®

Lovibond Colour Measurement

Tintometer Group
®

Understanding Colour
Communication

www.lovibondcolour.com
A Guide to Understanding
Colour Communication
Contents Page

What is Colour? 1

Communication of Colour 1

How to Describe Colour 2

Hue
Chroma
Lightness

Ways to Measure Colour 3

Reflected Light 4
Spherical
0º:45º (or 45º:0º)
Multi-Angle
Non-Contact
Tristimulus Colorimeter

Transmitted Light 7
Regular
Diffuse

Visual Comparators vs. Automatic Measurements 8

Colour Consistency 9

Accuracy of Measurements 10
Correct Record Keeping 11

The Supply Chain 11

Methods of Quantifying Colour – Colour Scales and Spaces 12

Lovibond® RYBN Colour
Neutral Filters
Colour Nomenclature
The Munsell Scale
CIE Colour Systems
CIE XYZ
Expressing Colour Uniformly
CIELAB L*a*b*
CIELAB L*C*h

Metamerism 18

Colour Differences, Notation and Tolerancing 19

Delta CIELAB L*a*b* and CIELAB L*C*h
Delta (Δ) E* colour difference
CIE Colour Space Notation
Visual Colour and Tolerancing
Delta E* Tolerancing
CIELAB L*a*b* Tolerancing
CIELAB L*C*h Tolerancing
CMC Tolerancing
CIE2000 Tolerancing
Choosing the Right Tolerance

Colour Scales 24
ASTM Colour (ASTM D 1500, ASTM D 6045, ISO 2049, IP196)
EBC (European Brewing Convention)
European Pharmacopoeia (EP) Colour
Gardner Colour (ASTM D 1544, ASTM D 6166, AOCS Td 1a, MS 817 Part 10)
Platinum-Cobalt/Hazen/APHA Colour (ASTM D 1209)
Saybolt Colour (ASTM D 156, ASTM 6045)
White and Yellow Indices
What is Colour?
Colour is a visual, perceptual property in The visible colour spectrum runs from blue
human beings. through to red wavelengths, approximately
360-720 nm.
Colour is derived from the signals produced
by three different types of light sensitive Three things are necessary to see colour:
cell in the eye that respond to the spectrum
of light (distribution of light energy versus • A source of light
wavelength). In our environment, materials • An object
are coloured depending on the wavelengths • An observer/processor
of light they reflect or transmit.

Communication of Colour
How would you describe the colour of The solution to this dilemma is an instrument
this rose? Would you say it’s yellow, lemon that explicitly identifies a colour by measuring
yellow or maybe a bright canary yellow? it and comparing the colour to standards
completely objectively and accurately each
Each person verbally describes and hence and every time. That is, an instrument that
defines the colour of an object differently. differentiates a colour from all others and
assigns it a numeric value.
As a result, objectively communicating
a particular colour to someone without Before we measure a colour we need to
some type of physical standard is difficult. establish a means of describing it.
Also describing in words the precise colour
difference between two objects is very
challenging.

Your perceptions and interpretations of

colour and colour comparisons are highly
subjective. Eye fatigue, age and other
physiological factors can influence your
colour perception.

But even without such physical considerations,

each observer interprets colour based on
their personal perspective, feelings, beliefs
and expectations. For example you may
convince yourself that a certain colour
match is within tolerance if you are under
pressure to declare a colour match
as acceptable.

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Less Chroma More

Yellow

a
m n)
Green Red
h ro io
C r at
u
at
(S

Blue

Figure 1: Hue Figure 2: Chromaticity

How to describe Colour?

Colour is typically described utilising three Chroma
dimensions: hue, chroma and lightness.
By describing a colour using these three Chroma describes the vividness or dullness
attributes, you can accurately identify a of a colour – in other words, how close
particular colour and distinguish it from the colour is to either grey or the pure hue.
any other. For example, think of the appearance of a
tomato and a radish. The red of the tomato
is vivid, while the radish appears duller.
Hue
When asked to identify the colour of an Figure 2 shows how chroma changes as
object, you’ll most likely speak first of its we move from the centre to the perimeter.
hue. Quite simply, hue is how we perceive Colours in the centre appear grey (dull) and
an object’s colour – red, orange, green, they become more saturated (vivid) as we
blue, etc. move toward the perimeter. Chroma also
is also known as saturation.
The colour wheel in Figure 1 shows the
continuum of colour from one hue to the
next. As the wheel illustrates, if you were
to mix blue and green paints, you would
get blue-green. Add yellow to green for
yellow-green, and so on.

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 White
Lightness
The luminous intensity of a colour can be
described by its lightness. Colours can be
classified as light or dark when comparing
their lightness.

Lightness
For example, when a tomato and a radish
are placed side by side, the red of the tomato
appears to be much lighter. In contrast, the
radish has a darker red lightness. In Figure 3,
the lightness dimension is represented on
the vertical axis.
Black

Figure 3: Lightness

Ways to Measure Colour

Today, colorimeters, spectrophotometers A blue ball reflects only blue wavelengths.
and spectrophotometric colorimeters A glass of apple juice transmits green and
(sometimes referred to as spectro-colorimeters) yellow wavelengths. Fresh snow reflects
are the most commonly used instruments for most of the light that interacts with it and
measuring colour worldwide. hence appears white. Black is due to the
absence of reflected light.
These technologies measure the proportion
of reflected or transmitted light at many
points in the visible spectrum. The points
can be plotted graphically to form a spectral
curve. Since the spectral curve of each colour
is completely unique, like a signature or
fingerprint, the curve is an excellent tool for
identifying, specifying and matching colour.

When an object interacts with light, some

of the wavelengths of light are absorbed
and others are reflected or transmitted (in
the case of a coloured but clear liquid).
Therefore a red ball absorbs all wavelengths
of light except for those in the red part of
the spectrum, which it reflects.

Figure 4: Spectral curve from a measured sample

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Due to the numerous potential applications The first consideration is whether the colour
for colour measurement and the wide being measured is from light being reflected
range of different types of materials which from a sample or light being transmitted
need to be tested, there are many diverse through a sample.
instrumental options which have been
optimised for specific purposes.

Reflected Light
Reflected light can be measured in a shiny. A low Gloss surface will reflect less
number of different ways: different light and appear matt.
instrument geometries affect the reading
obtained but can be easily matched to The light that is not reflected in a Specular
your application. direction, but scattered in many directions,
is called Diffuse reflectance.
The different instrument geometries do,
however, share common elements. If two samples of identically coloured plastic,
Light from a controlled light source and a that differ only in surface effect (i.e. one
sensitive light detector are always utilised. shiny, the other matt), are measured using
the same instrument in SCI and SCE modes
respectively, the results will differ as follows.
Sphere Geometry
Instruments with sphere geometry have In SCE mode, the Specular reflectance is
played a major role in colour quality control excluded from the measurement and only
systems for over 50 years. The sphere has a the diffuse reflectance is measured.
white inner surface and a small circular This produces a colour evaluation which
aperture, against which the sample is placed correlates to the way the observer sees the
to allow colour measurement. Additional colour of an object.
apertures allow light to enter and leave the
sphere at defined angles. In SCI mode, the Specular reflectance is
included with the diffuse reflectance during
Specular Component Included the measurement process. This type of colour
evaluation measures the total appearance
(SCI) and Specular Component independent of surface conditions.
Excluded (SCE)
The Specular Component is the component Therefore the two samples of plastic should
of light that is reflected from a surface at an provide values that are very similar when
angle equal to the incident angle of the measured in the SCI mode and values that
illumination. A high Gloss surface will reflect show a colour difference in the SCE mode.
more light into the Specular direction (i.e. The difference between the two indicates
act like a mirror) and appear smooth and the effect of the gloss on appearance.

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Most sphere-based instruments use an is the angle of the detector – a 0° angle
angle close to the perpendicular, usually 8°, being perpendicular to the surface of the
to give the capability of including or excluding sample being measured.
the Specular reflectance while making a
measurement. By opening a small port in The detector position can be at a single
the sphere, the Specular component can point in a plane at 45°, or a number of
detectors can be positioned at discrete points
around a circumference to approximate an
annular ring.

No instrument “sees” colour more like the

human eye than that with 0°:45° geometry.
This is because a viewer always tries to
exclude the Specular Component or Specular
Reflectance when judging colour. When we
look at pictures in a glossy magazine for
example, we usually hold the magazine
such that the specular light does not reflect
back to the eye.

Sphere

be excluded from the measurement. This

is because light that would be reflected at
an equal angle (on the opposite side of the
perpendicular) to the sample viewing port is
lost when the Specular port is open and is
therefore not included in any measurement.
In some instruments the same effect is
achieved by using a light trap instead of an
open port.

0°:45° (or 45°:0°) Geometry

0° / 45°
The angles in this type of instrument refer
to the relative angles of the detector and A 0°:45° instrument will remove specular
illuminating light source in the instrument. light from the measurement and measure
The first angle is the angle of the incident the appearance of the sample as the human
light from the light source, and the second eye would see it.

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Multi-Angle measured in their natural, unaltered state,

as the eye sees the sample, by using non-
In the past 20 years or so, car makers have contact colour measurement technology.
experimented with special effect colours.
They use special additives such as mica, Non Contact spectrophotometers are designed
pearlescent materials, ground-up seashells, for the colour measurement of many types
microscopically coated coloured pigments of wet and dry samples including powders,
and interference pigments to produce pastes, gels, plastics and paints.
different colours at different angles of view.
Tristimulus Colorimeter
Large and expensive Goniometers can be
used to measure these colours although Tristimulus Colorimeters are not the same
battery-powered, hand-held, multi-angle as spectrophotometers. They are tristimulus
instruments are also available and are now (three-channel) devices that make use of red,
used by most auto manufacturers and their green and blue filters to emulate the response
supply chains worldwide. of the human eye to light and colour.

Multi-angle NC45

Non-Contact
Products that normally require protection
from physical contact with measurement
apertures, such as liquids and pastes, or in
which the surface appearance is changed by
the presentation method, such as when the
sample is pressed behind glass, can now be

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Transmitted Light
Transmitted light can be measured by Diffuse
analyzing the light from a controlled light
source that is passed through the sample This geometry uses a sphere. Either the
using a suitable detector. sample is illuminated by a parallel beam
of light with a sphere used to collect the
Regular Geometry light transmitted through the sample or
the sphere is used to illuminate the sample
This is the most common transmittance diffusely with measurement of the light
geometry where the sample is placed into coming perpendicularly through the sample.
a parallel beam of light between the light
source and the detector system. This is the way translucent samples and
those that scatter light, giving a cloudy
For meaningful results, the sample should or fuzzy image of objects viewed through
give a sharp image when looking through them, should be measured. For example;
it at other objects. Any level of turbidity will fruit juice is frequently measured using
seriously interfere with the accuracy of this method.
the colour readings using regular
transmitted light.

PFXi

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Visual Comparators vs. Automatic Measurements

Ensuring colour accuracy every time is critical With operators inexperienced in this area,
to manufacture products of a consistent, visual comparison can be more time consuming
high quality. and less precise than the fast automatic
instruments. Visual agreement between
Reliable and repeatable colour test results are different operators at one site or multiple
the key to ensuring final product quality and sites cannot be guaranteed.
also to minimise production costs. Simplicity
of operation helps to reduce error and The skill/experience of operators, degree of
increase productivity. acceptable error, sample preparation time,
scale choice and required scale resolution
The fundamental difference between should be carefully considered before making
the Lovibond® Visual and Automatic a decision on which instrument to purchase.
ranges is that the Visual instruments are
based on subjective, visual comparison In addition, although Visual systems are of
methods (relying to a high degree on the a lower initial cost, their limitations should
judgment and skill of the operator and be taken into account when selecting the
hence their perspective, feelings, beliefs correct instrument.
and expectations) while the Automatic
ranges rely on automatic, non-subjective
measurements and are, therefore, completely
unaffected by the judgment of the operator.

EComparator series

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Colour Consistency
When comparing Visual (subjective) to For example, with Lovibond® RYBN Colour,
Automatic (non-subjective) colour assessment, it is advisable that the depth of colour should
the fundamental differences between these never be greater than that which may be
methods need to be considered. matched by a total of 20 Lovibond® units.
This is because slight differences are most
Basic steps can be taken to reduce colour
easily perceived in intensities ranging between
communication problems:
approximately 3 and 10 units of the
• Do you have a systematic, consistent and predominant colour. To clarify:
reliable method for sample preparation
and presentation? (i) using a 5.25” cell, a sample gives R 1.7,
Y 8, B 0 and N 0.1 = 9.8 in total: the
For example: When measuring liquids are you
path-length used is therefore correct.
using comparable, clean, cells?
(ii) using a 5.25” cell a sample gives R 5.7,
Y 31, B 0 and N 0.1 = 36.8 in total: the
path-length used is therefore incorrect
since the Y is high. Use of a 1 “cell should
be considered.

The choice of cell path-length will impact

on accuracy. Unless working to a particular
standard or specification, the optical path-
length of the cell used should be related to
the colour intensity of the sample.
Figure 5 – Top View
When comparing with other measurements,
Figure 5 shows the same liquid sample viewed it is necessary to check that the cell path-
across a range of cell path-lengths. Figure 6 length and type (Optical Glass, Borosilicate
shows that, as path-length changes, the or Plastic) are identical and the cells used are
perceived colour of the samples will change clean and undamaged.
significantly. The results of any visual or
automatic methods would be influenced by • Confirm the correct colour scale is selected
this difference. on the Automatic instrument. With CIE
L*a*b*, other settings such as light source
and observer (10° or 2°) also need to be
defined and communicated.

Historically, a number of scales are available

that report Red & Yellow values. This is a
common source of error. For example; a
standard Model F reports Lovibond® Red,
Yellow, Blue and Neutral units (RYBN).
An AF710 reports AOCS Tintometer® in
terms of Red & Yellow (RY). An Automatic
instrument may be configured to display
Figure 6 – Front View both RYBN and RY.
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Accuracy of Measurements
For peace of mind in production and 3) Solid Reference Standards:
quality control, it is crucial that the correct High quality physical standards with known
performance of instruments can easily values are used to check that a Lovibond®
be confirmed. instrument is reporting the correct results.
There are different options available:
Web based solutions are becoming increasingly
popular. They allow remote testing and
1) Liquid Reference Standards:
calibration of automatic instruments using
High quality liquid samples with known
conformance standards.
values are used to check that an instrument
is reporting the correct measurements.
Bespoke reference liquid standards and
The range of Lovibond® colour reference
conformance filters can be requested and
standards includes AOCS-Tintometer®,
the Tintometer® Group always endeavours
ASTM, Gardner, Lovibond® RYBN, Pt-Co/
to match the requested value as closely
Hazen/ APHA and Saybolt Colour. Each
as possible.
standard is shipped with a 12-month
guarantee of colour stability.
On occasion, it may not be possible to match
the requested value exactly. The value
2) Glass Filters: Conformance filter-sets
achieved and the expected performance
allow quick and simple conformance checks
tolerances will, of course, always be reported.
on Lovibond® instruments. Each filter set is
supplied with a Certificate of Conformity
that confirms that they have been
manufactured under the control of the ISO
9001: 2000 Quality Management System.

Glass Conformance Filters

Liquid Reference Samples

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Correct Record Keeping
Colour Consistency is simple to achieve if • Any comments on condition of sample
care is taken to eliminate possible causes of (e.g. turbid or dirty etc)
variation between instruments. Measurement • Path-length of optical cell
procedures should be documented, • Colour space or colour scale used
circulated and complied with. • Light source and observer (if using
CIE systems)
Ideally, the following information should be • Individual colour values
recorded for each colour measurement: • Any other information required by
the organisation
• Instrument model used • Any additional comments relevant to the
• Serial number (if multiple instruments colour match
are available)
• Date Special care should be taken with regards to
• Time (if multiple samples are measured colour scales utilising Red and Yellow values
on the same day) to avoid miscommunication.
• Name of observer/operator
• Description of sample Instruments should be maintained correctly
• Sample reference number (if relevant) and regularly checked using third party
• Temperature of sample if heated standards.

The Supply Chain

Defining the colour of a product and ensuring Reliable and repeatable colour test results
colour accuracy every time is critical to long- are the key to ensuring final product quality,
term success and accurate communication and also to minimising production costs.
within a supply chain. Speed of analysis can also be vital for
efficient process control. Simplicity of
The clear and correct description of colour operation helps to reduce error and
standards and tolerances is critical when: increase productivity.

• Specifying materials when sourcing

• Communicating colour within the wider
supply chain
• Inspecting incoming materials
• Conducting continual production
Quality Control
• Inspecting final/outgoing products
• Guaranteeing compliance with National
and International Standards

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Methods of Quantifying Colour –

Colour Scales and Spaces
There are many different types of colour neutral glasses, that graduate from de-
systems available. Some are applicable saturated to fully saturated. Sample colours
to any type of sample, whereas some are are matched by a suitable combination of
specific to opaque materials or transparent the three primary colours together with
materials. The use of specific colour scales neutral filters, resulting in a set of Lovibond®
or parameters varies from one industry RYBN units that define the colour.
to another depending on standards and
requirements. Since several million combinations are
available, it is possible to match the colour
Lovibond® RYBN Colour of almost any sample. The scale is particularly
popular for measuring the colour of
The Lovibond® RYBN colour scale is oils and fats, chemicals, pharmaceuticals
optimised for the colour measurement and syrups. After more than a century,
of clear (but coloured) liquids. In the 1890’s, the Tintometer® Group still manufactures
Joseph Lovibond, the founder of The and grades the glass filters used for visual
Tintometer Ltd, developed the original colour measurement in terms of Lovibond®
Lovibond® Scale, based on a calibrated units. It is this unparalleled knowledge and
series of red, yellow, blue and neutral glasses. experience that has enabled the company
to accurately replicate the scale in its
The Lovibond® Scale is based on 84 automatic instruments.
calibrated glass colour standards of different
densities of magenta (red), yellow, blue and

Model F with Racks

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The scale quoted by others as the These six terms are used in combination
Lovibond® scale does not guarantee with “bright” and “dull”.
validated Lovibond® Colour readings and
may not conform to any visual instrument A sample is described as being bright when
for Lovibond® Colour. the nearest possible match appears dull in
comparison. When this occurs, neutral
Neutral Filters values are introduced and recorded as
sample brightness.
If, for any reason, an operator alters the
method of use or changes any convention, A sample is described as being dull when
it is important that they should give details red, yellow and blue are required to make
when recording results, otherwise confusion a match. When this occurs, the colour with
could ensue. For example, observers employ the lowest value is expressed as dullness.
neutral filters to dull a bright sample but
omit to report the fact. In other cases they
The Munsell Scale
endeavour to make the best possible match
without stating neutral values although they In 1905, artist Albert H. Munsell originated
were needed, or use different colours in a colour order system – or colour scale –
combination only in a fixed ratio according which is still used today. The Munsell System
to some arbitrary convention. of Colour Notation is significant from a
historical perspective because it is based on
Colour Nomenclature human perception. Moreover, it was devised
before instrumentation was available for
The Lovibond® Scale provides its own simple measuring and specifying colour. The Munsell
language of colour which can fully describe System assigns numerical values to three
the appearance of any colour in the least properties of colour known as Munsell
possible number of words and figures to Hue, Munsell Value and Munsell Chroma.
avoid language difficulties. For convenience Adjacent colour samples in the system
of laboratory records, or in communicating represent equal intervals of visual perception.
readings between laboratories, many
industries record their results on a three The model in Figure 7 depicts the Munsell
colour basis, quoting the Red, Yellow and Colour Tree which is a representation of the
Blue instrumental values. Munsell Book of Color which provides physical
samples for judging visual colour. Today’s
Some industries find it more convenient to colour systems rely on instruments that utilise
simplify these terms by using the six divisions mathematics to help us judge colour.
of the spectrum.
As noted earlier, there are three things
Red necessary to see colour:
Orange – combination of red and yellow.
Yellow • A source of light (also known as the illuminant)
Green – combination of yellow and blue. • An object (also known as the sample)
Blue • An observer/processor
Violet – combination of red and blue.

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CIE Colour Systems Colours can be quantified using these

colour spaces by different calculations based
The CIE, or Commission Internationale de upon specification of light source type and
l’Eclairage (translated as the International defining ‘standardised’ observers (these two
Commission on Illumination), is the body parameters are accounted for using different
responsible for international recommendations numerical data).
for photometry and colorimetry. In 1931, the
CIE first recommended a colour measurement Instruments quantify colour by gathering
system by specifying the light source (or and filtering the wavelengths of light
illuminant), the observer and the methodology transmitted through, or reflected from, an
used to derive values that describe colour. object. The instrument detects the different
As time has passed the system has been intensities of different light wavelengths
updated and added to. and these intensity values are recorded
as points across the visible spectrum. This
The CIE Colour Systems utilise three Spectral data is represented as a spectral
coordinates to locate a colour in a ‘colour reflectance or transmittance curve. This
space’. These colour spaces include- curve is the colour’s fingerprint (Figure 8).
– CIE XYZ
– CIE L*a*b*
– CIE L*C*h.

Figure 7: The Munsell Colour Tree

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 retina in the eye. These values can now be
used to identify a colour numerically.

CIE XYZ
The three co-ordinates required to define a
colour in the CIE XYZ colour space are known
as the Tristimulus values (XYZ). These are
calculated using the standard illuminant,
the sample’s spectral curve and a standard
observer. Unfortunately Tristimulus values
have limited use as colour specifications
because they correlate poorly with visual
attributes. While Y relates to lightness, X and
Z do not correlate to any visual attributes.

Figure 8: Daylight (standard illuminant D65) As a result, when the 1931 CIE standard
observer was established, the CIE defined
Once we obtain the transmittance or reflectance the x,y chromaticity coordinates which can
curve of a colour, we can apply mathematics to be correlated to chroma and hue. These
map the colour into a colour space. are derived from XYZ. The x,y coordinates
are used to form the chromaticity diagram
To do this, we take the reflectance or in Figure 11. The notation Y,x,y specifies
transmittance curve and multiply the data colours by identifying lightness (Y) and
by a CIE standard illuminant or other the colour as viewed in the chromaticity
illuminant. The illuminant is a theoretical diagram (x,y).
representation of the light source under
which the samples are viewed. Each light
source has a power distribution that affects
how we see the colour. Examples of different
illuminants are Illuminant A – incandescent,
Illuminant D65 – daylight (Figure 8) and
Illuminant F2 – cool white fluorescent.

We multiply the result of this calculation by

a CIE standard observer. The CIE commissioned
work in 1931 and 1964 to derive the
concept of a standard observer, which is
based on the average human response to
wavelengths of light (Figure 9). In short,
a standard observer represents how an
average person sees colour across the visible
spectrum when using a defined area of the Figure 9: CIE 2˚ and 10˚ Standard Observers

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Spectral Curve D65 Illuminant Standard Observer

Relative Spectral Power

Reflectance (%)

Tristimulus Values
X = 62.04 Y = 69.72 Z = 7.32

Tristimulus Values

Figure 10: Tristimulus Values

As Figure 12 shows, hue is represented at
all points around the perimeter of the
chromaticity diagram. Chroma, or saturation,
is represented by a movement from the
central white (neutral) area out toward the
perimeter of the diagram, where 100%
saturation defines the pure hue.

Figure 11: CIE 1931 (x,y) chromaticity diagram

Figure 12: Chromaticity diagram

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Expressing Colour Uniformly
One issue with the x,y chromaticity diagram
is that the different colours are not uniformly
distributed. In an attempt to solve this
problem, the CIE recommended a more
uniform chromaticity diagram u’,v’. In
addition, CIE recommended two alternate,
uniform colour scales: CIE 1976 (L*a*b*) or
CIELAB, and CIE 1976 (L*u*v*) or CIELUV.

These colour scales are based on the opponent

-colours theory of colour vision, which says that
a colour cannot appear to be a mixture of both
green and red at the same time, or both blue
and yellow at the same time.

As a result, single values can be used to

describe the red/green and the yellow/
Figure 13: CIELAB colour chart
blue attributes.

CIELAB L*a*b*
When a colour is expressed in CIELAB, L*
defines lightness, a* denotes the red/green
value and b* the yellow/blue value.

Figures 13 and 14 show the colour-plotting

diagrams for L*a*b*. The a* axis runs from
left to right. A colour measurement
movement in the +a* direction depicts a
shift toward red. Along the b* axis, a +b*
movement represents a shift toward yellow.
The centre L* axis shows L* = 0 (black or The L* value is represented on the centre axis.
total absorption) at the bottom and The a* and b* aces appear on the horizontal plane
L* = 100 or white at the top. In between
are greys. All colours on this axis can be Figure 14
considered as neutrals as they are not
coloured in any particular direction.
To demonstrate how the L*a*b* values
represent the specific colours of Flowers
A and B, they are plotted on the CIELAB
Colour Chart in Figure 13.

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These points specify each flower’s hue (colour) CIELAB L*C*h

and chroma (vividness/dullness).
While CIELAB L*a*b* uses Cartesian
When their L* values (lightness) are added coordinates to represent a colour in a colour
in Figure 14, the final colour of each flower space, CIELAB L*C*h uses polar coordinates.
is obtained. The C* and h values can be derived from
CIELAB a* and b*. The L*, as before, defines
lightness, C* specifies chroma and h denotes
hue angle, an angular measurement of hue.

L* = 29.00 a* = 52.48 b* = 22.23

L* = 52.99 a* = 8.82 b* = 54.53

Flower A Flower B

Metamerism
Coloured materials can sometimes exhibit
metamerism, a phenomenon whereby a pair
of colours that match under one illuminant
does not match under a second different
illuminant. To limit metameric effects, it is
always advisable to match colours under a
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary illuminant.

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Colour Differences, Notation and Tolerancing
Delta CIELAB L*a*b* and CIELAB L*C*h
Assessment of colour is often more than The total colour difference can therefore be
a numeric expression. Usually it is an expressed as ΔE*=13.71
assessment of the colour difference (delta)
of a sample relative to a known standard The values for Flowers A and C are shown
or reference. Difference in CIELAB (L*a*b*) at the bottom of this page. On the a* axis,
and CIELAB (L*C*h) values can both be a reading of Δa*= –6.10 indicates greener
used to compare the colours of two objects. or less red. On the b* axis, a reading of
Δb*= +5.25 indicates bluer or less yellow.
The expressions for these colour differences are On the L* plane, the measurement
ΔL*, Δa*, Δb*, or ΔL* ΔC* ΔH* (Δ symbolises difference of ΔL*= +11.10 shows that
“delta,” which indicates difference). Given ΔL*, Flower C is lighter than Flower A.
Δa* and Δb*, or ΔL*, ΔC* and ΔH*, the total
difference or distance in CIELAB space can be If the same two flowers were compared
stated as a single value, known as ΔE*. using CIELAB L*C*h, the colour
differences would be expressed as:
Delta (Δ) E* colour difference
ΔL* = +11.10
ΔE*ab = [(ΔL*)2 + (Δa*)2 + (Δb*2)]1/2
ΔC* = –5.88
ΔE*ab = [ΔL*)2 + (ΔC*)2 + (ΔH*)2]1/2 ΔH* = +5.49
Let us compare the colour of Flower A to Flower Referring again to the flowers shown
C. Separately, each would be classified as a below, the ΔC* value of -5.88 indicates
yellow rose. But what is their relationship when that Flower C is less chromatic, or less
set side by side? How do the colours differ? saturated. The ΔH* value of +05.49
Using the equation for ΔL*, Δa*, Δb*, the indicates that Flower C is greener in hue
colour difference between Flower A and than Flower A. The ΔL* values are identical
Flower C can be expressed as: for CIELAB L*C*h and CIELAB L*a*b*.
ΔL* = +11.10
Δa* = –6.10
Δb* = –5.25

Flower A Flower C
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CIE Colour Space Notation It is used widely as a single value method of

identifying if a colour is within or outside a
ΔL* = difference in lightness/darkness value specified tolerance – ie an acceptable Pass
(+ve = lighter, –ve = darker) or Fail. Delta E* should not be confused
with ΔE CMC or other single value
Δa* = difference on red/green axis tolerancing techniques.
(+ve = redder, –ve = greener)

Δb* = difference on yellow/blue axis
CIELAB L*a*b* Tolerancing
(+ve = yellower, –ve = bluer) When tolerancing with L*a*b*, you may
choose a difference limit for ΔL* (lightness),
ΔC* = difference in chroma Δa* (red/green), and Δb* (yellow/blue).
(+ve = brighter, –ve = duller) These limits create a tolerance cuboid box
around the standard (Figure 15).
ΔH* = difference in hue

ΔE* = total colour difference value

Refer to Figure 13 for visualisation.

Visual Colour and Tolerancing

Tolerances for an acceptable colour match
typically consist of a three-dimensional
boundary with varying limits for lightness,
hue and chroma, and must agree with
visual assessment. CIELAB can be used
to create those boundaries. The simplest
method to create a spherical tolerance is
Delta E* tolerancing. Additional
tolerancing formulas, known as CMC and
CIE94, produce ellipsoidal tolerances.
Figure 15: CIELAB tolerance box

Delta E* Tolerancing When comparing this tolerance box with an

ellipsoid/sphere tolerance, some problems
Delta E* is the total colour difference emerge. A box-shaped tolerance around the
computed with a colour difference ellipsoid/sphere can give acceptable values for
equation as defined above: unacceptable colour differences (Figure 16). If
the tolerance box is made small enough to fit
ΔE*ab = [(ΔL)2 + (Δa)2 + (Δb2)]1/2 within the ellipsoid/sphere, it is possible to get
unacceptable values for visually acceptable
ΔE*ab = [(ΔL*)2 + (ΔC*)2 + (ΔH*)2]1/2 colour differences.

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 Figure 16: Numerically correct vs. Visually acceptable Figure 17: CIELAB (L*C*h) tolerance wedge

CIELAB L*C*h Tolerancing

CIELAB L*C*h users must choose a
difference limit for ΔL* (lightness), ΔC*
(chroma) and ΔH* (hue). This creates a
wedge-shaped box around the standard.
Since CIELAB L*C*h is a polar-coordinate
system, the tolerance box can be rotated in
orientation with the hue angle (Figure 17).

When this tolerance is compared with the

ellipsoid, we can see that it more closely
matches human perception. This reduces
the amount of disagreement between the
observer and the instrumental values
(Figure 18).

Figure 18: CIELAB (L*C*h) tolerance ellipsoids

CMC Tolerancing
As the eye does not detect differences in is usually more sensitive to changes in hue,
hue (red, yellow, green, blue, etc.), chroma then chroma and lastly lightness. Because of
(saturation) or lightness equally, the average this, visual acceptability is best represented
observer will have variable sensitivity to hue, by an ellipsoid (Figure 19).
chroma and lightness differences: the eye

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The CMC equation allows you to vary the

overall size of the ellipsoid to better match
what is visually acceptable. By varying the
commercial factor (cf), the ellipsoid can
be made as large or small as necessary to
match visual assessment. The cf value is the
tolerance, which means that if cf=1.0, then
a value of ΔE CMC less than 1.0 would
pass, but more than 1.0 would fail (see
Figure 21, top of the next page).

Since the eye will generally accept larger

differences in lightness (l) than in chroma
(c), a default ratio for (l:c) is 2:1 which will
allow twice as much difference in lightness
as in chroma. The CMC equation allows
Figure 19: Tolerance Ellipsoid this ratio to be adjusted to achieve better
agreement with visual assessment in
CMC is not a colour space but rather a specific industries.
tolerancing system. CMC tolerancing is
based on CIELAB L*C*h and provides
better agreement between visual
assessment and measured colour difference.
CMC tolerancing was developed by the
Colour Measurement Committee of the
Society of Dyers and Colourists in Great
Britain and is now recognised by a British
Standard (BS 6923).

The CMC calculation mathematically

defines an ellipsoid around the standard
colour with semi-axis corresponding to
hue, chroma and lightness. The ellipsoid
represents the volume of acceptable colour
and automatically varies in size and shape
depending on the position of the colour in
colour space. Figure 20: Tolerance ellipsoids in colour space
• Tolerance ellipsoids are tightly
Figure 20 shows the variation of the ellipsoids packed in the orange region
throughout colour space. The ellipsoids in the • Tolerance ellipsoids are larger in
orange region of colour space are longer and the green area
narrower than the broader and rounder ones
in the green region. The size and shape of the
ellipsoids also change as the colour varies in
chroma and/or lightness.
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 Figure 21: Commercial Factor (CF) of tolerances

(1.4:1)

Figure 22: CMC Tolerance Ellipsoids

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CIE2000 Tolerancing
This is similar to CMC Tolerancing but based on 3. Never attempt to convert between
a new colour-difference equation recommended colour differences calculated by
by CIE in 2000. different equations through the use
of average factors.
Choosing the Right Tolerance 4. Use calculated colour differences only
as a first approximation in setting
When deciding which colour difference tolerances, until they can be confirmed
calculation to use, consider these five rules; by visual judgments.
5. Always remember that nobody accepts
1. Select a single method of calculation
or rejects colour because of numbers
and use it consistently.
– it is the way it looks that counts.
2. Always specify exactly how the
calculations are made.

Colour Scales
Although the CIE colour notation systems can The following Scales are examples of those
be used for any colour control application, currently most widely used by industry.
it is often simpler to use an industry specific Please note: when measuring liquids, cell
colour scale for routine grading of many types path-length is critical as the same material
of material. measured in different path-length cells will
appear a different colour.
Grading techniques are widely used to
assess product colour by comparison with a The specific path-length of cell must be
representative series of fixed colour standards. stated for accurate colour communication.
For many product types, a characteristic set The measurement standards issued for
of standards has been agreed and adopted to some colour scales require specific path-
aid colour control and the communication of length cells. More details and the latest
colour specifications; the result is a selection information can be found within the Scales
of traditional colour grading scales that have Section at www.lovibondcolour.com
been adopted as industry standards and are
still in common use today. ASTM Colour (ASTM D1500,
ASTM D6045, ISO 2049, IP 196)
The ASTM Colour Scale is widely utilised for
the grading of petroleum products such as
lubricating oils, heating oils and diesel fuel oils.

Example Colour Scale

24
Mineral oils are constantly checked for colour and/or a different path-length cell can be used
during processing in order to establish when to bring the reading within the EBC range.
they have been refined to the required
grade. Colour is also used as a means of European Pharmacopoeia
confirming that the correct oil or fuel is being
(EP) Colour
used for its intended purpose and that no
contamination or degradation of quality
The EP Colour Standards were originally visual
has occurred.
colour standards intended to improve colour
communication between sites by defining a
ASTM D1500 is a single number, one
sample colour as being close to a physical
dimensional, colour scale ranging from a pale
liquid standard (“near EP Y2”) rather than
straw colour through to a deep red colour in
using the words “light yellow”.
sixteen steps (0.5 - 8.0 units, in increments of
0.5 units). Visual Lovibond® Comparators can
EP consists of 3 primary standard colour
achieve a resolution of 0.5 units; Automatic
solutions (yellow, red, blue) that are combined
instruments can achieve a resolution of 0.1
with hydrochloric acid to make 5 standard
units. To comply with specifications, a 33mm
solutions that, when further diluted with
path-length cell must be used. ASTM D1500
hydrochloric acid (10 mg/l), make 37
superseded the 12-step D155 NPA (National
reference EP standards; Red (R1 - R7); Yellow
Petroleum Association) scale in 1960.
(Y1 - Y7); Brown (B1 - B9); Brown/Yellow
(BY1 - BY7); Green/Yellow (GY1 - GY7).
Other petroleum products that do not fall
within the scope of ASTM D1500, such as
Automatic instruments can now measure
undyed gasoline, white spirit, petroleum
EP Colour. Measurements are based on
wax and kerosene, may be graded using the
specific wavelengths for each of the European
Saybolt test ASTM D156 or IP (Institute of
Pharmacopoeia colour scales (US and Chinese
Petroleum) 17.
Pharmacopoeia scales are local alternatives).

EBC (European Brewing Gardner Colour (ASTM D1544,

Convention) ASTM D6166, AOCS Td 1a,
The EBC colour scale, developed by the MS 817 Part 10)
Institute of Brewing and the European Brewing
Convention, is a recognised method for the The Gardner Colour scale as specified in ASTM
colour grading of beers, malts and caramel D1544 is a single number, one dimensional,
solutions as well as similarly coloured liquids. colour scale for grading the colour of similarly
It has a range of 2 to 27 visual units; yellower coloured liquids such as resins, varnishes,
pale worts and lagers at the low end of the lacquers, drying oils, fatty acids, lecithins,
scale and the amber of dark worts, beers and sunflower oil and linseed oil.
caramels at the upper end of the scale.
The scale ranges from pale yellow to red
If the sample falls outside this range (e.g. in shade and is described in terms of the
concentrates, syrups) then sample dilution values 1-18. The glass standards used with
the Lovibond® Comparator can achieve a

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 www.lovibondcolour.com

resolution of 1 unit. Automatic instruments aviation fuels, kerosene, naphthas, white

can achieve a resolution of 0.1 units. mineral oils, hydrocarbon solvents and
To comply with the specifications, a 10mm petroleum waxes.
path-length must be used.
The colour range of the Saybolt-scale is
The light yellow Gardner colour numbers similar to that of the Platinum-Cobalt/
(1 to 8) are based on potassium chloroplatinate Hazen/APHA Colour (ASTM D1209) scale
solutions, numbers 9 to 18 on solutions of and is therefore employed for the
ferric chloride, cobaltous chloride and measurement of clear water and colourless
hydrochloric acid. to slightly yellowish products. The faintest
coloration is Saybolt-colour number +30;
In 1958, The Tintometer Ltd was instrumental the strongest evaluable Saybolt coloration
in the development of the master glass value is -16.
standards that were utilised when the current
Gardner scale was specified in 1963; the White and Yellow Indices
earlier 1933 and 1953 versions are available
upon request in the form of Lovibond® Certain industries, such as paint, textiles
Comparator discs. and paper manufacturing, evaluate their
materials and products based on standards
Platinum-Cobalt/Hazen/APHA of whiteness. Typically, this whiteness index is
Colour (ASTM D1209) a preference rating for how white a material
should appear, be it photographic and
This scale can be referred to as Pt-Co, printing paper or plastics.
Platinum-Cobalt, Hazen or APHA Colour.
All terms are interchangeable and equally Therefore the Whiteness Index is a
valid. It is used to measure clear to dark measurement which correlates the visual
amber liquids. rating of whiteness for certain white and
near-white samples.
The scale was originally defined by specified
dilutions of a platinum-cobalt stock solution, The Yellowness Index is a number calculated
ranging from 0 at the light end of the scale from spectrophotometric data that describes
to 500 at the dark end. The scale is now the change in colour of a test sample from
available in a digital format on Automatic colourless through to yellow.
instruments. The scale is used extensively
in the water industry but also for clear oils, ASTM has defined whiteness and yellowness
chemicals and petrochemicals such as indices. The E313 whiteness index is used
glycerine, plasticisers, solvents, carbon for measuring near-white, opaque materials
tetrachloride and petroleum spirits. such as paper, paint and plastic.

Saybolt Colour (ASTM D156,

ASTM D6045)
The Saybolt Colour scale is used for grading
light coloured petroleum products including
26
Notes

27
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28
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Errors and Omissions Excepted –
Content subject to alterations wihout notice.
920173_V3_02/16