology (in connection with denotation and connotation) are
represented by:
 Personal or finite verbs that have modal force such as: to like, to intend, to
decide, to think, to order, to make up one’s mind, to dislike, to want,
E.g. I think she is a very good student.
 Nouns like: obligation, intention, wish, possibility, probability, certainty.
E.g. There is a slight possibility that he might come.
 Adjectives: recommendable, probable, possible, sure, necessary, etc.
E.g. A Labor victory is possible.
 Adverbs: surely, probably, likely, unlikely, naturally, perhaps, etc.
E.g. He probably did all these things without her help.
 Interjections: Oh! Depending on how is sounded, can express excitement,
tiredness, protest, emphases.
 Modal phrases expressing various shades of probability or uncertainty: to be
likely, to be probable, to be apt, to be liable
E.g. A furious man is liable to say more than he really means.
Lexical and grammatical means of expressing modality can be used in combinations for
emphatic purposes. Both a modal verb and a modal adverb may be combined. When this
happens, a distinction between modally harmonic and non-harmonic combinations should be
done.
E.g. “He may possibly have forgotten” can be paraphrased:
a. He may have forgotten.
b. He has possibly forgotten.
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 The adverb and modal verb may also occur in a non –harmonic combination.
E.g. “Certainly he may have forgotten” can be paraphrased:
a. It is certainly the case that he may have forgotten.
b. It may be the case that he certainly has forgotten.
Both modal verbs and system of moods may occur within a single language, but in most
languages, however, only one of these devices seem to prevail.

B. Grammatical Means of Expressing Modality

a. Moods
It is not always possible to draw a clear distinction between moods and modal system,
since in some languages, the overall system of modality has characteristics of both. Romance
languages have a system of mood marked by indicative and subjunctive, but also have a set of
modal verbs. However, the modal verbs have not been fully grammaticalized, and in French and
Italian, subjunctive is losing ground.
A fundamental aspect in defining the concept of modality is the difference between
Realis and Irealis. Realis portrays situation as actualized, knowable through direct perception,
knowable through imagination. However, languages may vary in the categories that are treated
as Realis and Irealis.
Many European languages use Indicative and Subjunctive to distinguish between Realis
and Irealis. However, many authors treat the distinction between Indicative and Subjunctive in
terms of assertion and non-assertion. Here are some opinions about the Indicative and
Subjunctive mood:
According to G. Curme – Indicative Mood- the mood of simple assertion or
interrogation represents something of a fact or inquiring after a fact. In the Subjunctive mood,
the action/state is the conception of mind, not a reality: desire, wish, volition, though with more
or less hope of realization.
O. Jespern considers that the Indicative Mood is the fact mood, while the Subjunctive is
the thought – mood.
Poustma said about the Indicative Mood that it presents a syntactic realization of the
attitude, of considering a situation as a fact, while the Subjunctive Mood presents the situation as
an uncertain one.
There are four finite moods: Indicative, Subjunctive, Conditional and Imperative.
a.1. The Indicative Mood
It is the mood of the assertion and expresses an action, which is real or factual. The
15
Indicative mood is used for ordinary statements and questions;
E.g. I have written two letters today.
Are you reading a novel?
Don’t you know my friend?
I do know him.
It has the following tenses:
 Present Tense, Present Perfect Tense;
E.g. I read a book every month.
E.g. I have read it
 Past Tense, Past Perfect Tense, Future in the Past
E.g. He returned the book to the library after he had read it.
 Future, Future Perfect.
E.g. He will have it by then.

a.2. Subjunctive Mood

It presents a possible action when this one is projected for future; when the action is in
the past, it is an unrealizable one.
The Analytical Subjunctive is more used in contemporary English than the Synthetical
Subjunctive. The Analytical Subjunctive includes in its structure a modal verb followed by a
notional verb in the infinitive (present or perfect).
The Analytical Subjunctive is used to express some wishes or to express the idea of
conditional.
E.g. May he live long!
I should like to go now.
It is also used in subordinate clauses to express a possible or a presumptive action or to
emphasize the idea of action.
E.g. The idea is that sport facilities should be improved.
There are three Synthetical subjunctive forms of the verbs:
 The Present Subjunctive
 The Past Subjunctive
 The Perfect Subjunctive
The Present Subjunctive of the verbs, other than the verb “to be”, is identical with
Simple Present Tense Indicative, except that the third person singular forms is the same as in all
the other persons ( without the –s ending ). The Present Subjunctive form of the verb “to be” is

16
“be” for all persons.
E.g. God save the Queen!
It’s our wish that he be what he pleases.
The Past Subjunctive is identical in form with the Simple Past Tense Indicative, except
that the verb “to be” has “were” for all the persons.
E.g. If I were you, I should accept the offer.
I wish I were as handsome as he is.
He ran as his life depended on it.
The Perfect Subjunctive is identical in form with Past Perfect Indicative.
E.g. He talked as if he had seen her.
If he had read the book, he would have written a better paper.

a.3. Conditional Mood

The unreality of the action rendered by means of the conditional mood is due to the
absence of the necessary circumstances on which the realization of the action depends. So, the
conditional mood is really modal both in form and meaning, because formally it makes use of
modal verbs ( can, could, may, might, should, would), and semantically it expresses unreal
circumstances (optional, tentative, hypothetical, etc)
It is more frequent in “If Clauses”. The condition expressed in the Subordinate Clause
makes possible the fulfillment of the main clause action. The Conditional Clause can express an
unreal condition, present or future. It refers to an improbable situation at the present or in the
future moment.
E.g. If I had a day off tomorrow, I would go to the beach. (Present Condition)
If John called him now, he would decline the invitation.
It also expresses an unreal condition in the past. It does not present a probable or a
possible action because the situation is an imaginary one or contrary to the reality in the past.
E.g. If the weather had been better, I would have left last Monday. (Past
Condition)

a.4. The Imperative Mood

The Imperative is the mood most frequently used when the speaker wants to impose
something by means of orders, urge, commands, requests, suggestions, etc.
The Imperative Mood has the same form in the second person singular and plural as the
infinitive without “to”. In the first and third person, it is preceded by “let” and an accusative.
E.g. Let’s go to the cinema.
17
 Let him wait!
It is used to give orders and commands or to make requests.
E.g. Open your books!
Don’t make so much noise!
The request may be:
 An entreaty:
E.g. Spare me – I’m innocent!
 An instruction:
E.g. Take the first turn left and the second right!
 A suggestion:
E.g. “Where can I find Mr. Smith?
Try this office or ring up his house.”
 A condition:
E.g. Do that again and I phone the policeman!
In the conversation, the Imperative is often used to express a wish.
E.g. Enjoy yourself and come back quick well again.

b. Modal Verbs
As we have already seen, the difference between moods and modal verbs is not always
clear. Modal Verbs become modal auxiliaries when they are part of the Analytical Subjunctive
forms. They preserve some of their semantic value and this is visible in situations when modal
auxiliaries can substitute each other with different degrees in expressing Irrealis- action.
E.g. I help him that he will/would finish in time.
I helped him so that he would finish in time.
Analyzing Conditional forms, “would” is not just an auxiliary, it also conveys the idea
of willingness specific to modal “will”.
E.g. I would visit him if I had time.

Logical – Semantic Aspects of Modality

Sentences may be used to perform different functions, but the most common use is to
give information. They are also used to obtain information, to express opinions, give orders,
make suggestions and promises, etc. when someone says or writes something, there must exist
indicators whether the addresser makes a statement, asks a questions or gives an order or
instruction.
The ways of distinguishing between uses of language are examples of mood. English is
18
an example of language where the appearance of the modal system (of modal verbs) has been
accompanied by the disappearance of the Anglo – Saxon mood. Thus, the two systems do not
coexist in general, and if they do, one is in time replaced by the other.
Central to discussion on modality are the notions of possibility, necessity and
impossibility. Logicians and philosophers ever since Aristotle have defined these notions
together with the relationship which may be perceived to exist between them and such
investigations provide the basis of modal logic, which today is one of the most branches of logic.
The problem is that different disciplines have each approached the notion of modality from
different starting points, asking different questions on the basis of theoretical assumption, in each
case the nature of questions posed and of the goals have led to different answers and
descriptions. The work shall attempt to consider the type of mental attitude and experience that
involves the notions of possibility, necessity and impossibility.
“To put it quite simply, it would appear that such notions are conceptually grounded in
the fact that human beings often think and behave as though things might be or might have been
other than they actually are (or were). Such as world view appears to constitute an essential part
of the fabric of our everyday liver, the fact that is raining, that the car has broken down and that I
am late for work does not prevent me from imagining myself arriving at work at time, in
accordance with my contractual obligations, in quietly purring car in brilliant sunshine”.
( Perkins, 1983)
In Perkins example above, the fact that it is raining, that the car has broken down and
that the speaker is late for work pertain to the actual state of affairs. A possible alternative course
of the event is a “world” in which the speaker conceives himself arriving in time, in brilliant
sunshine, in a perfect functioning car. We can say that to conceive of something being otherwise
is to conceive its being real in some non – actual world or in some at a point in time other than
the present..
Perkins remarks that “broadly speaking”, the actual world is itself, of course, just one of
the indefinite set of possible worlds, and as such, it is not exclusively significant.
Perkins shows that there are three general systems of principles that can be involved in
the study of modality.
b.1. Firstly, there are modalities which conform to the relational laws of deduction.
They are concerned with the interpretation of the world via the laws of the human reason. They
are known as Epistemic Modality. The term “epistemic” derives from “episteme”, the Greek
word for knowledge. “To know” that something is the case, it means is actually the case; of
course, there are cases when one can “know” something and be mistaken, but then one’s
knowledge is not longer knowledge.
19
 b.2. The second set of principles concerning modalities are defined in terms of social
and institutional laws. These can be of two general kinds:
- On the one hand, there are those laws explicitly laid down by some legal
authority or institutions and which define a set of rules of behavior for some social
group.
- On the other hand, there are the less formal rules relating to social status,
according to which one person may be said to have personal authority over
another.
The modalities that conform the social laws regard the sphere of duty, orders command,
instruction, appropriateness.
b.3. The third set of principles concerning modalities has in view the relationship
between actual ( empirical ) circumstances or states of affairs and the state of affairs that follow
from them in accordance with natural laws.
E.g. The laws of physics, biology, anatomy, chemistry.
The modalities define the notions of capacity (physical and intellectual). The term
system of laws was used to mean an organized set of principles concerning a domain, that of
rational thought, that of social and natural life. The three general systems of principles, namely
relational laws (or the laws of reason), social laws (or the laws of society) and natural (or the
laws of nature) define three different types of state of affairs (or worlds). They form the
theoretical background.
One more general observation is necessary at this point in order to clarify matters;
linguists and philosophers of language have remarked the sentences containing a modal
expression like: “You must not tell lies” as a simple assertion about the content of moral system.
(morality, honesty requires you not to tell lies).

20
 CHAPTER 3
THE MODAL VERBS IN ENGLISH

3.1. Auxiliary and Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Before starting the study of modal verbs, it is important to analyze the difference
between Auxiliaries, Modal Auxiliaries and Modal Verbs.
From the lexical point of view, verbs may be classified into full/ main verbs and
auxiliary verbs.
1. A full (main / lexical / ordinary) verb can function alone as a predicate (full lexical
meaning) and has its own meaning. It is used as the main verb in a verb phrase:
He had a large house; He has had a large house for years.
Have Full / Main verb
2. An auxiliary verb has no independent meaning of its own. It does not make up a verb
phrase on its own but must be accompanied by a following main verb. Auxiliary verbs are used
together with (before) full verbs to help them express certain grammatical functions or meanings.
She has understood the use of modals.
Have Auxiliary Verb
The Oxford English Dictionary defines an auxiliary as “a verb used to form the tense,
moods, voices, etc. of the other verbs”.
Some grammarians classify them in:
 Primary Auxiliary Verbs: to be, to have, to do.
 Modal Auxiliary Verbs: Will/Would, Shall/Should, Can/Could, May/Might,
Must and Ought to.
I. Primary auxiliary verbs are the most common verbs in English. They are used both
as auxiliary verbs and as main verbs. As auxiliary verbs, they help to form the grammatical
categories of the main verbs, i.e. tense, aspect, voice, interrogation, negation in combination with
the infinitive, the present or the past participle of main verbs.
The functions of the primary auxiliary verbs: BE, HAVE, DO
 Be – is added to other verbs to form progressive aspect and passive forms or is used
as a modal auxiliary to express order, instruction:
E.g. Is it raining? -
She was advised not to leave the home.
No one is to leave the building without the permission of the police.
Be is constructed as an auxiliary even when it is used as a main verb. For example, it
21
doesn’t form its negation and interrogation with the auxiliary do.. The main verb be may have
the auxiliary do in emphatic imperative sentences and regularly has it with negative imperative:
Do be active!
Don’t be silly!
 Have + the past participle of a main verb is used for the formation of the perfect. i.e.
the perfect tenses or forms of the main verbs: present perfect, past perfect, future
perfect, perfect infinitive, perfect participle, perfect gerund.
E.g. What have you done?
He denied having been accused.
 Have followed by an object (NP / pronoun in the accusative) + short infinitive of
main verbs has the causative meaning of ‘make’:
I’ll have the programmer check every computer while he’s here.
You really ought to have the electrician take a look at your washing machine.
 Have followed by an object + present participle of main verbs expresses the
meanings:
i. ‘cause’ or ‘make’:
He had them studying every night. (= made them study)
The trainer will soon have him swimming again.
ii. ‘permit’ or ‘allow’ in negative sentences:
I won’t have you talking to me like that.
 Have followed by an object + past participle of main verbs has a causative meaning:
‘to cause someone to do something’, or ‘to cause something to be done’:
I had my hair cut. (= I caused, i.e. employed someone to cut it).
 Do/did – is both used to form the interrogative and the negative when no other
auxiliary is present in the verb phrase and to form emphatic forms of non- auxiliary verbs.
E.g. Do you smoke?
I didn’t want to upset you.
I do love you no matter what you say.
 Do is also used as a substitute for a verb phrase, when we want to avoid repeating
the verb:
He said he’d come and he did. (=he came)

II. The Modal Auxiliary Verbs are called so because they express a variety of moods
and attitudes towards an action or state to which the main verb refers. The modal auxiliaries are

22
used with the infinitive of main verbs to indicate the speaker’s attitude towards the utterance, e.g.
permission, possibility, necessity. Unlike the primary verbs (be, have, do), the modal auxiliaries
are never used as main verbs, they are always used as auxiliary verbs (i.e. they cannot form a
verb phrase on their own, without the support of a main verb).
The modal auxiliaries also differ from the primary auxiliary verbs in that they lack
certain basic forms: they have no –s in the 3rd person singular, no infinitives or participles.
The modal auxiliary can is used to express ability, permission or theoretical possibility
E.g. Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room?
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a
profit in it.
The modal auxiliary could is used to express an ability in the past, past or future
permission, possibility or ability in contingent circumstances
E.g. I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
May and Might are used to express permission and possibility.
E.g. May I leave class early?
If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
She may be my advisor next semester.
She might have advised me not to take biology.

Will can be used to express willingness, intention, prediction:

E.g. I’ll wash the dishes if you dry.
I'll do my exercises later on.
The meeting will be over soon.
Would is used to express willingness, insistence and a sense of probability:
E.g. Would you please take off your hat?
Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.
Shall is used to express a future action or to order or command a future action.
E.g. I shall become a doctor.
Tomorrow, you shall climb to the top of Mt. Everest.
Should is used to express the ideal action which happens in the past, present or future.
23
 E.g. I think I should make chicken for dinner tonight.
Must is often used to indicate 'personal' obligation; strong advice or saying you think
something is certain.
E.g. I really must get some exercise.
I think you really must make more of an effort.
This must be the place - there's a white car parked outside.
The study of auxiliary and modal defective verbs shows us that, in English they are
represented in many turns by the same words: shall/should, will/would, do/did, may/might,
have/had, be/was/were. The auxiliary or modal value of these verbs can be seen in a given
sentence:
E.g. He sent his sister a telegram so that she might be informed about it at once.
Might - auxiliary and forms analytic subjunctive in an Adverbial Clause of
Purpose.
He sent his sister a telegram so that she could be informed.
Could – modal, renders the idea of ‘possibility’.
Rules applicable to all auxiliaries:
a) The negative of a verb phrase which contains an auxiliary is formed by putting the
negative particle not after the auxiliary:
She is telling us the truth. → She is not telling us the truth.
He should tell them the truth → He should not tell them the truth.
We can distinguish the main verbs from auxiliary verbs by their inability to form
negation in this way. Main verbs need to use “do” in order to form the negative:
He supports us. → He does not support us.
b) Auxiliaries accept changing the word order of subject and verb in the sentence (
inversion). The inversion of subject and verb occurs in:
- Interrogative sentences: The interrogative of a verb phrase which is made up of an
auxiliary is formed by changing the word order of the subject and the auxiliary (the auxiliary is
placed before the subject):
He is informing us → Is he is informing us?
He should inform us → Should he inform us?
Again, we can distinguish the main verbs from auxiliary verbs by their incapacity to
form the interrogative in this way. Main verbs need to use “ do” in order to perform this
inversion:
He informs us. → Does he inform us?
- Inversion occurs with introductory negative and restrictive adverbs to emphasize
24
something;
I have seldom met such a nice teacher. → Seldom have I met such a nice teacher.
At no time was the girl left unprotected.
At no time should the girl be left unprotected.
The use of “do” is necessary to perform the inversion if the verb phrase is expressed by
a main verb alone.
Dan little understood the situation he was in. → Little did Dan understood the situation
he was in.
c) Auxiliaries can be used contracted in a conversation. Contraction, which is a short
form of a word, is used both in spelling and in pronouncing that word. We can use contracted
forms both in speech and in informal writing. The contraction is added to the end of a word and
is marked in writing by an apostrophe (‘).
- all auxiliaries can be contracted in the negative: usually not is spelled n’t and is added
to the auxiliary:
Mr. Smith is not teaching us. → Mr. Smith isn’t teaching us.
He should not teach us. → He shouldn’t teach us.
The auxiliaries am and may have no negative contracted forms: In questions, in
informal speech, aren’t is used as a contraction for am I not: Aren’t I nice?
In negative sentences, in informal English we can choose between contracting the verb
or contracting not:
She’s not happy. or She isn’t happy.
I’ve not understood her. or I haven’t understood her.
He’ll not come by train. or He won’t come by train.
- Be (am, are, is), have (has, had), will (would) can be contracted in the affirmative. A
personal pronoun usually stands before the contraction:
I’m watching you; We’ve turned it off; He’ll come.
- Had and would have the same contraction: ’d
He’d met her. (= had) / He’d met her. (= would)
- Is and has are contracted: ’s
He’s sleeping. (= is) / He’s slept. (= has)
Contracted forms are naturally enclitic, so they do not occur at the beginning or end of a
sentence:
Will you call me tonight? (*’ll you call me tonight?)
I haven’t tested this cream but he has. (has can’t be contracted)
d) emphasis: In conversation, special emphasis is often put on auxiliary verbs. This
25
emphasis has the role of giving some emotional force to the whole sentence or expressing some
kind of contrast, for example between true and false, or between present and past:
Nick is waiting for you, you must call him.
e) Auxiliaries can act as substitutes for main verbs in verb phrases.
E.g. Has she met that boy?
Yes, she has.

3.2 Modal Expressions and Semi – auxiliaries

Two other categories of verbs are intermediate between auxiliaries and main verbs.
They express modal or aspectual meaning.
A. Modal Idioms – are combination of an auxiliary and an adverb or an Infinitive
(sometimes proceeded by “to”). This category contains the following multi-word verbs as well as
some less common verbal constructions:
- Had better – has the meaning of “advisability”, similar to “should”.
E.g. You had better stay at home.
- Would rather – has the volitional meaning “would prefer to”.
E.g. I would rather help my brother than do my homework.
- Have got to – has meanings of “obligation” and “logical necessity”.
E.g. They have got to leave immediately.
- Be to – expresses futurity (in Conditional Clauses the Subjunctive “were to” expresses
hypothetical meaning).
E.g. You are to leave immediately.
None of these modal idioms has non – finite forms; they cannot therefore follow other
verbs in the Verb Phrase.
E.g. I will have got to leave soon.
Less common idioms are would sooner, would (just) as soon, may/might (just) as well,
had best.
B. Semi – auxiliaries – consist of a set of verb idioms which are introduced by one of
primary verbs: have and be. Like auxiliaries, they form a unit with the head, but, like lexical
verbs, do not take inversion or negative without “do”.
E.g. Have to; be about to; be able to; be bound to; be going to; be unlikely to;
be obliged to; be supposed to; be willing to, etc.
These constructions are closer to main verbs than are the modal idioms. Like lexical
verbs, they have non – finite forms such as: “be going to” and “To be bound to” and can occur in
26
combination with other proceeding auxiliaries:
E.g. She will be able to skate in a few weeks.
You can often tell a semi-auxiliary because you can substitute a modal auxiliary with
nearly the same meaning.
E.g. I am able to go = I can go.

3.3. The Modal Verbs. Classification

The attitude of the speaker towards the content of the sentence is expressed by the
modal verbs. The content is seen as possible, probable, necessary, obligatory, desirable, etc.
E.g. It might rain later.
You must meet him at the station.
From the point of view of the formal characteristics, the modal verbs are divided into:
1. Notional verbs expressing modality (want, wish, order, oblige, advice, intend, mean,
prefer, etc.) which behave like the other notional verbs.
E.g. He wants to see the play.
Don’t oblige him to do this.
2. Defective Modal Verbs (can/could, may/might, must, have to, shall/should,
will/would, ought to, be to, used to, need, dare) which express the modality too but from the
formal point of view present some characteristics.
E.g. Mary should be more attentive.
Mary can speak English.

3.4 Modal Verbs. General Characteristics

The modals are a special class of words, which behave in a different way. We
frequently use modals when we are concerned with our relationship with someone else.
We may, for example, ask for permission to do something; grant permission to
someone; give or receive advice; make or respond to request and offer, etc. we can express
different levels of politeness by the forms we choose.
The bluntest command (e.g. You must see a doctor) might be more kindly and
persuasive than the most complicated utterance. (E.g. I think it might possibly be advisable for
you to see a doctor.)
Such concept as possibility, capability, necessity, permission and obligation are
expressed in English by the modals : can could, may/might, must, have to, shall/should,
27
will/would, ought to, be to, used to.
These verbs have some common characteristics:
- The modal verbs are uninflected verbs, which mean that they don’t receive -s for the
3rd person singular, i.e. all persons have the same form, presumably due to their being felt as
subjunctives.
E.g. John can swim very fast.
He may leave now.
- They are anomalous verbs so, they form the interrogative and negative similar to the
auxiliary be, namely without do (they are ‘modal-auxiliaries’). Thus, the interrogative is formed
by inverting the subject and the modal verb, the negative is formed by putting not after the
modal).
E.g. This may not be his house.
Can Tom speak French fluently?
- There are gaps in the tense-aspect-mood paradigms of modal verbs. They are modal
‘defective’ verbs, so they don’t have forms for all tenses and moods. They have no non-finite
forms (infinitive, -ing forms) and they cannot be conjugated in all tenses or moods, e.g. they do
not occur in the perfect and future tenses. Furthermore, some, apparently past tense forms such
as could, might do not always show past time: time reference is sometimes understood in
context. The forms of modal verbs can be used to render some tenses and moods. For example,
can, may, must, need and dare express the Present indicative.
E.g. I can help you.
This must be his house.
The forms apparently in the past of the Modal Verbs have some value: Past Tense,
Conditional and Subjunctive (could/would/might).
E.g. I could skate when I was a child.
I could help you if you wanted me to.
She lent me the camera so that he could take some photos on the trip.
The modal verbs are replaced by modal equivalents when they don’t have some forms:
Can – Be Able to; Must – Have to; May – Be Allowed/ Permitted to;
E.g. Present: You may go now.
Past: He was allowed to go.
Past Perfect: He had been allowed to go out and play before they left.
d) The modal verbs are verbs of incomplete predication. That is why they are always
followed by a main verb in the infinitive (present or perfect infinitive). Most of the verbs are
followed by the short infinitive (without to) except ought to, have to, used to, be to.
28
 When they are followed by the Present Infinitive, the modal verb refers to a present or a
future action.
E.g. He might be there now.
She might come later.
When they are followed by the Perfect Infinitive, the action expressed by the notional
verb has a past character.
E.g. He might have been here before we arrived.
It must be underlined that could, might and would are not proper Past Tense forms of
can, may and will respectively because there is not the same relation between can – could and
play – played or write – wrote. While the forms played and wrote refer to past actions, could,
might and should/would may also refer to present or future actions.
E.g. It might rain tomorrow.
She could be at home now.
You should go to the concert.

Semantic Characteristics of Modal Verbs

The modals are also used if we want to make requests, offers, suggestions, to be polite
and thankful and to express our wishes and intentions. The modal verbs are polysemantic words:
each modal has at least two meanings, a semantic property also reflected by the syntax of these
verbs.
Present works on modal verbs stress the idea that modal verbs can be divided into two
main types:
A. Modal verbs that have deontic (primary) values: modal verbs which refer to ability,
permission, obligation. In their primary function, modal verbs reflect the meanings often given
first in most dictionaries, so that:
- Can/Could relate mainly to ability.
E.g. They can read and write.
I could ride the bike when I was 5.
- May/ Might relate mainly to permission.
E.g. You may open the window.
He might go out and play anytime.
- Should/Ought to relate mainly to escapable obligation or duty.
E.g. He should go to school more often.
- Must relates mainly to inescapable obligation.
29
 E.g. All passengers must wear seat belt.
- Needn’t relates to absence of obligation.
E.g. You needn’t stay home.
B. Modal verbs which have epistemic (cognitive) values: they assert the degree of
likelihood, probability regarding the truth of statement. In their secondary function, nine of
modal auxiliaries (not shall) can be used to express the degree of certainty/uncertainty a speaker
feels about a possibility.
E.g. This boy is his cousin. (It is a certain fact: non – modal “be”)
This boy could be his cousin. (doubtful possibility)
This boy may be his cousin. (It is possible, but uncertain)
This boy must be his cousin.(probability)
Or:
This boy isn’t his cousin. (It is a certain fact)
This boy can’t be his cousin. (It’s nearly certain)
This boy might not be his cousin. (less certain than may not)

3.5 Epistemic vs. Deontic Modality

Designating an important semantic category which operates at the sentence level,

modality is a cover term for devices, which allow speakers to express varying degrees to
commitment or to belief in a proposition.
The classical categorization of modality is Alethic Modality, Epistemic Modality and
Deontic Modality.
A fundamental aspect in dealing with modality is the difference between deontic
modality (ranging from permission to strong obligation as an intermediate value) and the
epistemic modality (from possibility to certainty, with probability as an intermediate level).
“Epistemic modality has to do with the possibility or necessity of the truth of
propositions, and is thus involved with knowledge and belief” (Lyons, 1977, p. 793). Similarly
Huddleston (1984, p. 167) argues that “epistemic modality is concerned with the truth status of
the proposition in the light of what the speaker knows. Epistemic modality is orientated towards
the speaker – it is subjective.”
Palmer (1986) sees epistemic modality “as indication by the speaker of his (lack of)
commitment to the truth of the proposition expressed” and “as the degree of commitment by the
speaker to what he says” (p. 51).
Strictly linguistically speaking, Epistemic Modality connotes how much certainty or
30
evidence a speaker has for the proposition expressed by the utterance. Epistemic interpretations
of modals comment on the degree to which the speaker is willing to vouch for the truth of the
proposition. Epistemic is from a Greek word meaning ‘knowledge’. Epistemic modals invoke the
speaker’s knowledge of the facts in forming a judgement of the probability of a situation
occurring.
E.g. She has left by now.
She must
might
could have left.
needn’t
couldn’t

In English, Epistemic Modality is possibility based.

E.g. It may be raining. (it is possible that it is raining)
Deontic Modality connotes the speaker’s degree of requirement, desire for, commitment
to the realization of the proposition expressed by the utterance. Deontic interpretations of modals
express notions like duty, obligation, permission, forbidding. They evaluate a proposition
according to some moral code or someone’s opinion about whether the situation is desirable or
not. (deontic is from a Greek word meaning duty.)
E.g. You may go at 4 o’clock.
All elections should take place on Sunday.
Both Deontic and Epistemic Modality involve two central of traditional modal logic:
they are related, like universal and existential quantification in terms of negation. If p is
necessarily true, than its negation – p cannot possibly be true.; if p is possibly true, than its
negation is not necessarily true.
Possibility is a degree of contingency in modality that:
- In deontic modality connotes permission.
- In epistemic modality connotes uncertainty or speculation.
Necessity is a degree of contingency in modality that:
- In deontic modality connotes obligation;
- In epistemic modality connotes certainty.
Deontic modality means that the speaker “intervene[s] in the speech event by laying
obligations or giving permission” (Downing & Locke, 1992: 382), as in You must look into this
matter in detail ..., Shall we discuss this problem now? or This experiment should be controlled.
On the other hand, epistemic modality implies that the speaker assesses “the probability that the
31
proposition is true in terms of the modal certainty, probability or possibility” (ibid.), as in It may
be the case that Results might change if certain conditions ..., or The show must be over.
The basic difference between deontic (focusing the event) modality and epistemic
modality (concerning itself with the proposition) is reflected in the classification given by
Palmer: Modality can be propositional or event modality. In its turn, propositional modality can
be either epistemic or evidential.

Prepositional modality, including epistemic and evidential modalities, is concerned with

the speaker’s attitude towards the factual status or the truth value of the proposition.
Event modality, including deontic and dynamic modalities, refers to potential future
events, events that have not taken place yet.
Epistemic modality contains three subtypes, all three notions being expressed by three
modal verbs: May, Must, Will.
a) Speculative – John may be in his office.
b) Deductive – John must be in his office.
c) Assumptive – John will be in his office.
Evidential modality (either reported – “Second hand”, linguistic evidence, “hearsay” –
or sensory – visual or auditory) is not marked grammatically in English.
E.g. I see that you are sick.
They heard that the meeting was postponed.
These are actually declarative sentences towards which the locator shows a lower
degree of commitment.
The distinction into Deontic and Epistemic is reflected in the syntactic behavior of two

32
kinds of modal verbs: each value – deontic / epistemic – is associated with a different set of
syntactic environments:
1. Regarding subject selection: deontic modals select [+animate] subject only, while
epistemic modals have no selection restrictions on the subject.
E.g. John must go there at once. (Deontic)
John must be very tired. (Epistemic)
2. Regarding co – occurrence with aspect markers: deontic modals do not occur in the
Continuous Aspect; epistemic modals occur in the continuous aspect.:
E.g. The child may play in the garden.
He must go to sleep now.(deontic obligation)
He must be sleeping now. (epistemic probability)
You may sit here. (deontic permission)
They may be travelling now. (epistemic possibility)
The difference between the two types of modality can also be illustrated by the use of
paraphrases including the adjectives possible, necessary, or the adverbs possibly, necessarily: it
is possible that, it is necessary that, it is possibly the case that, it is necessarily the case that:
E.g. It is possible (possibly the case) that Anna is at the office now.
It is necessary (necessarily the case) that Anna is at the office now.

33
 CHAPTER 4
MEANS OF EXPRESSING POSSIBILITY AND PROBABILITY

Possibility and Probability belong to Epistemic Modality.

“Epistemic modality has to do with the possibility or necessity of the truth of
propositions, and is thus involved with knowledge and belief” (Lyons, 1977:793). Similarly
Huddleston (1984:167) argues that “epistemic modality is concerned with the truth status of the
proposition in the light of what the speaker knows. Epistemic modality is orientated towards the
speaker – it is subjective.”
Palmer (1986:51) sees epistemic modality “as indication by the speaker of his (lack of)
commitment to the truth of the proposition expressed” and “as the degree of commitment by the
speaker to what he says”.
In English, Epistemic Modality is possibility – based. In principle, two kinds of
epistemic modality can be distinguished: objective and subjective. Subjectively modalized
statements are statements of the opinion, or hearsay or tentative inference, rather than statements
of fact.
E.g. He said that it might be raining in London. – could be used to report:
It may be raining in London.
Objectively modalized utterances can be described as having an unqualified “I – say –
so” component, but also an “It – is – so” component that is qualified with respect to a certain
degree of probability. Objective epistemic modality is quantifiable on a scale whose extremes are
necessity and impossibility.
Nine of the modal auxiliaries (may; might; can; could; should; would; will; must; ought
to) can be used to express the degree of certainty / uncertainty a speaker feels about a possibility.
They can be arranged on a scale from greatest certainty (must) to the greatest uncertainty
(might). The order of modals between might and must is not fixed absolutely. It varies according
to situation. Epistemic modality can be divided into several types. For example Quirk et al.
(1985) distinguishes possibility (usually expressed by modal ‘may’), necessity (expressed by
modal ‘must’) and prediction (expressed by modal ‘will’).
Leech and Svartvik (1975: 128) speak of ‘scale of likelihood’: “Instead of thinking of
truth and falsehood in black-and-white terms, we can think in terms of a scale of likelihood; the
extremes of the scale are impossibility and certainty (or logical necessity)”. For example, one
arrangement might be:

34
 Table No.1 – Degrees of Likelihood

Certainty This is his house. Indicative Mood

Probability This must be his house. It is probable that this is his house.
This will be his house.

Likelihood
should
This would be his house. It’s likely that this is his house.
ought to

Possibility
may
can
This be his house. It’s possible that this is his house
could
might

Another example might be:

E.g. He is at home. ( it’s a certain fact – non modal “be”)
He should be at home. (doubtful possibility)
He could be at home. (it’s possible but uncertain)
He might be at home. (less certain than may)
Or:
E.g. He isn’t at home. (it’s a certain fact)
He can’t be at home. (it’s nearly certain)
He couldn’t be at home. (more tentative than can’t)
He may not be at home. (possible, but uncertain)
He mightn’t be at home. (less certain than may not)
The order of modals (i.e. their intensity) between “must” and “might” is not absolutely
fixed. It varies according to situation.
E.g. If “Steaua” can win this match, they may become league
champion.(prediction)
If “Steaua” could win this match, they might become league champion.
(lower degree of certainty)
If “Steaua” could have won this match, they might have become league
champion. (possibility that existed in the past and didn’t come true)

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 In speech, the element of doubt is increased with heavy stress:
E.g. He could be at home. (but I very much doubt it)
Particular stress is also used in exclamations:
E.g. It can be true.
You must be mistaken.

4.1 Means of Expressing Probability

Probability deals with supposition, likelihood, logical deduction.

Probability, supposition, likelihood, assumption, logical deduction, i.e. what we infer or
conclude to be the most likely interpretation of a situation or event – is expressed by must, ought
to, will, would.
‘Must’ in its epistemic sense “implies that the speaker judges the proposition expressed
by the clause to be necessarily true, or to have a high likelihood of being true” (Quirk et al.,
1985). The meaning of ‘must’ is logical necessity or certainty. For example: Peter must be ill.
The speaker observed that Peter has been coughing and sneezing all day long, blowing his nose
and drinking some tea. “Therefore, the speaker has drawn a conclusion from things already
known or observed” (Quirk et al., 1985). The paraphrastic form of the sentence can be for
instance: “It is necessarily the case that Peter is ill.” or “It is highly probable that Peter is ill.”
Must is used to indicate strong likelihood, a high degree of certainty. Must is most often
used subjectively, to express the speaker’s judgment, but objective uses are also found. Objective
involves strict semantic necessity, but subjective will be interpreted as confident inference.
E.g. What happened to Emma?
She must have overslept. (subjective)
I am older than Emma and Emma is older than Tom. I must be older than
Tom. (objective)
Must + present infinitive indicates logical deduction, supposition, about a present
action:
E.g. This castle must be very old.
She must be wandering through the wood.
I see a man with a white cane walking down the street: he must be blind.
Jo must be sick. He is not at school.
Must + perfect infinitive indicates logical deduction, assumption about a past action:
E.g. He must have caught cold on the river.
It’s 10 o’clock. The article must have been read by the president by now.
36
 Andy is behaving very strangely: he must have been drinking.
Must is used to express logical deduction only in affirmative sentences. In interrogative
and negative sentences can is used instead:
E.g. ‘He must be at least 60.’‘He can’t be as old as that.’
She must be at home now. She can’t be at home; it’s only 3 o’clock.
Ioana Murar considers the following diagram showing must (obligation - deontic) and
must (deduction - epistemic) (p.138)
must
/ \
Obligation Deduction
Present must (be) must (be)
Past: had to (be) must (have been)
In the present, the same form must + present infinitive is used for both obligation and
deduction. In the past the forms are different: had to is used for obligation; must + perfect
infinitive is used for deduction.
Must for obligation can be used in the affirmative, interrogative and negative sentences.
Must for deduction can be used in the affirmative only.
Must may occur in harmonic combination with an adverb of comparable meaning, with
the modal elements simply reinforcing each other.
E.g. It must surely be valid.
It must necessarily have involved deception.
Will is another modal verb used to express suppositions about an action. The usage of
“will” is similar in meaning to “must” in its logical necessity” (Quirk et al., 1985).
E.g. John must be in the garage. (= the lights are on) → John will be in the
garage
Apart from ‘must’, ‘will’ can make predictions about the future: “John will have arrived
by tomorrow.” (Leech & Svartvik, 1975). The meaning of ‘will’ can be paraphrased as ‘it is very
likely that...’ (Quirk et al., 1985) The central epistemic is found with past and present time
situations. This is normally restricted to second and third person subjects.
E.g. They will have made the decision last week.
Will has the same semantic strength as “must” with relatively little change of meaning.
Must conveys the idea of conclusion and it’s often used in explanations.
E.g. Ed is late. He must have overslept.
With central epistemic use, “will” is more a matter of assumption or expectation, very
often with a suggestion of future confirmation as in:
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 E.g. I can’t tell you what the word means but it will be in dictionary.
Will + present infinitive expresses a supposition, prediction about a present state of
affairs:
E.g. This will be his father.
Ring his home number. He will be at home now.
You’ll be wondering why I asked you to com
Will + perfect infinitive expresses a present supposition about a past state of affairs:
E.g. She will have left by now.
You will have learnt the lesson.
I met him soon after my birthday. That will have been in March, I
suppose.
Will - does not combine harmonically with modal adverbs. Adverbs of any strength,
possibility, probability, certainty, etc, can all be added to epistemic “will” (just as they can to
corresponding clauses without a modal auxiliary).
E.g. They will surely/ probably/ perhaps have made the decision last week.
She will certainly/ very likely/ possibly beat him.
Would is weaker than will in expressing suppositions:
Would + present infinitive expresses a tentative assumption, supposition about a
present state of affairs:
E.g. Would your name be Brown, by any chance?
‘ I don’t understand the article in the newspaper.’ ‘No, you wouldn’t.’
(‘I didn’t expect you would. It is unlikely that you would understand it
perhaps because it is too difficult or perhaps because you’re too stupid.’)
Would + perfect infinitive expresses supposition with reference to past time:
E.g. ‘I spoke with one of your friends yesterday.’ ‘
‘Oh! That would have been Tom.’
Should and ought to can also be used as epistemic modals. Unlike in their deontic use,
their function is now not to speak about obligations or to offer advice but rather to express that
the fulfillment of a situation is quite likely or can be reasonably expected given some (perceived)
facts.
E.g. Michael Saunders, UK economist, said that with output prices already
falling sharply, underlying inflation should drop below 2.5 per cent by the
middle of this year.
This modal verb “can be regarded as weaker equivalent of “must’” (Leech & Svartvik,
1975). The meaning of ‘should’ expresses probability. Quirk et al. (1985) characterize the
38
meaning as noncommitted necessity or tentative inference. “The speaker does not know if his
statement is true, but tentatively concludes that it is true, on the basis of whatever he knows”
(Quirk et al., 1985). Illustrative example: Michael should be at his apartment by now. It can be
paraphrased in several ways, for instance: “Michael is probably at his apartment, but I’m not
certain.” “It is very likely that Michael is at his apartment.”
In their epistemic use, should and ought to convey a weaker version of logical necessity
as expressed by must. That means that they do not refer to an inescapable conclusion. Indeed,
sometimes they are even used when the likelihood of a situation is zero (in counterfactual
situations); they then merely express that there was a reasonableness of expectation, which the
context makes clear is not borne out.
E.g. “You stupid fool,” he said aloud.
“It should be obvious what’s happening to the Lands. They’re dying.”
“Why doesn’t the Thing know where to go?” said Gurder.
Clearly, this example show that should and ought to need not indicate the
speaker’s/writer’s supposition that the statement he makes is true.
Epistemic should/ought to has strength comparable with “probable”, but differs from it
in that it involves inferences. This means that the concept of “right” is also relevant here.
In “ The next road on the left should/ought to be King Street”., if the next road is not
King Street, than I shall have failed to make the right inference.
“Should/ought to” are weaker equivalents to “must” in the sense of deduction. They
express a less degree of certainty than “must”.
E.g. My sister must be at school by now. (it’s certain)
My sister should be at school by now. (She probably is, but I’m not sure)
Should / ought to + present infinitive have present time reference: they express
supposition with reference to the present: Judging by his accent he should be a foreigner.
E.g. They ought to be (at) home by now.
Judging by his accent, he should be a foreigner.
Should / ought to + perfect infinitive have past time reference: they express assumption
about a past action:
E.g. They should have finished by now.
He ought to have arrived by now.
Should appear in a variety of emotive constructions to express reaction of uncertainty,
surprise, approval or disapproval of an (un)expected state of affair.
E.g. ‘Whom should I see?’
‘She is a beautiful girl, isn’t she?’ ‘I should say so.’
39
 Although should and ought to have similar meaning, there is however a slight difference
between them: when we use should, we give our subjective opinion, whereas ought to has a
rather more objective force.
E.g. The letter ought to have arrived by now. I sent the letter a week ago.
Ought to and should can be paraphrased by “it is likely that….” (because of the
unknown facts conditions).
We do not normally use should and ought to in affirmative questions about possibility
because of the risk of confusion with obligation.
E.g. Might/ could/can this be true?

4.2 Means of Expressing Possibility

Several modal verbs show possibility. They are May, Might, Can, Could. All of these
are different ways to say maybe.
‘May’ expresses possibility but in this case the possibility of the fact – factual (Leech &
Svartvik, 1975). Thus the exemplar sentence will be: “The railways may be improved.” There
could be already some plans for improvement of the railways. This kind of possibility is stronger
than the theoretical one (Leech & Svartvik, 1975). Quirk et al. (1985:223) paraphrases ‘may’ as
“’it is possible’ followed by a that-clause or ‘perhaps/possibly’. The exemplar sentence becomes:
“It is possible that the railways will be improved.”
May/ Might – are used mainly to talk about possibility, especially the chances of
something happening.
E.g. I may see her tomorrow.
We often use may and might to say that there is a chance that something is true, or that
there is a possibility of it happening.
E.g. ’I think Democratic Party is going to win.’ ‘You may be right’.
You may be climbing the Alps next summer.
Peter might phone. If he does, ask him to ring later.
‘I might get a job soon.’ ‘Yes, and pigs might fly.’
1. Present or future time reference.
A) Affirmative sentences:
May – is used to denote factual, actual possibility (i.e. the actual chances of something
happening).
E.g. The car may be broken.
‘Where is Emma?’ ‘I don’t know. She may be out shopping.’
It may rain tomorrow.
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 I may go to see her next week.
Might - expresses a hypothetical possibility, i.e. a more remote possibility or a higher
degree of uncertainty, doubt than may.
E.g. John might come with me.
‘Why isn’t Ben at the office?’ ‘I don’t know. He might be ill.’
May can be used to talk about typical occurrences – things that can happen, in certain
situations. This is common in scientific and academic language. Might is used in this way to talk
about the past.
E.g. After having a baby, a woman may suffer from depression for several
months.
Children of divorced parents may have difficulty in forming stable relationships.
B) Interrogative sentences:
May – is rather infrequent in interrogative sentences. May does not normally occur in
questions. In interrogative, may is replaced by can / could, is it likely.
E.g. It may be true. – Can it be true?
He may come today. – Is he likely to come?
May – is also possible in indirect questions.
E.g. Do you think you may go camping this summer?
C) Negative sentences:
May / might occurs in negative sentences only when the scope of negation excludes the
meaning of the modal (the modal verb is not negated), i.e. may not means ‘it is possible that
something does not happen’:
E.g. It may not be true. = It is possible that it isn’t true.
They may not bother to come if it rains. = It is possible that they will not
come.

2. Past time reference

Might is used after a past reporting verb (Reported Speech):
E.g. Mary says: We may have a party soon.→ Mary said they might have a
party soon.
He said it might rain.
I thought he might like the concert so I bought 2 tickets.
Might is used with past time reference if there is an adverb denoting past time:
E.g. In those days a man might be sentenced to death for a small crime.
May / Might + perfect infinitive express speculations about past actions, i.e. the
41
construction expresses the possibility that an action happened in the past.
A) In affirmative sentences may and might are normally used.
E.g. “Polly is very late. She may have missed her train”. – It is possible that she
missed the train.
“What was the noise?” “It might have been a cat”.
We can use the same structure (especially with might) to say that something was
possible but did not happen.
E.g. You are stupid to try climbing up there. You might have killed yourself.
If she hadn’t been so bad tempered, I might have married her.
May is occasionally used in the same way in British English, but many people feels that
it is incorrect.
E.g. You were stupid to try climbing up there. You may have killed yourself.
In certain contexts may denotes the fact that the possibility of the past action still exists,
while might expresses the idea that a past action was possible but did not happen (non-
fulfillment):
E.g. I’m really worried. He is already an hour late.
He may have had an accident (= perhaps he had an accident; the
possibility exists; we don’t know yet)
May / Might + perfect infinitive can also refer to the present or future (like present
perfect and future perfect tense).
E.g. I will try phoning him, but he may have gone out by now.
By the end of this year I might have saved some money.
Might + present / perfect infinitive has an additional, derived meaning: it expresses
criticism, reproach about a present / past action:
E.g. You might ask before you borrow my books.
Honestly, Tom: I’ve been worried to death. You might have telephoned
me.
B) In negative sentences:
Negative possibility in the past is indicated by may not have / might not have.
E.g. The family may / might not have prepared for the terrible news.
 May and Might – differences:
Might is not used as past form of may. Both may and might are used to talk about
present or future. Might is mostly used as a less definite or more hesitant form of may,
suggesting a smaller chance. It is used when people think something is possible but not very
likely.
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 E.g. I may go to London tomorrow. (perhaps a 50% chance)
You might come with me. (perhaps a 30% chance)
Might is not used to express permission.
E.g. When she is at her grandparents, she may play with other kids till late.
NOT might play
Can / Could + Present Infinitive
1. Present or Future reference
The epistemic ‘can’ expresses possibility or to be more specific, it expresses the
possibility of the idea – theoretical (Leech & Svartvik, 1975). It is illustrated on the example:
The railways can be improved. It says that “in theory the railways are improvable, i.e. that they
are not perfect” (Leech & Svartvik, 1975). Quirk et al. (1985: 222) claim that “in this sense ‘can’
is generally paraphrasable by ‘it is possible’ followed by an infinitive clause”. So the example
above can be transformed into: It is possible for the railways to be improved.
‘Could’ has the same meaning like ‘can’ but expresses hypothetical possibility or so
called “tentative possibility, i.e. to talk of something which is possible, but unlikely” (Leech &
Svartvik, 1975). For instance: Peter could be sleeping on the couch tonight. (= It is just possible
that Peter is sleeping on the couch tonight.)
Can / Could + Present Infinitive is used mostly to talk about “theoretical” or “general”
possibility ( event actions are possible without talking about their chances actually happening)
A) Affirmative sentences:
We use “can” to say whether situations and events are possible, theoretically, in general.
E.g. Anybody who wants to can join the club.
The road can be blocked.
Anyone can make mistakes.
Can in general statements of possibility has roughly the same meaning as sometimes:
E.g. Lightning can be dangerous. = Lightning is sometimes dangerous.
Can is often used to talk about choices that somebody has (now or in the future), or to
suggest opportunities.
E.g. There are three possibilities: We can go to the police, we can talk to a
lower, or we can forget all about it.
“What shall we do?” “We can try asking Lucy for help.”
Could is also used like “can” to talk about present or future choices and opportunities,
especially when we want to make suggestions sound less definite.
E.g. ”What shall we do tomorrow?” “Well, we could go fishing.”
Can is not used to talk about future probability. We express this idea with may and
43
might. Could is also used in this sense – it suggests a less definite possibility.
E.g. It could rain later on this evening.
War could break out any day.
Can / Could expressing possibility are often used in a quasi – imperative manner, to
suggest a course of the action to the addressee. The instruction can be made more polite by using
could or by adding a conditional clause such as “If you like”.
E.g. You can / could sit here until I get back. (if you like)
You could help me move these chairs.
B) Interrogative sentences:
Can/ Could are very common in interrogative sentences.
E.g. There’s the doorbell. Who can it be?
Where can he be now?
Could he know the answer to this problem?
C) In negative sentences:
In negative sentences with can / could the scope of negation includes the modal, i.e.
cannot means ‘it is not possible, it is impossible’:
E.g. He can’t be at school = It isn’t possible, it’s impossible that he should be at
school.
That can’t be true.
He can’t be older than fifty.
Note the difference between may not and cannot:
E.g. She may not be at home. (= It is possible that she isn’t at home)
She can’t be at home. (It isn’t possible, it’s impossible that she should be
at home)

2. Past time reference

Could +Present Infinitive – is used with past tie reference if there is an adverb denoting
past time.
E.g. In those days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime.
Can / Could + Perfect Infinitive expresses a possibility about a past action.
A) In affirmative sentences:
Can + Perfect Infinitive do not occur in affirmative sentences.
Could + Perfect Infinitive is used to say that something was possible but didn’t happen.
E.g. That was a bad place to go skiing. You could have broken your leg.
“Why did you throw the bottle out of the window? Somebody could have been hurt.”
44
 He could have been Prime Minister now if he hadn’t decided to leave politics.
B) In Interrogative sentences:
Can and Could are frequently used in interrogative sentences.
E.g. Where can she have gone?
She can’t have gone to school. It’s Saturday.
Couldn’t they be possible have forgotten about us?
Could she have lied to us?
C) In Negative sentences:

Cannot + Perfect Infinitive is used to talk about something that probably happened in
the past or in expressions of surprise:
E.g. It can’t have been a trick.
You can’t be serious! They can’t have arrived already!
Impossibility in the past is indicated by could not have:
E.g. He could not have done such a thing.
They couldn’t have forgotten about the visit.

 Can / May and Might

Can is not used in the affirmative clauses to talk about the chance that something
actually will happen or is happening. (“It is possible that…”). To express this meaning, we use
may / might /could. We use “can” to talk about a more general or theoretical kind of possibility
(“It is possible to …”).
E.g. There may / might be a strike next week. (It’s possible that there will be a
strike)
Not: There can be a strike next week.
Strikes can happen any time. (It’s possible for strikes to happen)

 Could / Might / May

Could is often used in similar ways to “may” and “might”, to talk about the chance of
something happening or being true.
E.g. War could break out any day.
Or: War might break out any day.
You could be right.
Or: You may be right.

45
 4.3 Other Parts of Speech Expressing Possibility and Probability

One can identify a set of “modal expressions” to show possibility, probability,

belonging to different syntactic classes and having different syntactic properties.
However, the modal verbs occupy a more central position in the grammatical structure
of English than do modal adjectives ( “possible”, “probable”, etc.) or adverbs (“probably”,
“possibly”, etc).
We can express at least three different degrees of factuality in English by selecting one
of the lexical means of expressing modality: certainty, probability and possibility).
A. Lexical Means of Expressing Certainty:
 Nouns: Certainty, certitude;
 Adjectives: sure, certain;
 Adverbs: certainly, surely, of course, definitely.
“Sure” can be used in the same way as “certain” in sentences about events like this:
E.g. He is sure / certain to come tomorrow.
“Surely” does not always have the same meaning as “certainly”.
E.g. He surely doesn’t expect me to pay him immediately.
( I hope he doesn’t expect this and I don’t think he ought to.)
He certainly doesn’t expect me to pay him immediately.
(I know he doesn’t expect the money now.)

B. Lexical Means of Expressing Probability:

 adjectives: likely, probable, sure, certain, positive
 adverbs: probably
 nouns: probability, chance, likelihood
 verbal expressions: expect, suppose, daresay, be going to
“Likely” is an adjective with a similar meaning to “probable”
E.g. What’s a likely date for the election?
Note also the informal adverb phrases “very/ most likely”.
E.g. I think she ‘ll very / most likely be late.
We use adverbs of certainty to say how sure we are of something: probably, perhaps;
“Perhaps” is chiefly used in front position, though the end position is also possible.
E.g. Perhaps it will stop raining soon.
Julius Caesar is perhaps the greatest of Shakespeare’s plays.

46
 “Probably” can be used to indicate that a statement is very likely to be true. It is placed
after the auxiliary, if there is one, in front of the verb or after the verb “be”.
E.g. He probably thinks you don’t like him.
She is probably telling the truth.
It will probably rain this evening.
In negative sentences with contracted forms, “probably” is put in front of the contracted
form.
E.g. They probably won’t let you in.
“Probably” can also be put at the beginning of the sentence.
E.g. Probably, they won’t come.
Verbs like: To expect, to dare say, to be going to are used to express probability in
English.
E.g. I dare say he will come later.
Take an umbrella. It’s going to rain before evening.
I suppose he won’t say a word.

C. Lexical Means of Expressing Possibility

 adjectives: possible, impossible, likely:
E.g. It’s possible that he’ll come tomorrow (= he may come)
It’s impossible that he should have said that. / It’s impossible for him to
have said that. (= He can’t have said that)
 adverbs: possibly, maybe, perhaps:
E.g. Perhaps / maybe he’ll come tomorrow (= he may come)
Possibly he has not heard the news yet. (= He may not have heard the
news)
 nouns: possibility, hypothesis, expectation:
E.g. There is a possibility that he will come.
“Possibly” is not used to indicate that the speaker is not sure about something.
E.g. The authorities are possibly to blame for the accident.
It is also used in requests to make them either very polite or tentative:
E.g. Could you possibly lend me some money?
Here are some examples of other parts of speech which express possibility and
probability:
E.g. I think that this should be his house.
Doubtless he’ll ring first.
47
I’d stake my life on his honesty.
Presumably, he will be back.
They make the assumption that she will win the prize.
He seems to have lost his car keys.

48
 CHAPTER 5
APPROACHES TO TEACHING POSSIBILITY AND PROBABILITY

5.1 Approaches to teaching grammar

The teaching of grammar seems to create a controversial issue among teachers, applied
linguists and syllabus designers. Where there was once consensus on the ‘right’ way to teach
foreign languages, many teachers now share the belief that a single right way does not exist.
While some of them like to teach grammar explicitly, others prefer to teach it implicitly; and still
some others prefer not to talk about it at all.
The overall principle that has guided teaching methodology for many years now is that
the purpose of learning a language is to communicate in that language. This means that the
language we teach should be meaningful, natural, and useful to our learners. (Hadfield, 2008:7))
Language acquisition occurs only when comprehension of real messages occurs, and
when the acquirer is not “on the defensive”, to use Stevick’s apt phrase. Language acquisition
does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill.
It does not occur overnight, however. Real language acquisition develops slowly, and speaking
skills emerge significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are perfect. The best
methods are therefore those that supply “comprehensible input” in low anxiety situations,
containing messages that students really want to hear. (Krashen, 1982:6)
It is believed that grammar is the most important issue in teaching and learning a
foreign language. It is also one of the most difficult aspects when it comes to teaching it.
Usually, the word “grammar” is associated with a fixed set of rules of usage. The goal
of studying grammar is to make students aware not only of the language system and of the
typical constructions in a language, but also of the way the language forms are used.
Teachers make a clear distinction between “good grammar” (i.e. formal language used
in writing and in oral presentations), and “bad grammar” (i.e. language used in everyday
conversation). Such teachers teach grammar by explaining the forms and rules and then drilling
students on them. As a result, they have students who can produce correct forms of language, but
who make errors when they try to use the language in context. Therefore, students do not
develop the ability to use grammar correctly in oral and written interactions by doing mechanical
drills, because these drills separate form from meaning and use. If we see language as a strict set
of rules there will be disconnections between knowing the rules of grammar and being able to
apply them.
49
 Therefore, grammar should be taught in order to enable the students to communicate
properly, that is to use with accuracy different grammar structures in their everyday interactions.
In different historical periods of second language pedagogy, there have been different
viewpoints and theories about language learning in general and about grammar in particular. As
a result, there have been different language teaching methods and approaches that have been
acceptable, preferable and dominant during their time of existence.

5.1.1 The Grammar Translation Method

In nineteenth century Europe, the Grammar Translation Method was the most
influential foreign language technique. This method was derived from a traditional teaching
method, used for students of classical languages. Text is translated methodically and the student
memorizes the rules and the exceptions to those rules gradually. Understanding literary
masterpieces and ancient texts is priority, and this method continues to be favoured for classical
languages today. The grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and provides
vocabulary with direct translations to memorize. Most instructors now acknowledge that this
method is ineffective by itself.
Courses follow a well determined grammar syllabus and often begin with the explicit
statement of the grammar rule, followed by translation exercises into and out of the foreign
language. However this method does not develop student awareness of the new language as it
relies only in analogy with their first language According to Marianne Celce Murcia (2001: 6)
“the result of this approach is usually an inability on the part of the student to use the language
for communication”.
A greater attention to grammar (focus on form/structure) has now re-emerged as many
teachers try to integrate structures into content focused lessons. But explicit teaching of
grammatical rules in isolation is rare nowadays.

5.1.2 The Direct Method

As a reaction against the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method stated that
grammar should not be taught overtly, even if the lesson is based on a grammar syllabus. Priority
should be given to oral skills. Sometimes also called natural method, is a method that refrains
from using the learners' native language and just uses the target language. Texts are not
commented from a grammatical point of view. The direct method operates on the idea that
second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural
way humans learn any language - a child never relies on another language to learn its first
50
language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language. This method
places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates
teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language teaching.
According to this method, printed language and text must be kept away from second
language learner for as long as possible, just as a first language learner does not use printed word
until he has good grasp of speech.
Learning of writing and spelling should be delayed until after the printed word has been
introduced, and grammar and translation should also be avoided because this would involve the
application of the learner's first language.

5.1.3 The Reading Method

Reading approach is one of methods that can be used by teacher. It is one of way that
will help students to solve their problem in reading. In reading approach, students will improve
their knowledge and get something new because they are demanded to read more. Reading
becomes important because it is an active skill which involves inferencing, guessing, predicting
etc. It also has, more often than not, a communicative function. By reading students will know
about the tenses, kinds of tenses and how to use it. They also will know about the different of
culture by reading cross cultural understanding, and they will learn how to pronounce the words
correctly. In reading approach, many things that will be achieved by students and they can
master English well. So, Because of the important of reading that have already mentioned before,
teacher should teach and emphasized the students to read effectively by using reading approach.
Because not many teachers were native speakers of the respective foreign language, the
Direct Method was left aside, and replaced by The Reading Method, which focused on the
importance of reading and translation, together with basic rules of grammar, necessary for the
comprehension of the texts. However, the lessons are not structured upon grammar points.
Syllabuses for these courses do not focus on grammar, but on texts and vocabulary items.
Grammar rules are explained, at a basic level, as they occur in texts.

5.1.4 The Silent Way

This method created by Caleb Gattegno in the early 70s makes extensive use of silence
as a teaching technique. The teacher keeps his/her talking time at a minimum (keeps silent), yet,
directing and controlling the learners. The input provided by the teacher is reduced to model
sentences that the teacher utters only once and the learners are asked to repeat. Information
transmission and feedback are given through visual aids.
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 The theoretical basis of Gattegno‘s Silent Way is the idea that teaching must be
subordinated to learning and thus students must develop their own inner criteria for correctness.
All four skills – reading, writing, speaking and listening – are taught from the beginning.
Students‘ errors are expected as a normal part of learning: the teacher‘s silence helps foster self-
reliance and student initiative. The teacher does not criticize or praise but simply keeps
indicating that the student should try again until success is achieved. The teacher is active in
setting up situations, while the students do most of the talking and interacting. The goals are to
use language for self-expression, to develop independence from the teacher, “to develop inner
criteria for correctness”. (Larsen Freeman, 2000:62). Teaching should be subordinated to
learning. Teachers should give students only what they absolutely need to promote their learning.
Learners are responsible for their own learning.
The Silent Way is characterized by its focus on discovery, creativity, problem solving
and the use of accompanying materials. Richards and Rodgers (1986:99) summarized the
method into three major features.
1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. The Silent way belongs to
the tradition of teaching that favors hypothetical mode of teaching (as opposed to expository
mode of teaching) in which the teacher and the learner work cooperatively to reach the
educational desired goals. (cf Bruner 1966) The learner is not a bench bound listener but an
active contributor to the learning process.
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects. The Silent
Way uses colorful charts and rods (cuisenaire rods) which are of varying length. They are used
to introduce vocabulary ( colors, numbers, adjectives, verbs) and syntax (tense, comparatives,
plurals, word order …)
3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.
This can be summarized by Benjamin Franklin’s words:
“Tell me and I forget
Teach me and I remember
Involve me and I learn”
A good silent way learner is a good problem solver. The teacher’s role resides only in
giving minimum repetitions and correction, remaining silent most of the times, leaving the
learner struggling to solve problems about the language and get a grasp of its mechanism.
Disadvantages
 The Silent Way is often criticized of being a harsh method. The learner works in
isolation and communication is lacking badly in a Silent Way classroom.
 With minimum help on the part of the teacher, the Silent Way method may put the
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learning itself at stake.
 The material ( the rods and the charts) used in this method will certainly fail to
introduce all aspects of language. Other materials will have to be introduced.
Advantages
 Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters:
 creativity,
 discovery,
 increase in intelligent potency and
 long term memory.
 The indirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the
learner who is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how language works.
In other words teaching is subordinated to learning.

5.1.5 The Natural Approach

According to Krashen, The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell at the
University of California at Irvine for foreign language instruction at the university and high
school levels. While originally developed independently of "Monitor Theory", its later
development and articulation have been influenced by the second language acquisition theory.
The teacher speaks only the target language in the classroom. (Krashen, 1982)
Krashen and Terrell view communication as the primary function of language, and
adhere to a communicative approach to language teaching, focusing on teaching communicative
abilities rather than sterile language structures.
What really distinguishes the Natural approach from other methods and approaches are
its premises concerning the use of language and the importance of vocabulary:
 Language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meaning and messages.
 Vocabulary is of paramount importance as language is essentially its lexicon!
This means that language acquisition cannot take place unless the acquirer understands
messages in the target language and has developed sufficient vocabulary inventory. In fact it
should be easier to reconstruct a message containing just vocabulary items than one containing
just the grammatical structures.
Students may use either the first or second language. If they choose to respond in the
second language, their errors are not corrected unless communication is seriously impaired.
When this method is applied, the teacher utilizes realia, pictures, and students' previous
knowledge to make their speech comprehensible from the first day. (Krashen, 1982)
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 Natural Approach attempts to capture students' interest by using what Terrell terms
"Affective Acquisition Activities", adapted from Christensen, that encourage discussion of topics
of personal interest to the students (e.g. "Suppose you are a famous person, and there is a
newspaper article about you. Tell at least one thing about yourself which is mentioned in the
article..."). In the early stages of the Natural Approach, classroom discussion focuses on personal
information, the goal being to establish a group feeling. Later, students discuss their past
histories, and eventually they are able to talk about their hopes and plans for the future.
(Krashen, 1982).

5.1.6 Total Physical Response (TPR) (Harold Palmer, James Asher)

This unique method was developed by James Asher, and is described in many of his
journal papers and his book (Asher, 1977). Total Physical Response, or TPR, consists basically
of obeying commands given by the instructor that involve an overt physical response. The
instructor, for example, says "stand up" and the class stands up.
The commands become more complex as the class progresses, and Asher claims that it
is quite possible to embed vast amounts of syntax into the form of a command. Students speak
only when they are "ready", which usually occurs at around 10 hours of instruction, and consists
of student commands. In the typical TPR class (as described by Asher, Kusudo, and de la Torre,
1974), the first few months (45 hours in this case) would consist of 70% listening comprehension
(obeying commands), 20% speaking, and 10% reading and writing.
The use of TPR insures the active participation of students, helps the teacher know
when utterances are understood, and also provides contexts to help students understand the
language they hear. Its content may not be always interesting and relevant for the students, but
should produce better results than the audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods.
TPR does not require a spoken response from students. Also, if implemented properly,
students always understand what is happening during TPR practice, resulting in increased
confidence and a lowering of the affective filter.
Short TPR activities, used judiciously and integrated with other activities can be both
highly motivating and linguistically purposeful. Careful choice of useful and communicative
language at beginner level can make TPR activities entirely valid. Many learners respond well to
kinesthetic activities and they can genuinely serve as a memory aid. A lot of classroom warmers
and games are based, consciously or unconsciously, on TPR principles.

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 5.1.7 Suggestopedia (Georgi Lozanov)
Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian doctor and
psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is based on a modern understanding of how the human brain
works and how we learn most effectively.
Learning takes place in a tension-free atmosphere, special attention being paid to
furniture and surroundings. Baroque instrumental music is played to enhance learning. Students
sit comfortably while the teacher reads a lengthy dialogue. Students are provided with the text
and the L1 translation. Slow movement music is played. After the interval (no smoking and no
drinking), the teacher re-reads the dialogue while students listen without reading the text this
time. Thus, learners are supposed to remember best from the teacher playing an authoritative
role.
Lozanov’s method seeks to help learners eliminate psychological barriers to learning.
The learning environment is relaxed and subdued, with low lighting and soft music in the
background. Students choose a name and character in the target language and culture, and
imagine that person. Dialogues are presented to the accompaniment of music. Students just relax
and listen to them being read and later playfully practice the language during an “activation”
phase.
Suggestopedia classes are small and intensive, and focus on providing a very low-stress,
attractive environment (with music and meditation) in which acquisition can occur. Some of the
students’ first language is used at the beginning, but most in the target language. The role of the
teacher is very important in creating the right atmosphere and in acting out the dialogues that
form the core of the content. Suggestopedia seems to provide close to optimal input while not
giving too much emphasis on grammar.
The contention is that the general ease of the situation, the adoption of a new identity
and the dependence of listening to the dialogues will help the students to acquire the language.

5.1.8 The Audio-Lingual Method / The Aural-Oral Method

Based on Skinner's Behaviorism theory, the Audio-lingual Method was widely used in
the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the
acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue. These patterns are elicited,
repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language are
automatic.
It uses the target language communicatively, over learn it, so as to be able to use it
automatically by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming native language
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habits.
As Cook stated in „Second Language Learning”, audio-lingual teaching divided
language into the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, and grouped these into
active skills which people use to produce language, such as speaking and writing, and passive
skills through which they receive it, such as listening and reading. As well as speech coming
before writing, passive skills should come before active skills. So students should listen before
they speak, speak before they read, read before they write.
Learning means learning structures and vocabulary, which together add up to learning
the language. Like the academic style, language is seen more as form than meaning, even if its
basis is more in structural than traditional grammar. Oddly enough, despite its emphasis on the
spoken language, the structures it teaches are predominantly from written language.(Cook)
The goal of the audio-lingual style is to get the students to ‘behave’ in common L2
situations, such as the station or the supermarket; it is concerned with the real life activities the
students are going to face. In one sense it is practical and communication-oriented. The audio-
lingual style is not about learning language for its own sake, but learning it for actual use, either
within the society or without.(Cook)
According to St. Krashen (1981), an audio-lingual lesson usually begins with a dialogue
which contains the grammar and vocabulary to be focused on the lesson. The students mimic the
dialogue and eventually memorize it. After the dialogue comes pattern drills, in which the
grammatical structure introduced in the dialogue is reinforced, with these drills focusing on
simple repetition, substitution, transformation and translation.
Grammar is taught inductively after the selection of grammar structures and the
provision of minimal grammatical explanation. It contains, in embryo, many techniques later
developed by the Communicative Approach.

5.1.9 Cognitivism (The Structural Situational Approach)

The Cognitive Approach, influenced by the cognitive psychology and the Chomskyan
linguistic, contradicts the habit-formation learning style proposed by the Audiolingualism,
suggesting that language learning consists in fact of rule acquisition. Thus, grammar plays a very
important role, so it must be taught (either inductively of deductively). All the language skills
(reading, writing, listening and speaking) are emphasized, although it is considered that
pronunciation can never become perfect.
Cognitive learning goes beyond the behaviourist learning of facts and skills, adding
cognitive process to learning. Learners are asked to work out the rules for themselves. It focuses
56
on building learner’s experiences and providing learning tasks that can challenge, but also helps
students learn and progress through the curriculum.
The lesson is made up of three stages, namely, Presentation- Practice- Production.
Presentation: The new grammar structure is presented, often by means of a
conversation or short text. The teacher explains the new structure and checks students’
comprehension of it.
Practice: Students practice using the new structure in a controlled context, through
drills or substitution exercises.
Production: Students practice using the new structure in different contexts, often using
their own content or information, in order to develop fluency with the new pattern.
The P-P-P lesson structure has been widely used in language teaching materials and
continues in modified form to be used today.

5.1.10 The Communicative Approach

The 1970s saw a worldwide shift towards teaching methods that emphasized
communication, seen as the fundamental reason for language teaching. Indeed, communicative
teaching has now become the only teaching method that many teachers have experienced; it was
considered the traditional method from the twentieth century as grammar/translation was the
traditional method from the nineteenth.
As we can notice, those methods are not always in opposition, and most of them present
strong arguments. Time has proven that some approaches are not that productive (such as the
Grammar-Translation Method or the Reading Method), and that others have some good parts,
that were preserved in future methods (for example, the Direct Method takes into consideration
the utility of conversation as the target of language teaching).
Most methodologists will agree that one cannot define a „right way” to teach as there is
no scientific basis yet for writing such a description of an ideal teaching methodology. What they
recommend is to observe, take note of and work on strategies and approaches that, as
circumstances dictate, can be more beneficial than others. The act of teaching is essentially a
constant processing of options and what makes a teacher more efficient is his/her awareness of
the options available.
CLT takes into account the fact that learning is likely to be more efficient if the learners
have an opportunity to talk about what they are learning. It can be understood as a set of
principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of
classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the
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classroom.
Communicative language teaching sets as its goal the teaching of communicative
competence, including grammatical competence.
Grammatical Communicative Language Teaching competence refers to the knowledge
we have of a language that accounts for our ability to produce sentences in a language. It refers
to knowledge of the building blocks of sentences (e.g., parts of speech, tenses, phrases, clauses,
sentence patterns) and how sentences are formed. Grammatical competence is the focus of many
grammar practice books, which typically present a rule of grammar on one page, and provide
exercises to practice using the rule on the other page. The unit of analysis and practice is
typically the sentence. While grammatical competence is an important dimension of language
learning, it is clearly not all that is involved in learning a language since one can master the rules
of sentence formation in a language and still not be very successful at being able to use the
language for meaningful communication.
Communicative competence includes the following aspects of language knowledge:
- Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions
- Knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the participants
(e.g., knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language appropriately
for written as opposed to spoken communication)
- Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g., narratives,
reports, interviews, conversations)
- Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one‘s language
knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication strategies).
With the rapid development of EFL teaching in non-English-speaking countries,
English teachers have become more aware that the exclusive use of either the communicative
approach or grammatical-translation method does not meet the real requirements of real
communication. Teachers have also found out that no single teaching method deals with
everything that concerns the form, the use, and the content of the target language.

5.2 RESEARCH METHODS

If we are to take into account the latest developments in the educational it is easily
understandable a teacher‘s desire of being not only an explainer and assessor, but an “involver”,
as Jim Scrivener (1994) calls him. Besides knowing the subject matter that is being dealt with,
namely the English language and how it works, the “involver” is able to use appropriate teaching
and organizational procedures and techniques to help his students learn about the subject matter.
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 In order to do that, a teacher needs to come up with his own ideas experience, to always
be interested in the most recent discoveries made in the teaching language process. He has to be
familiar with the steps he is about to follow in his psycho-pedagogical research and to be able to
use as many interesting generalization from the data collected during the research.
In order to verify the working hypothesis, we used the following methods of research:
a) Observation;
b) Conversation;
c) The pedagogical experiment;
d) The docimologic test;
e) The statistic method.

a) The method of observation

The pedagogical observation is often used as the researched problem is observed in

ordinary condition. As scientific method, it is systematized and consists in a close observation of
the activities, starting from a well-structured plan and using the right instruments.
It is used together with other research methods and during the whole research, offering
supplementary data about different aspects of the investigated phenomena.
The act of teaching is essentially a constant processing of opinions. During this research
we have noticed that at every point in each lesson we have a number of options available. We
can decide whether we should do a certain grammatical problem during the class, or not.
In order to be aware of as many options as possible, we used the observation method.
We could get all the information we needed: whether the students had understood the uses and
meanings of modal verbs or they could recall what had been taught during the English classes, or
whether they were able to reflect on a given topic. We could also draw and use the necessary
conclusion to prepare the future practical experience.
The choice of this particular topic was suggested to me by the spontaneous observation
of the fact that many of my students have trouble in correct usage of the modals in English.
However, spontaneous observation is not necessarily relevant for a state of facts, which made me
think of a more organized activity of the kind.
Consequently, I began to create contexts in which students should be obliged to use
modals rules and I carefully took down notes of their errors and mistakes. In time I noticed that
some of the mistakes appeared more often than others and I also realised that quite a large
number of students tend to use the long Infinitive after a modal verb
e.g. *You must to go to bed now.
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  You must go to bed now.
*She can to be at her office now.
 She can be at her office now.
Another common mistake that I have noticed to my students while working with modals
is the use of “-S” at the third person singular, present tense:
E.g. *It may disappears.
 It may disappear.
Also, many students tend to add “WILL” to a modal to make future:
E.g. *Books will may become more popular.
 Books may become more popular.
From the analyses, students’ difficulties in modal verbs are concluded to be caused by
factors such as: he misunderstanding of modal verbs, which mean that students only remember a
part of the grammatical rules of modal verbs and use it in every situation; the oversimplification
of modal verbs. Students learn some meanings of modal verbs but they only remember one of
them. In other words, they think each modal verb only has one meaning.
Using this method we have notices that some students were able to make analysis,
comparisons, even generalizations, while others were passive and not able to finish alone a given
task.
The observation papers used at the end of the lessons have helped us to analyze and
interpret all the data that have led to the final conclusions.

b) The method of conversation

The conversation method is based on a sincere dialogue between the researcher and the
subjects of the investigation. The final goal of the dialogue is for the researcher to gather the
students ‘useful data and opinions related to everyday activity at school.
In order to successfully use this method, we have started from reviewing the students‘
previous experience and knowledge and from defining any difficult psychological phenomena
that we might encounter in this study.
As a dialogue is a process in which two people have discussions in order to solve
problems, we needed a good plan, with clear and concrete questions which could be asked in a
pleasant atmosphere, so that many students could be involved in the dialogue. All the questions
were in close relation with the main aims of the research.
The most difficult parts were when some students were willing to answer different
questions and did not allow others to come up with their own ideas and feelings or when others
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simply refused to have a conversation, apparently not being interested in the learning process.
That is why I have tried to help them become more aware about how they were
learning, reflect on this, and explore what procedures, materials, techniques and approaches
would help them learn more effectively.

c) The pedagogical experiment

The pedagogical experiment is about creating new situations, changing the natural
course of the investigation in order to check the working hypothesis. The studied phenomena are
observed in a situation especially created by the researcher. It is not about a general analysis, but
a particular one.
I used this method in three steps. First, I recorded the data regarding the experimental
factor and elaborated the strategy of the experiment.
Then, I bore in mind the fact that the experimental factor cannot be instantaneously
applied and finally the recording of the data is possible only after the intervention of the
experimental factor.
The experiment was made on students in the 9th grade. Before setting out the content of
the experiment, we established a few conditions in using the material. The students were
supposed to be actively involved in the learning process so that we could measure the final
results.
The only role we played was the one of an organizer so that the students could get to a
conclusion, thinking and questioning themselves. I also motivated the students, giving them
different tasks to do, stimulating and increasing their interest in studying the English conditional
structures as the pedagogical experiment has a very strong formative character.

d) The docimologic test

The docimologic test implies a theme or a group of themes gathered on the basis of a
unitary criterion. Used together with other methods, it is a useful instrument for an objective
evaluation. It is very important the way researchers use it, interpret the results and make the
future decisions.
During each semester I needed to know what the problems were so that we could do
something about them. That is why, the docimologic test was designed both to expose learners
‘difficulties, gaps in their knowledge and skills deficiencies during a course and to measure
learners‘ language and skill progress in relation to the syllabus they had been following. I also
determined the item types, starting from what was familiar and known to the students.
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 e) The statistic method
We have used the statistic method in order to have a general picture and a quantitative
evaluation of the students‘ results. Data collection frequently involves more than one method.
The more methods we use the more reliable our analysis is likely to be.
Having collected the data, we analyzed the results, classified, made comparisons and
processed them statistically. By weighing up our observations, the students‘ oral and written
responses, we were in a good position to decide on future action and to help the students to face
the challenge of thinking about language and progressing in order to be increasingly self-reliant.

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 CHAPTER 6
THE EXPERIMENT

For the experiment, I selected two classes, both from Tehnological Highschool No 1,
Alexandria, namely, the 9th A grade as for the Experimental Class, and the 9th B grade as for the
Control Class.
Both classes consist of 26 students, all of them aged 14 -16 years old. With the Control
Class (9thB) I used a traditional method of teaching Modal Verbs, namely the Grammar
Translation Method, while with the Experimental Class (9th A) I used the modern
Communicative Approach.
The research paper tried to prepare tasks which made learners able to use modal verbs
in their daily communication as well as improve their grammar skills. For the purposes of this
study, two instruments were used and the needed data was collected. First, the Diagnosis Test
was administered to determine the proficiency level of the students. Then, the second instrument
which was prepared by the researchers was employed to assess the participants’ performance in
both experimental and control groups.
I intend to demonstrate through using both these two teaching approaches that the
communicative one is superior the traditional one, more exactly, the Communicative Approach
is better than the Grammar Translation Method, using specific activities for each of the above
mentioned methods.
The textbook chosen for their study in the 9th grade is Limba engleza, Front Runner,
Limba moderna 2 for both classes. The reasons that dictated this choice are the following:
- The classes present an internal homogeneity;
- Limba engleza, Front Runner, Limba moderna 2 is the study book offered freely to
students in our highschool and they don’t have the possibility to purchase a better one.
- Being a technological highschool, our students are not very interested in studying
foreign languages, as their options are related to studying Mechanics, Electrotechnics or
Gastronomy and the course book contains fairly easy reading texts and exercises which are fit for
their level.
- Because the course doesn’t follow a solid grammar syllabus, I use different
auxiliaries in order to develop the four skills. While focusing on topics that reflect young
people’s interests, several communicative activities offer real language in a real world;
- Each unit revises or presents two different grammar points in the context of a topic,
through a reading or listening text, the rules of form and use of each point being then explicitly
highlighted in a grammar box;
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 - The grammar boxes are followed by controlled and then freer practice of the
structure. This allows the rules to be internalized so that students can achieve linguistic
competence;
- The amount of time provided for the study of English (two classes a week) for both
classes, creates the condition for the experiment to be conducted without impending on their
study of the textbook;
- The textbook used contains few activities related to modal verbs as well as
theoretical support which made it easier to devise a plan with measures that should bear not only
on the proficient use of modals by the students involved, but also on the effective study of the
course syllabus;
- When the book doesn’t offer necessary activities for a better understanding of the
topic, I use different materials from different web sites.

6.1 Instruments and design

a) Pre-test: The Diagnosis test was used to test the subjects’ grammatical competence
before the experiment. The test paper for the diagnosis test included different items with a full
mark of 100 points.
b) Post-test: A final test was used to test the subjects’ grammatical competence after the
experiment. The test paper for the final test also included different items with a full mark of 100
points.
The stage
The main focus of this stage was to reactivate students’ knowledge in the field of
Modality and enrich this knowledge by adding new uses (Probability and Possibility). Logically,
before projecting the activities and applying them in the classroom, some theoretical research
was necessary. To this purpose, a wide range of activities were introduced at different moments.

The diagnosis test

The diagnosis test contained the following types of items:
1. Fill in item
2. Multiple choice item
3. Matching item
4. Retroversion item
1. The fill-in item implies choosing the correct word from a list of verbs by
understanding the context and the meaning of that verb form and to put it in the blank space in
the sentence.
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 2. For many years, multiple choice items were considered to be ideal test instruments
for measuring students’ knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. In this item, students had to
choose the correct form and the correct verb form by looking at the whole sentence.
3. The matching item allows assessing the students’ ability to establish connections,
associations, and context understanding.
4. The retroversion items are subjective items whose aim is to assess students’ ability to
make a linguistic transfer. The following elements were graded: correctness of grammar and
lexical structures and spelling accuracy.

DIAGNOSIS TEST

I. Complete the sentences using one of the following verbs in the correct form:
Can; Could; May; Might; Must; 4p x 9 – 36 points
1. Ted's flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours. He__________ be exhausted
after such a long flight. He ___________ prefer to stay in tonight and get some rest.
2. When you have a small child in the house, you_________ leave small objects lying
around. Such objects ________be swallowed, causing serious injury or even death.
3. I __________speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we lived in Egypt. But
after we moved back to Canada, I had very little exposure to the language and forgot almost
everything I knew as a child. Now, I _________ just say a few things in the language.
4. Why don’t you apply for that job? You ____________ get it.
5. She didn’t come to school. She___________ be sick.
6. Tom_________ be at school now. He has already finished his classes.

II. Choose the correct answer. 4p x 6 – 24points

1. Jane was so tired. She ___ have worked days and nights.
a. should
b. must
c. will
2. Where's Nick? He ___ be in his office.
a. might
b. mustn't
c. is to
3. Take an umbrella. It ___ rain later.
a. has to
b. need
c. might
4. Jack ___ go to hospital yesterday.
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 a. must
b. had to
c. need
5. You look tired. You ___ go to bed.
a. should
b. ought
c. are to
6. ___ it be true?
a. Must
b. May
c. Can

III. Complete each sentence (1-5) with an ending (a-e): 4p x 5 – 20 points.

1. He can’t be at the university a. She must be joking.

2. He may not remember me. b. He sometimes sends me e – mails.
3. He must be very shy. c. He retired 10 years ago.
4. She can’t be serious. d. He hasn’t seen me for ages.
5. He must have a computer. e. He never opens his mouth.

IV. Translate into English: 4p x 5 – 20 points

1. Ana s-ar putea sa ajunga mai tarziu. A pierdut autobuzul.
2. El s-ar puta sa doarma acum.
3. Nu trebuie sa –ti minti parintii.
4. Aceea trebuie sa fie sora lui.
5. Probabil ca a invatat foarte mult.
The evaluation of the test led to the results illustrated in the table below:

DIAGNOSIS TEST 9TH A

Table No 2
Grades obtained Number of students
4 5
5 6
6 8
7 4
8 2
9 1

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 Distribution of students according to the grades obtained
GRAPH 1

Distribution of students according

to the grades obtained
8

0
4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 Grade

No. Students

According to Graph 1, the results were the following:

- 11 students of 27 in class 9th A have a poor level of knowledge;
- 12 students have an intermediate level of knowledge;
- 2 students managed to obtain a good enough grade 8;
- 1 of them succeeded in obtaining the highest grade 9.
- No student succeeded in getting a 10.

For the first task 16 students of 27 were able to choose the correct answers and the
remaining of 11 had difficulties in understanding the meaning of the verb and filling in the
blanks correctly.
The second exercise was successfully solved by 18 students of 27. The third was
correctly solved by 17 students of the 27 and the others 10 partly matched the two halves
correctly, proving that they can make connections and word associations.
The fourth task was by far the most difficult for them, only 3 managing to solve it
with a few mistakes, 4 students solved more than half of the task and 20 students proved that
they do not know how to use modal verbs correctly and are not able to properly make a linguistic
transfer.
The same test was applied to the class 9th B and the results they obtained were
the following:

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 DIAGNOSIS TEST 9TH B
Table No. 3
Grades obtained Number of students
4 7
5 7
6 6
7 4
8 2

Distribution of students according to the grades obtained

GRAPH 2

Distribution of students according to the

grades obtained

8
6
4
2
0
4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade

No of Students

As it can be seen in Table 2, the results were the following:

- 14 pupils of 27 in class 9th B have a poor level of knowledge;
- 6 students have an elementary level of knowledge;
- Only 4 students have an intermediate level of knowledge;
- 2 of them succeeded in obtaining the highest grade 8.
- None of the students in the 9th B class succeeded in getting the highest grades 9
and 10.
The following characteristics can be noticed in Graph 2:
- The curve has 5 peaks, the highest peak corresponds to grade 4;
- The mean (average) does not lie at the center of the distribution, and the
distribution is not symmetrical around the mean;
- The tail of the distribution touches the horizontal axis;
- The mass of the distribution is concentrated on the left of the figure. The
distribution is said to be right-skewed.
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 Performance and errors analysis according to the objectives of assessment
GRAPH 3
9
8
7
6
5
Grade 9th A
4
Grade 9th B
3
2
1
0
4 5 6 7 8 9

Comparing the results of the diagnosis tests, one can notice that the students in class 9th
A are better than the students in class 9th B. Most of them obtained better grades than the
students in the class 9th A , therefore they have a higher level of knowledge.
However, the following aspects must be mentioned while analyzing the errors:
- Some students show uncertainty in identifying the right modal verb to fill in
the text, namely they either used the modal “Can” instead of ”Must” in
expressing probability in the present, or “can” instead of “Might” in expressing
possibility in the present.
For example:
E.g. He can be exhausted after such a long flight.
 He must be exhausted after such a long flight.
- There are students with a minimal vocabulary, who have difficulties when
they are asked to make a linguistic transfer from Romanian into English; this task
was the most difficult for them.
- There are also students who have difficulties related to spelling:
However, I must say that quite a lot of students prove the ability to establish
connections and context understanding.

Activities/ types of exercises

The experiment lasted for six weeks. During this period of time there were used
different types of activities in the two classes: the Experimental Class and the Control Class.

69
 Where there was once consensus on the “right” way to teach foreign languages, many
teachers now share the belief that a single right way does not exist. It is certainly true that no
comparative study has consistently demonstrated the superiority of one method over another for
all teachers, all students and all settings.
There is a large variety of methods in practice today, but since our experiment focused on
two methods- the Grammar-Translation Method and the Communicative Approach I will
refer only to them. Of course, how a method is manifest in the classroom will depend heavily on
the individual teacher’s interpretation of principles.
During the teaching process, I observed the students from both classes and recorded my
findings, which depended on several things I wanted to analyze:
1. Which method of teaching was more effective, or the most;
2. How many of the students from both classes will have learnt to express correctly
Possibility and Probability in English;
3. What are the difficulties they encountered during the learning process;
4. What are the most common errors they have made while learning Modal Verbs

6.2 The Grammar-Translation Method

It focuses on developing students’ appreciation of the target language’s literature as well
as teaching the language. Students are presented with the target language reading passages and
answer questions that follow.
The method is very much based on the written word and texts are widely in evidence. A
typical approach would be to present the rules of a particular item of grammar, illustrate its use
by including the item several times in a text, and practice using the item through writing
sentences and translating it into the mother tongue. The text is often accompanied by a
vocabulary list consisting of new lexical items used in the text together with the mother tongue
translation. Accurate use of language items is central to this approach.
Other activities include translating literary passages from one language into the other,
memorizing grammar rules and memorizing native-language equivalents of the target language
vocabulary. Class work is highly structured, with the teachers controlling all the activities.
Goals:
- To be able to read literature in target language;
- To learn grammar rules and vocabulary;
- To develop mental acuity.
- Roles: Teacher has authority; students follow instructions to learn what the
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 teacher knows.
Teaching/Learning Process:
- Students learn by translating from one language to another, often translating
reading passages in the target language to the native language;
- Grammar is usually learned deductively, on the basis of grammar rules and
examples. They learn paradigms such as verb conjugation, and they learn the
native equivalents of vocabulary words.
Interaction: student-teacher and student-student. Most interaction is teacher-student:
student initiated interaction; student-student interaction is minimal.
View of language; culture: Literary language is seen as superior to spoken language.
Aspects of Language; The Approach Emphasizes: Vocabulary, grammar emphasized;
reading, writing are primary skills. Pronunciation and other speaking or listening skills are not
emphasized.
Role of Students’ Native Language: Native language provides key to meanings in target
language and it is used freely in class.
Means for Evaluation: Tests require translation from native to target and target to native
language. They also require applying grammar rules and answering questions about foreign
culture.
Response to Students’ Errors: heavy emphasis placed on correct answers.
In the Control Class most activities were based on the concept of language acquisition
as habit formation which was reinforced by the teacher by means of controlled repetition and
manipulation. Both the lessons and the materials were teacher-centered. Grammar was taught
deductively. Presentation and study of grammar were followed by teacher’s controlled practice
in the form of exercises and drills.
1. The teacher writes down the grammar point on the board.
2. The teacher gives explanations of the rules or structures.
3. The teacher gives examples to illustrate the rules or structures introduced.
4. Practice: the teacher asks students to use the target language to make up sentences.
5. Practice: the teacher gets students to do some quite controlled exercises at sentence
level such as gap-fill exercises, sentence completion, matching, or translation.
Traditional teaching is concerned with the teacher being the controller of the learning
environment. Power and responsibility are held by the teacher and they play the role of instructor
(in the form of lectures) and decision maker (in regards to curriculum content and specific
outcomes). Language classrooms predicated on this approach are characterized by rote learning,
memorization, and repetition.
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 INTRODUCING MODAL VERBS USING GRAMMAR TRANSLATION
METHOD

To introduce generic modal verbs, the teacher can begin by writing on the board two
sentences that contain a modal verb having different meanings.
E.g. She must be at school at eight o’ clock. – Obligation
She must be at school now because the classes end at 12.- Probability
E.g. This can be his car. - Possibility
He can drive the car because he is 18. – Permission
E.g. She may be sleeping now. – Possibility
She may use the fax if she needs.- Permission
Then, the teacher explains the values of the modals „Must”: obligation, probability,
interdiction (must not) , „Can”: ability, possibility, permission and „May”: permission,
possibility.
The teacher puts down another examples with „Must” and „Can” and the students are
required to identify the values of each modal verb.
E.g. The Chinese pupils must wear a uniform at school.
He must be sleeping now. He always sleeps at 10 o’ clock.
He can swim very fast.
Can I use your phone?
He may be studying now. He often studies in the evening.
May I enter the classroom?
That black haired woman can’t be his mom. His mom has blonde hair.
This activity is designed to make the students acquire the different values of modal
verbs.

INTRODUCING “ MUST ” / “SHOULD”/ “ OUGHT TO” FOR STRONG

PROBABILITY

The teacher writes the following patterns and sample sentences on the blackboard:
 MUST + Present Infinitive → logical deduction, supposition about a present
action;
E.g. She must be happy. She has won the big prize.
 MUST + Perfect Infinitive → logical deduction, assumption about a past
action
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 E.g. His parents must have heard about his accident. They were rather upset.
Teacher highlights the two patterns and explains that the modal “MUST” is used to
show we are sure that something to be true or when we have reasons for our belief.
Eg. It’s getting dark. It must be quite late.
She looks happy. She must have heard the good news.
The teacher writes on the blackboard the following examples:
“It's ten o'clock. Doris must be in the office now. “
She continues explaining that the speaker is almost sure of that, because today is her
working day, and Doris is usually at her desk in the morning.)
“David should be at home after eight.”
The teacher explains that the speaker strongly expects him to be at home after eight,
because he usually comes back at eight.)
“Is everything ready? The guests ought to be here soon.”
The teacher underlines that the speaker strongly expects them to be here soon, because
he invited them to his party.

Activities for practicing strong probability:

I. Choose the most appropriate answer to express strong probability. Strong

probability means that you are about 90 percent sure.

1. It's 10:00 a.m. He ……… in the office now.

a) must be; b)may be; c) might be
2. They live in a very big house. They…………rich.
a) can be; b) must be; ; c) might be
3. He ………..home by now. He is always at home at this hour.
a) should be; b)must be; c) might be
4. I can't find my car keys. I……………. them in my office.
a) must leave; b) ought to have left; c) must have left
5. There is no one by the name Lisa here. You ………….. misdialed.
a) can have; b) must have; c) may have
6. She didn’t answer the telephone. She…………….. out.
a) can be; b) must have been; c) may be
7. When I got up this morning, the kitchen was spotless. Lily ………………..it before
she went to bed last night.
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 a) could have tidied; b) must have tidied; c) may have tidied
8. David …………………….happy. His girlfriend just agreed to marry him.
a) can be; b) must be; ; c) might be
9. John …………….all the biscuits! There are none left.
a) must eat; b) must be eating; ; c) must have eaten
10. Don’t call her now! It’s midnight. She………………………
a) must be sleeping; b) must sleep; c) may sleep

II. Put in 'must + infinitive' (for something that's likely about the present) or 'must +
have + past participle' (for something that's likely about the past):

1. Keiko always does really well on exams. She (study) a lot.

2. That woman drives a very expensive car. She (have) a lot of money.
3. You (practice) a lot before you gave your speech. It was really
great.
4. When Lizzie got home yesterday, there were flowers on the table. Her
husband (buy) them.
5. Where is my purse? I saw it earlier, so it (be) in this room.
6. Sarah couldn’t find her glasses. She thought she _ (leave) them at her
office.
7. It (be) cold outside. That man in the street is wearing a coat.
8. All my plants (be) dead! I forgot to water them before I left for my
holiday.
9. Susie is so late! She (miss) the train.
10. There’s rubbish all over my garden! A fox (be) in the bin.
11. Anna has a huge library in her house. She (love) books.
12. Oh no, I don’t have my keys! I (leave) them in the taxi.
13. When Lucy got home she found the ice cream had melted. It (be)
too hot in the car.
14. If you haven’t eaten all day, you (be) hungry.
15. Jimmy and Louisa (be) very tired. They have a new baby.
16. Where is Mary? She_________(be) at the library, as she often goes there at this
time.
17. The car in front is driving so slowly that I think they_______________(look) for
something.
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18. Why is that man looking around like that? He____________(be) lost.
19. This__________(be)John's house. This house has a red door and it's number 24,
just like he said.
20. He______________(leave) the house by now. The lights are off.

III Choose the correct modal to complete the sentence.

1. PERSON A: Many people were laughing throughout the movie.

PERSON B: It _______________________________________
A) maybe funny.
B) was funny.
C) must have been very funny.
2. PERSON A: I was raised in a large city.
PERSON B: That _________________________________________
A) must have been interesting.
B) must have to be interesting.
C) may have been interesting.
3. PERSON A: I played the piano in front of a large audience for the first time.
PERSON B: You _______________________________________________
A) must have been nervous.
B) should have been feeling nervous
C) felt nervous.
4. He's been training hard all winter; he _________________ for the tournament.
A) ought to be ready
B) need to be ready
C) should be ready
5. That ________________________ home by now. He has finished his workday.
A) ought to be
B) should be
C) can be
6. There is no one by the name Lisa here. You _____________ misdialed.
A) may have
B) must have
C) ought to have

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IV Translate into English using the right modal verb:

1. Probabil sunt la restaurant sa sãrbatoreasca ziua de nastere a fiului lor.

2. De cateva zile tuseste, strãnutã, are febrã si dureri de cap, precis ca are gripã.
3. Am trecut pe la el de mai multe ori in ultimele zile, dar nu mi-a rãspuns nimeni.
Probabil ca nu s-au intors incã din vacantã.
4. Probabil cã doarme la ora asta. El mereu se trezeste tarziu dimineata.
5. Acesta trebuie sã fie locul unde odinioarã era cel mai mare parc din oras.
6. Probabil cã nu a aflat ultimele noutãti.
7. Trebuie sa fi ajuns acasã.
8. Probabil ca eram incã in facultate când mi – am cumpãrat geaca asta.
9. Trebuie sa fi sosit pana acum. Avionul a aterizat acum o orã.
10. Probabil cã Tom va fi promovat. A muncit mult pentru asta.
11. Sigur nu a ajuns acasa. Toate luminile sunt stinse.
12. Trebuie sa fi invatat mult. A fost un concurs foarte greu.

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 INTRODUCING MODALS EXPRESSING POSSIBILITY

In the introductory Verbs-Modals probability lesson the teacher begins by introducing

the concept of possibility (i.e. might/may if less certain and is if certain). Then, she quantifies the
concept of certainty with probability (i.e. we use may/might when we are 0-50% certain).
The teacher provides different examples with MAY/ MIGHT/ / COULD expressing
possibility in the present and future.
Present: Where are my keys? They may be in the car.
Future: I may go to the party tonight.
Present: He might be away on holiday at the moment.
Present: He could be away on holiday.
Future: He could come tomorrow.
Then, she introduces the negative form of may/might and can’t/couldn’t (99% sure
something can’t/couldn’t occur).
Might not shows that something probably is not true.
These books might not be the teachers.
Might not shows that something probably will not happen in the future.
I might not go to the party tonight.
Could not shows that something is impossible.
This could not be the only book available.
She finalizes the lesson by introducing the pattern Modal Verb + Have + Past
Participle expressing past possibility and giving ample exercises mixing up all the possibility
modals covered including their negative forms:
He might have brought the cake.
She may have gone home early.
They could have worked late.

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 ACTIVITIES FOR PRACTISING POSSIBILITY

I Choose the right answer:

1. They ________________ be away for the weekend but I'm not sure.
a) may
b) can
2. He ________________ be French, judging by his accent.
a) can
b) could
3. They ________________ still be out!
a) may not
b) can't
4. With luck, tomorrow ________________ be a sunny day.
a) can
b) could
5.You ________________ be right but I'm going to check anyway.
a) might
b) can
6. The exam ________________ be easy. You never know.
a) might
b) can
7. It ________________ be true about a sauropod dinosaur living in Lake Telé in the
Congo. It's impossible.
a) can
b) can't
8. Dave reckons she's from The States but I think she ________________ be from
Scandinavia.
a) might
b) can
9. I ________________ go to the party but I'm not sure yet.
a) can
b) might
10. This ________________ be the right answer but we'll have to check with your
teacher to make sure.
a) can
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 b) could
11. She ________________ steal things from shops. She's rich and famous.
a) can't
b) could
12. I really think Real Madrid ________________ lose the final of the King's Cup.
a) could
b) can
13. She's been revising 10 hours a day for 3 weeks. She ________________ be
exhausted.
a) can
b)must
14. Nobody's answering. They ________________ be out.
a) can
b)must
15. He ________________ be from the USA. He doesn't speak English.
a) may
b) can't

II. Complete the sentences with MAY, MIGHT, COULD, MUST, CAN´T.
1. I ____________ go to London next summer.
2. There are some clouds. It ______________ rain.
3. I´m thinking of learning French. I ____________ take some lessons in the afternoons.
4. Be careful with that knife. You ______________ hurt yourself.
5. That man ______________ be the French teacher. He teaches Maths.
6. He __________________ be very intelligent and hard-working. He always gets good
marks.
7. Mary has a job interview. She _________________ get the job if she´s lucky.
8. Be careful. You _______________ drop all the books.
9. I´m not sure about Tom´s visit to Spain. It ______________ be in May or in June.
10. This book ______________ be a huge success. I really like it.
11. Jenny's engagement ring is enormous! It________________ have cost a fortune.
12. Please make sure to water my plants while I am gone. If they don't get enough
water, they___________ die.
13. Hiking the trail to the peak ____________be dangerous if you are not well prepared
for dramatic weather changes.
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 14. Ted's flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours. He ____________ be
exhausted after such a long flight.
15. I was reading the book last night before I went to bed. I never took it out of this
room. It ___________be lying around here somewhere

III. Rewrite these sentences so that they mean the same:

1. Perhaps I will go to the beach tomorrow
2. Maybe John is going to the concert.
3. It´s impossible for you to run a marathon. You aren´t fit.
4. If Peter is not at home, those are thieves in his house.
5. I have to finish my homework. It is possible that I will not finish it.
6. Take your umbrella. Perhaps it will rain.
7. It is possible that he was right but I don’t think so.
8. Perhaps she was out when you rang her up.
9. It is possible that I come home early.
10. I think she was angry with you.

IV. Make logical deductions for these situations:

E.g. She may have argued with her parents/ She might have broken up with her
boyfriend /She must be sad/ she can´t be happy
1. Mary has been crying:
She may…………
She might………..
She must…………
She can´t ……….
2. Peter is not in his bedroom:
He may………….
He could………..
He must………..
He can´t………..
3. Amy hasn’t answered the phone.
She may………….
She could…………
She must…………
She can´t…………
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V. Express possibility using” May” or “Might”:
1. It is possible that she will turn up any moment.
2. Perhaps she is with the other members of the club though I’m not sure.
3. I wonder what has become of him. I suppose he became a teacher as I knew he
was very good at English and French.
4. It is possible that it will be sunny and warm next week, but I rather doubt it
because it is still snowing in the mountains.
5. It is likely that they come up with a new issue.
6. They are likely to stop our project on the salvation of gorillas.
7. Perhaps she is the editor – in – chief of this wonderful animal encyclopedia.
8. It is possible that many migratory birds will die because of the sudden weather
changes.

VI. Translate into English using modal verbs expressing possibility:

1. E posibil ca familia lui sa nu stie despre accident.
2. Ce are aparatul de nu canta? Nu stiu, s-o fi stricat.
3. Poate il vedem sambata la petrecerea pe care o da Diana.
4. Au anuntat ca e posibil ca vremea sa se raceasca.
5. I-o fi pus vreo intrebare grea si nu a stiut sa raspunda.
6. Nu a raspuns nimeni. Poate dorm.
7. S-ar putea sa fie acasa, desi ma cam indoiesc. De obicei lucreaza pana tarziu in
laborator.
8. E posibil sa primim viza pana luni, dar nu suntem siguri.
9. Nu se poate ca profesorul sa fi fost multumit de acest raspuns.
10. De ce ai vorbit atat de tare? S-ar fi putut sa te auda cineva.

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 6.3 The Communicative Approach

Communicative Language Teaching is not a single, fixed teaching mode. Its core
content is "using language to learn" and "learning to use language" instead of absolutely
"learning language" and "learning about language". The final goal is to help students gain
enough communicative competence. In our class activities, students should and communicate
with each other so as to gain their foreign language knowledge and promote their communicative
ability by listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Learners who have developed skills in
'learning how to learn' are the most effective students.
1. The teacher uses contexts, situations, even visual aids to present the target language
they are going to teach.
2. Students do the task and work out the meaning, the form and the use of grammatical
items.
3. The teacher uses yes/no and simple questions to check students understanding of
form, meaning and use.
4. Controlled Practice: the teacher gets students to practise the target language in a
controlled way using, for example, repetition and substitution drills, word prompts, or picture
prompts. The language used is realistic and contextualized.
5. Less controlled/freer practice: The teacher provides students with opportunities to
use the new language in a freer, more creative way. The activities are personalized i.e. the
students get to use the new language (and previously learnt language) to talk about themselves,
their lives, their opinions and things they are interested in or care about.
In classrooms and textbooks in which the creativity principle is activated, learners are
given structured opportunities to use the language that they have been practicing in new and
unexpected ways. They are provided with the language that they will need to take part in genuine
communicative tasks, and they are given opportunities to respond appropriately in new situations
in the world outside the classroom.
Tasks allow learners to practise identifying the key grammar and vocabulary in real-
world texts and to develop the skills of reading, writing, speaking and listening in an integrated
way, just as in authentic communicative situations. Tasks also give learners practice in co-
operating with other learners and with their teachers, making creative use of the language they
have learned.
In communicative activities, the students should have a desire to communicate and
some kind of communicative purpose. If they have a purpose, their attention should be centered
on the context of what is being said or written and not the language form that is being used.
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 The Communicative Approach stresses the need to teach communicative competence as
opposed to linguistic competence, thus, functions are emphasized over forms.
Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communicative
activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning. The students will have to
deal with a variety of language, rather than just one grammatical construction. While the students
are engaged in the communicative activity, the teacher does not intervene (correcting mistakes,
insisting on the accuracy and asking for repetition).
Roles. The teacher facilitates students’ learning by meaning classroom activities, setting
up communicative situations.
Teaching/learning Process Activities are communicative- they represent an information
gap that needs to be filled. Speakers have choice of what to say and how to say it. They receive
feed-back from the listener that will verify that a purpose has been achieved. Authentic materials
are used. Students usually work in small groups.
Interaction Student-Teacher, Student-Student
The teacher initiates interactions between students and participates sometimes. Students
interact a great deal with each other in many configurations.
Dealing with feelings. Emphasis is on developing motivation to learn through
establishing meaningful, purposeful things to do with the target language. Individuality is
encouraged as well as cooperation with peers, which both contribute to sense of emotional
security with the target language.
View of language; Culture. Language is for communication. Linguistic competence
must be coupled with an ability to convey intended meaning appropriately in a different social
context. Culture is everyday lifestyle of native speakers of the target language. Non-verbal
behaviour is important.
Aspects of language. Functions are emphasized over forms, with simple forms learned
for each function at first, then more complex forms. Students work at discourse level. They work
on speaking, listening, reading and writing from the beginning. There is a consistent focus on
negociated meaning.
Means for evaluation. Informal evaluation takes place when teacher advises or
communicates. Formal evaluation is by means of an integrative test with a real communicative
function.
Response to students’ errors. Errors of form are considered natural. Students with
incomplete knowledge of language can still succeed as communicators.

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 INTRODUCING MODAL VERBS EXPRESSING POSSIBILITY AND PROBABILITY

First of all, the lesson began in a relaxing atmosphere, warming up with a game or a
joke told by the teacher. The new grammar, in our case “MUST/SHOULD for strong
probability” and “MAY/ MIGHT/ CAN/ COULD for possibility’”, was hidden in the context
and highlighted and focused upon once the context had been set.
The Teacher starts telling a real or imaginary story about her family and highlights the
degrees of certainty expressed by modal verbs.
E.g. My little boy’s favorite cartoon is Scooby Doo. It is broadcast at 10 o’
clock every day. Now it’s 10 o’ clock, so, he must be watching TV.
He sometimes likes eating popcorn while he watches TV.
He may be eating popcorn now.
Or: The teacher gets a toy out from her bag. She tells the students that her
little boy uses to hide toys in her beg. So, this must be his toy. Sometimes, he
forgets where he put them. He may have forgotten about it. Then, he looks for
them everywhere in the house. He may be looking for it now.
After using the discovery techniques the teacher explains the students that we use the
modals ”must/ should” to talk about a situation that is sure to be true and we use the modals “can
/may” when we talk about a situation that is possibly true. Then, the teacher introduces contexts
to highlight possibility and probability in the past.
E.g. I can’t find my glasses. I must have forgotten them at home. In fact, I am
sure I forgot them at home.
E.g. Where is Dan? Why didn’t he come to school?
He might have missed the bus.
He could have taken the wrong bus.
He may have felt ill.
He can’t have stayed home.
Then, the teacher gives the students the opportunity to practice the point in a controlled
exercise.
Students are asked to make deductions about what could have happened to Dan that he
missed the school.
E.g. He might have fallen asleep after the alarm clock rang.
He could have been sick.
He can’t have forgotten.

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COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES FOR PRACTISING POSSIBILITY AND PROBABILITY
IN ENGLISH
Don’t leave home without it! Intermediate - Upper intermediate

Here is a fun card game to help students practice the modal verbs of possibility ‘may’ and
‘might’.
Before class, make one copy of the cards for each group of four and cut as indicated.

85
Procedure:
Begin by eliciting things that the students take with them when they go away, e.g.
phone charger, keys, camera, etc. Ask the students to explain why they always take these items.
Explain that the students are going to play a card game to practice the modal verbs of
possibility ‘may’ and ‘might’.
Divide the students into groups of four.
Give each group a set of picture cards. Tell them to shuffle the cards and place them in a pile
face down on the desk.
Explain that on the cards are pictures of everyday objects that people often carry with them.
Write the following structure on the board:

I always carry this/these because I may/might...

Demonstrate the activity by thinking of an everyday object. Then make a sentence using the
structure on the board, e.g. I always carry this because I might need to buy something.
Students then try to guess the object (a wallet/money).
In their groups, students take it in turns to pick up a card and make a sentence using may or
might.
The first student to guess the object keeps the card.
If the group members are having problems guessing, the student can give more clues using the
structure on the board.
The student with the most cards at the end of the game is the winner.
As an extension, students can write a paragraph about their possible plans for the weekend
using may and might. Students then read out their paragraphs to the class.

Guess the Country – Modals of Deduction Practice – Advanced

The students are given a card with different countries around the world.

Romania England Italy France

Germany Russia Greece Turkey
Irland Belgium Spain China
Denmark Switzerland Austria Brazil

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 The teacher divides the class into two teams and names a leader who chooses one of the
countries in the card and gives hints about it. For each hint, the other team will try to make a true
statement with one of the guessing phrases below, e.g. “It could be France”. He continues giving
hints and they are guessing until they reach the point of saying “It must be...”. Don’t say if they
have guessed the actual correct country or not before that point, only say “That’s true” if the
statement they made is possible (including the level of certainty or uncertainty that they used).
Say “Actually,...”if there is something that makes that statement impossible, E.g. that he said
“They are famous for watches” and a student guesses “It may be Switzerland”.

Phrases for guessing: 100 % chance

- It must be…
- It’s almost certainly...
- It might/ may be…
- It could possibly be…
- it can’t be… 0 % chance
The team who guesses the country gets a point. The team with most points is the winner
one.
This is a useful activity for practicing different degrees of certainty.

Your weekend predictions and probability- Speaking Activity Intermediate -

Upper Intermediate
Make predictions about the things below happening during your partner’s weekend and
see whether they agree with your how likely that thing is to happen. This activity can be used
with intermediate students and is useful in creating communicative contexts.

Rain Snow
Meet an old friend in the street Spend more than 500$
Get drunk Lose something
Get caught in a traffic jam Watch a soap opera
Travel Take a plane
Commit a crime Work overtime
Meet a colleague Make a phone call
Lend money Win a competition
Study Become a member of Parliament
Get married Write a book
Be sent to prison Tell a lie
Give up your ambition Go to another country

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 Useful language:
 Will definitely
 Will almost certainly
 Will probably
 Might/ May
 Could
 Almost certainly won’t
 Won’t
 Definitely won’t

Don't leave home without it - Listening and Speaking Activity - Pre-intermediate /

Intermediate
It is a fun card game to encourage students in practicing the modal verbs of possibility
‘may’ and ‘might’ The activity starts b y eliciting things that the students take with them when
they go away, e.g. phone charger, keys, camera, pen, glasses, umbrella etc. Ask the students to
explain why they always take these items.
The teacher explains that the students are going to play a card game to practice the
modal verbs of possibility ‘may’ and ‘might’.
She divides the students into groups of four, gives each group a set of picture cards.
She tells them to shuffle the cards and place them in a pile face down on the desk. Then, she
explains that on the cards are pictures of everyday objects that people often carry with them. The
teacher writes the following structure on the board:
“I always carry this/these because I may/might...”
She demonstrates the activity by thinking of an everyday object. Then make a sentence
using the structure on the board.
E.g. I always carry this because I might need to buy something.
Students then try to guess the object (a wallet/money).
I always carry this/these because it might rain. (It’s an umbrella)
In their groups, students take it in turns to pick up a card and make a sentence using
“may“ or “might”. The first student to guess the object keeps the card. If the group members are
having problems guessing, the student can give more clues using the structure on the board. The
student with the most cards at the end of the game is the winner.
As an extension, students can write a paragraph about their possible plans for the
weekend using may and might. Students then read out their paragraphs to the class.

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 In the next 30 years...
Writing and Speaking Activity - Pre-intermediate - 30 Minutes\
In this compelling teaching activity, students use adverbs of probability and modal
verbs of possibility to talk about what changes they think will take place in the next 30 years.
The class is divided into four groups A, B, C and D, and each student is given a corresponding
worksheet. In their groups, students prepare questions about the future based on prompts on their
worksheet. Then students make groups of four by sitting together with people from the other
groups. They take it in turns to ask each other question. Students record their classmates' answers
on a chart. Every time a student answers a question, they use an adverb of probability, e.g. Yes,
definitely, Maybe, etc. When they have finished, the students return to their original groups and
collate their answers. Using adverbs of probability and modal verbs of possibility, each group
writes down and then presents their results to the whole class.
Student A - Homes and Lifestyles
Write questions based on the prompts below. When you have finished, add
three more questions of your own.
In the next 30 years... Student B Student C Student D
... robots - do all the housework?
Do you think robots will do all the housework?
... cars - use water instead of petrol?
... students - have robot teachers?
... clothes - look completely different?
... more people - be homeless?
... everyone - have videophones in their
homes?
... people - still shop in supermarkets?
Write your own question here
Write your own question here
Write your own question here

Take it in turns to ask and answer the questions and complete the chart with your
classmates' answers. When you respond to a classmate's question, use one of the following
replies and give a reason for your opinion.
Yes, definitely. Yes, probably. Maybe. No, probably not. No, definitely not.

Student B - Holidays and Free Time

Write questions based on the prompts below. When you have finished, add
three more questions of your own.
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 In the next 30 years... Student A Student C Student D
... all films - be in 3D?
Do you think all films will be in 3D?
... people - have more free time?
... people - still read books?
... computer games - be more popular
than television?
... people - have longer holidays?
... people - be able to go on holiday to
the moon?
... everyone - spend more time watching TV?
Write your own question here
Write your own question here
Write your own question here
Take it in turns to ask and answer the questions and complete the chart with your
classmates' answers. When you respond to a classmate's question, use one of the following
replies and give a reason for your opinion.
Yes, definitely. Yes, probably. Maybe. No, probably not. No, definitely not.

Figure it out! – Speaking and Writing Activity – Intermediate

The teacher asks the students to sit in a circle and hand them one “evidence” card each.
Then, she hands them a “deduction” card and asks them to write down on it what conclusion
they can draw from the evidence they were given.
When the students have written their sentences using modals of deduction, she asks
them to take the “evidence” cards and pass them twice to the right side. Then she tells them to
take their “deduction” card and pass them twice to the left side.
At this point, they should have an evidence card and a deduction card that don’t match.
Each student reads his/ her pair of cards and has fun.
After that, they have to find the right pairs again and see if there can be more than one
possible combination of cards.
EVIDENCE EVIDENCE
Your neighbor is leaving the house Passing by an office building, you see
running. everybody standing outside.

EVIDENCE EVIDENCE
You are not home and your best friend You are visiting an aunt. At her door,
leaves you 20 “call me” messages. there is an enormous pile of newspapers
that she hasn’t been picking up.

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 EVIDENCE EVIDENCE
On your way back home, you see lots of You walk into the library and all the
reporters and press cars in front of your books have disappeared.
house.

EVIDENCE EVIDENCE
On your way back home, you see lots of Your boss/teacher is wearing different
reporters and press cars in front of color socks.
your house.

DEDUCTION DEDUCTION

DEDUCTION DEDUCTION

DEDUCTION DEDUCTION

DEDUCTION DEDUCTION

Telepathy – Writing and Reading Activity – Intermediate

Before the activity starts, the teacher completes the sentences herself without showing
the class what she has written. She puts students into pairs to discuss which answers are the most
likely in the situation. Then she goes through the questions, keeping a score of how many correct
( or nearly correct) answers each pair guessed.
Try to guess how your teacher has completed these sentences.
You get a point for every answer which is the same as or similar to your teacher’s answer.
1. Your brother always phones you on your birthday.
Yesterday was your birthday but he didn’t phone you.
He can’t have ______________________________.
He must have ______________________________.

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 2. You are usually at the top of the class for spelling in your English lessons, but the
teacher tells you that all your answers are incorrect. You don’t believe it.
I can’t have _________________________________.
The teacher must have _______________________.
3. Your cousin told you she was going to marry a Hollywood actor.
She can’t have ______________________________.
She must have ______________________________.
4. Yesterday you ate seafood in a restaurant.
You’ve been sick all night and you feel terrible.
I must have _________________________________.
The ________ might not have _________________ .
5. Your English teacher gives you a list of fifty phrasal verbs to learn.
After only five minutes you say ‘I’ve finished!’ Your teacher says…
You can’t have ______________________________.
You must have ______________________________.
6. You invited some friends round to your home.
They’ve been to your house before and they know the way, but they have rather an old car.
They can’t have _______________________________.
Their car might have ___________________________.
7. You sent an email to a colleague to phone you urgently as soon as he got to the
office.
That was yesterday and your colleague still hasn’t called.
He might not have ____________________________.
He can’t have ________________________________.
8. The lights were on in Sally’s apartment but she didn’t answer the door when you
rang the doorbell.
She might have ______________________________.
She might not have __________________________.

Class Secrets – Intermediate/ Upper Intermediate

This is a speaking exercise for modal verbs used to express possibility, for intermediate
/ upper-intermediate classes. The exercise could be used to introduce the various forms and
tenses. In this case the learners would do the exercise without teacher drawing their attention to
the forms themselves, then analyse. This approach can help demystify an area learners often feel
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apprehensive about.
Teacher asks the class the question below (If there are learners who are already famous
in the class for a certain characteristic, the teacher can make reference to that instead):
'Who here do you think might be very sleepy today?'
Teacher asks learners to suggest people and explain their reasons why.
The students are given the worksheet and are asked to complete the worksheet, working
in pairs. When learners have finished completing the sentences, the teacher asks them to get up
and walk around to check their ideas with the people they have named.
The teacher encourages discussion, but monitors closely. This will help guide the next
steps if she is using this exercise to introduce this area.
To finish the exercise, she asks the class how successful they were in guessing and
elicits any interesting answers they want to share.
What do you think are the secrets of your class? Answer the questions below in pairs:

QUESTION NAME TRUE/FALSE

Who may not want to do this exercise?

Who might have got into trouble at work or school

this week?
Who could secretly be in love?

Who might not like English very much?

Who might think the teacher is very ?

(you decide what adjective!)
Who should be really happy today?

Who could have been working too hard recently?

Who may not have done their homework for ages?

Who might prefer to study another language, not

English? Which language might it be?
Who may have made an awful mistake recently?

Who might have an amazing secret?

Who must be a really good person to have as a

friend – or an enemy?

Now find each person and see if your ideas were right!

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 What may have happened? – Intermediate/ Upper Intermediate

The following sentences are about an escaped criminal. Rewrite them using a
modal from the above table, as in the example:

Example: It is almost certain that he left before breakfast.

He must have left before breakfast.

1. It is highly unlikely that he carried the gold by himself.

2. It seems quite likely that he had an accomplice.
3. He has almost certainly been spotted by the police by now.
4. It is possible but unlikely that he headed towards London.
5. It’s quite possible that he gave himself up.
6. It is almost certain that he realised how serious it was.
7. It is highly unlikely that he thought things through clearly.
8. Possibly he escaped by boat.
9. It’s quite likely that he made contact with his friends.
10. It is possible but unlikely that he died.

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 FINAL TEST

I. Fill in with the right modal verb: must, can’t, could, may, might.
10 x 0.4p – 4 points
1. Someone is knocking on the door. I’m sure it’s my brother – he promised to come
today.
Someone is knocking on the door. It………….be my brother – he promised to come today.
2. I'm sure he is here - I can see his car in front of the building.

He ……………be here. I can see his car in front of the building.

3. They're coming this week but I don't know which day.

They …………….. be coming tomorrow.

4. I'm not sure I'm going to pass the exam. I don't feel very confident.

I ……………..pass the exam. I don't feel very confident.

5. I've bought a lottery ticket. There's a chance I'll become a millionaire!

I …………… become a millionaire!

6. I'm sure she doesn't speak French very well - she's only lived in Paris for a few
weeks.

She ……….. speak French very well. She's only lived in Paris for a few weeks.
7. My key's not in my pocket or on my desk so I'm sure it's in the drawer.

My key's not in my pocket or on my desk so it …..………. be in the drawer.

8. Someone told me that Mark was in Mexico but I saw him yesterday so I'm sure he's
not abroad.

Mark …………… be abroad.

9. You got the job? That's great. I'm sure you're delighted.

You got the job? That's great. You ……………… be delighted.

10. I asked them to send the goods as soon as possible; we …………… receive them by
the end of the week if the post is fast.

II. Make logical deductions for these situations

4 x 0, 50 p – 2 points
1. Mary has been crying:
She may……
She might……

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 She must……
She can´t……

III. Rewrite the sentences so that they mean the same

5 x 0.4 p – 2 points
1. Perhaps I will go to the beach tomorrow
I………………. go to the beach tomorrow.
2. Maybe John is going to the concert.
John……………….. go to the concert.
3. It´s impossible for you to run a marathon. You aren´t fit.
You ………………………. run a marathon.
4. If Peter is not at home, those are thieves in his house.
Those ………………….. be thieves.
5. I have to finish my homework. It is possible that I will not finish it.
I ………………… finish my homework.

IV. Translate into english:

5 x 0.4 p – 2 points
1. Trebuie sã fie la şcoalã. Nu a terminat orele incã.
2. Probabil cã invaţã acum. Are un examen dificil mâine.
3. Sigur a terminat temele pânã acum.
4. Nu poate sã aibã 30 de ani. Ea este sigur mai micã decât mine.
5. Este posibil ca el sã fi ajuns la Bucureşti.

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 After the final assessment, the results were the following:
In class 9th A there were 10 students who obtained high grades (8 and 9), 10 students
obtained grades between 6 and 7 and 4 students obtained 5 and only 2 students got marks under
5. Therefore, we can say that they made relevant progress, improving their knowledge about
modal verbs expressing possibility and probability in English.
On the whole, the test revealed some weaknesses, as well as some typical mistakes
students have to overcome in order to increase their competence in the use of modal verbs.
According to the graph, it can be noticed that half of the students in class 9th A have
an intermediate level of knowledge.10 out of 26 students obtained high grades, but in the
diagnosis test only 3 obtained these grades. At the same time, 6 students obtained grades under 6
while at the diagnosis test 11 students obtained grades of 4 and 5. The results of the final test for
the students in class 9th A can be seen in the following table:

FINAL TEST 9th A

Table 4
Grades obtained Number of students
4 2
5 4
6 4
7 6
8 6
9 4

Distribution of students in the 9th A Class according to the grades obtained

Graph 4

Grades obtained
7
6
5
4
3 Grades obtained
2
1
0
Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade6 Grade7 Grade 8 Grade 9

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 After evaluating the final papers of the control class, a low progress can be seen in their
results as it follows in the Table 4:

Table 5 FINAL TEST 9th B

Grades obtained Number of students
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 4

Distribution of students in the 9th A and 9th B Classes according to the grades obtained
Graph 5

Comparative Analysis
Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9

7
6 6
6
5
4 4 4 4
4
2

0
Class 9th A
Class 9th B

6.4 ANALYSIS OF THE EXPERIMENT

In conclusion, several explanations can be formulated concerning the results of both

classes. The difference between the results obtained in the final test with the class 9th A, the
Experimental Class, and the results obtained in the initial test is much more significant than the
progress made by the students in the class 9th B, the Control Class, because of the following:
- The students in class 9th A are highly motivated, they show acquisitiveness, they

98
really want to learn and they have powerful reasons for doing so, including the fear of failure;
- I encouraged the students to do extra work, to practise language in their free time, to
take responsibility for their own learning;
- The class 9th A is more engaged with the process of learning than the other class,
proving willingness to listen, to experiment, to ask questions, to think about how to learn;
- I used modern, interactive methods such as discovery techniques, role-play, problem
solving, debates and different games;
- As for the class management, I adopted group-work and pairwork; the strategy of
peer help and teaching was used to help weaker students- they worked together, explaining
things or providing good models of language in writing;
- The atmosphere in the classroom was a relaxing one.
No matter what the students’ level is, there are some grammatical errors that they make
again and again. Sometimes students tend to ignore the grammar rule and use the English
language as they hear it on TV. However strange it may seem the more teachers insist on the
rules, the more mistakes students make. New vocabulary and language structures should be
taught actively and interactively because students absorb new notions without paying much
attention to rules. In spite of presenting the general characteristics, meanings and uses of the
conditional structures, students still make mistakes because they have become part of their
knowledge and were stored as accurate. Even at higher levels, students still make mistakes,
especially in spoken English, but identify and correct the mistakes themselves, sometimes
without any intervention from the teacher. Identifying the error may not be enough in order to
see and understand the correct form, but it definitely is an important step in improving students'
writing and speaking skills.
Classes should be more student-centered, while the teachers should be more flexible,
more creative with the materials they bring to class. Therefore, with the modern audio and video
aids, the teacher can create the impression of real life conversation in class, this way students
would be more motivated to take the lead in communication. Although, alternative textbooks
offer a large variety of communicative activities, teachers often tend to use them for reading and
writing traditional exercises which usually become boring and reduce students’ speaking in time.
As a result, students find themselves simply able to read and solve drills, but unable to
communicate in English.
On the other hand, communicative teaching enables students to feel confident when
they use language, it gives them real opportunities to express themselves in English. The use of
modern techniques and strategies, such as: role-play, discovery techniques, interview,
simulations, as well as the use of authentic resources- newspaper and magazine articles, poems,
99
songs, manuals, recipes, videos, maps, pictures, together with realia, make learning English more
interesting and motivating because it is dictated by pupils’ needs and interests, thus, it is much
more pupil-oriented than other approaches.

Communicative Approach versus Grammar-translation method

Although the grammar-translation method is outdated, students accustomed to this

method may still get benefit from it. Sometimes appropriate grammar analysis is essential,
especially for beginners. Restricted utilization of translation from or to the target language is a
necessary part of teaching. Vocabulary work and pattern drills are also ways of getting the
student familiar with sentence structures. This information helps learners acquire linguistic
competence.
In teaching grammar, in case there are no authentic available materials, it is important to
make the language situations and text as realistic as possible. Immediately after providing
students with adequate explanations of grammar functions, the teacher can give them suitable
situations that encourage them to effectively use the rules in real-life communication.

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 CONCLUSIONS

I would like to finish my work briefly revising its aims, stages and results so as to be
able not only to formulate the final conclusions, but also to suggest a few guidelines for further
practice and research. The theme of the study was suggested by an observation made during the
process of teaching, namely the students do not master the use of Modal Verbs.
The conclusions of the experiment in which intermediate students were exposed to both
a traditional and a modern approach in teaching the Modal Verbs expressing Possibility and
Probability emphasize the idea that as long as students do what they like while interacting in life
oriented experiences they are motivated and perform accordingly.
I will make a short presentation of strong and weak points in using traditional and
modern methods:

Traditional method
The Traditional Method is a cross lingual technique used in language learning.
Grammar is given more importance in this method. Learners understand the grammar rules
better. The exercises in this method put the learner into an active problem-solving situation. In
the schools, the teachers often follow the traditional method of translation technique. It is an easy
way to explain things. Reading and writing are the major focus. Vocabulary selection is based
solely on the text used. The words are introduced through bilingual word lists dictionary and
memorization. The grammar rules are presented.
This Traditional Method has its own drawbacks.
1. It fails to produce oral fluency in English.
2. Students find the method boring as they have to memorize words and rules.
3. It does not develop confidence among the learners.
4. The use of L1 is more predominant in the class.
5. No link between the text words and real life situations.
6. The learner is unable to use English in day to day Communication
7. This method focuses only in reading and writing. Little attention is paid to speaking.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

CLT is a functional approach to language learning whose main aim is to develop the
communicative competency of the learner. His need of understanding and expressing in the L2
(The language acquired through learning) is the main focus of this method.
Objectives of CLT:
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 1. To produce effective communicative competency in learners.
2. The focus is on meanings and functions of the language.
3. More importance on the learner and his learning.
4. Language is acquired in CLT.
5. The teacher is a facilitator in language acquisitions.
6. Involve the learner in the learning process thro’ problem solving, tasks, participation
and interaction.
7. All the four LSRW skills are equally treated.

Demerits:
1. No single uniform method is prescribed
2. Different techniques are followed in the process of learning
3. Several roles are assigned to the teachers.
The main advantages of CLT are that language is used for a genuine purpose meaning
that real communication should take place, and that at the stage where the learners are preparing
their report for the whole class, they are forced to consider language form in general rather than
concentrating on a single form (as in the Traditional model). Whereas the aim of the Traditional
model is to lead from accuracy to fluency, the aim of Communicative Teaching is to integrate all
four skills and to move from fluency to accuracy plus fluency. The range of tasks available offers
a great deal of flexibility in this model and should lead to more motivating activities for the
learners. Unlike a Traditional approach, the students are free of language control. They must use
all their language resources rather than just practising one pre-selected item.
A natural context is developed from the students' experiences with the language that is
personalized and relevant to them. With the traditional method it is necessary to create contexts
in which to present the language and sometimes they can be very unnatural.
The students will have a much more varied exposure to language with the
Communicative Method. They will be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases, collocations
and patterns as well as language forms.
The language explored arises from the students' needs. This need dictates what will be
covered in the lesson rather than a decision made by the teacher or the coursebook.
Learners who are used to a more traditional approach based on a grammatical syllabus
may find it difficult to come to terms with the apparent randomness of the CLT, but if the
Communicative Teaching is integrated with a systematic approach to grammar and lexis, the
outcome can be a comprehensive, all-round approach that can be adapted to meet the needs of all
learners.
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 The language teaching materials which are referred to as functional, notional or
communicative are often interpreted as signaling the death of grammatical mastery as a primary
goal of language teaching. This interpretation has led to opposing reactions. Those teachers who
felt bored or uncomfortable with the teaching of structure have embraced the functional approach
because of its emphasis on “conversations” while those with a strong grammatical orientation
have rejected it because they believe that functional syllabi have replaced functional sequence
with an arbitrary resentment of conversational or situational topics, which they fear will never
lead to competence in the language. Both groups have misunderstood the organization and intend
of the functional communicative approach.
The functional communicative approach does not deny the importance of mastery of the
grammatical system of the language, nor it does it abandon a systematic development of
structural mastery in the presentation of materials.
Grammatical form is taught, not as end in itself, but as means of carrying out
communicative intent. This change emphasis has sometimes obscured the concern for
grammatical aspects in the language because traditional concepts of grammatical preposition no
longer apply.
Structural patterns that are normally considered “advanced” because of relative
complexity are often presented at the beginning of functional-communicative courses because
they are used to perform the communicative function being presented.
Apparently complex and unattractive, teaching grammar, especially Modal Verbs, in a
communicative way proves to be a challenging and rewarding experience.
Originally our work was meant to have a twofold value: both to demonstrate the
advantages of communicative teaching on students’ communicative competence and to be a
good scientific and methodological aid resource for all those interested in teaching modal verbs
successfully.
Now, in the end, taking into account students’ good command of modals in
communication as well as their good results in oral and written examination clearly show that we
have finally reached the target of our work.

103
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 Electronic Resources:

http://busyteacher.org/7763-10-teacher-tested-tricks-to-teach-modal-verbs.html
https://elt.oup.com/student/headway/int/grammar/unit11/hwy_int_unit09_2?cc=us&selLanguage
=en
.https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/certain-probable-
or-possible
http://speakspeak.com/english-grammar-exercises/intermediate/intermediate-grammar-exercis
modal-verbs-for-present-probability-must-cant-could-may-might
https://tefltastic.wordpress.com/worksheets/grammar/modals/probability-possibility/
http://usefulenglish.ru/grammar/modal-verbs-exercise-five
http://usefulenglish.ru/grammar/modal-verbs-exercise-six
http://www.grammaring.com/modals-to-express-possibility-may-might-can-could.
https://www.off2class.com/may-might-could-must/
http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/modal-verbs-of-probability.html
http://www.teach-this.com/resources/grammar/modal-verbs-possibility-certainty-necessity

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