International Journal of Advanced Research and Development

ISSN: 2455-4030
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Volume 2; Issue 5; September 2017; Page No. 165-175

Water issue and harvesting techniques for development in Nagaur district, Rajasthan
Pankaj Rawat
Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi, India

Abstract
Nagaur district of Rajasthan is severely affected form high fluoride concentration in ground water which leads to severe health
issues. Bankapatti (banka-distorted, Patti-Belt) is a particular belt of Nagaur district where disability is commonality due to high
fluoride concentrations in the ground water. The district experiences an arid to semi arid type of climatic conditions and
characterized by undulated topography, moderately high degraded hills and sand dunes. Frequent monsoon failure resulting in
widespread drought implies a deepening of the already severe water crisis. Fluoride contaminated groundwater and rainwater are
the major source of water in district. In past, Nagaur district has over-exploited her groundwater without recharging the
groundwater and creates a water famine. The food and water security of the Nagaur district is totally rely on the intensity of
monsoon and ground water. The research attempts to discuss water related problems and possible feasible approaches of water
conservation. Recharging of wells using latest water conservation and management techniques, rehabilitation of traditional water
bodies systems, better planning of water use and proper education and awareness may aid present crisis.

Keywords: fluoride, bankapatti, groundwater, water crisis, water famine, water conservation, recharging groundwater

Introduction on account of hardening certification of blood vessels,

Water Harvesting means capturing rain where it falls or oligosepermia (deficiency of spermatozoa in semen), low
capturing the run off village or town. It also measures to keep testosterone, discoloration of teeth enamel. The emergence of
that water clean by not allowing polluting activities to take marble industry and hazardous, uncontrolled operations along
place in the catchment. These techniques can serve drinking with other factors resulted in cases of human impairments.
water, water for irrigation and groundwater recharge. In The open mine sites release effluents into surface and ground
general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of water. These effluents contain high concentrations of toxic
rainwater. The rainwater collected can be stored for direct use chemicals like Arsenic, cyanide and fluoride along with some
or can be recharged into the groundwater. Rain is the first less toxic minerals like copper and zinc. Even during mining
form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle, hence is and polishing of marbles, fluoride and marble dust are release
a primary source of water for us. In present times, we depend which directly dumped into water. The problem of the area are
entirely on such secondary sources of water. In the process, it low rainfall, high content of fluoride in ground water, high
is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these evapo-transpiration, moisture-scarcity, poor soil quality, less
secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water organic matter contents, poor moisture-holding capacity,
harvesting means to understand the value of rain, and to make limited number of rainy days and poor vegetative growth and
optimum use of the rainwater at the place where it falls. In lack of awareness and education.
Nagaur, the concentration of high fluoride in groundwater is
due to natural as well as anthropogenic reasons like mining
making it inappropriate for consumption. Nagaur district is an
area where the effects of high fluoride concentration in ground
water are very severe with results into the prevalence of
diseases like dental, skeletal fluorosis, mental retardation,
bronchitis, etc. Thus, an alternative source of water has to be
adopted which brings forth the need of Rain water harvesting
in Nagaur.

Statement of Problem
Fluoride consumed in excess amount may cause different
types of health problems which affect metabolic activities of
an individual. This can result into skeletal fluorosis, non
uncerdyspepsia, polyurea (to urinate more frequent),
Source: By Researcher
polydispia (excessive thirst), muscle weakness, repeated
abortions/still birth due to hampering of blood flow to foetus Fig 1: Marble Mining in Makrana, Nagaur

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Objective of the research tehsils, in which Nawa tehsil has the highest number of
The main objective of the study is to determine the water villages (217) whereas Kheenvsar tehsil has lowest number of
related problems in Nagaur districts and find out what could villages (92). Nagaur district has 1589 villages, out of them
be the possible water conservation method for study area. 1575 villages are inhabited and 14 villages are uninhabited.
Nagaur district consists 80.7 percent rural and 19.3 percent
Study Area urban population whereas the State percent of rural and urban
Nagaur district is in central part of Rajasthan and covers an population is 75.1 and 24.9 respectively. As the district lies in
area of 17,718 km². District is located in extends between the desert area, the mean annual rainfall of the district is 41
North latitudes 26°25’ and 27°40” and East longitudes 73°10” cm and experiences 46ºC temperature in summers and 2ºC in
and 75°15”. It is bounded on north by Bikaner and Churu winters. The high variation of temperatures in night and day
districts, on the east by Sikar and Jaipur districts, on the south also experienced in district. The economy of Nagaur district is
by Ajmer, and Pali districts and on the west by Jodhpur mainly dependent on agriculture as 70.0 percent workers in
districts. Its geographical spread is a unique combination of the district are either cultivators or agricultural laborers.
plain, hills, sand mounds and it is a part of the great Indian However the district percent of such workers is higher than
Thar Desert. According to census of India 2011, Nagaur the state average of 62.1 percent.
district has a population of 3,307,743. Nagaur district has ten

Source: Prepared by Researcher

Fig 2: Study Area

Methodology and Database secondary data is purely based on the purpose and theme of
The methodology of research is analytical and descriptive. the research. The water samples from different sites are
The nature of data is in a form of publish and unpublished collected as primary data to understand the toxicity in
data. The primary data is collected with the help of groundwater. Primary data includes the total dissolved solid
observatory method, in-depth interview, group discussion and (TDS) and its analysis at the particular given temperature in
questionnaire to figure out the actual problem of the area. The different villages with the help of TDS meter. The data
random sampling technique used to collect data during the obtained during the survey was analyzed using both
field survey in different villages of Didwana, Makrana, Ladnu, qualitative and quantitative forms. A triangulation of both
Degana and Parbarsar tehsils of Nagaur district. Different quantitative and qualitative methods was used in order to give
types of interaction were made with the local governing the research statistical and conceptual significance. The
bodies i.e. Panchayat, women, local residents and persons collected data is represented in the forms of table, charts and
suffering from fluoride related diseases. The secondary data is diagrams. Qualitatively, information gathered from the
obtained from Indian Meteorological Department to study the interviews, observations and key informants were summarized
patterns and occurrence of Rainfall and Drought. The use of into statements and analyzed manually.

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Result and Discussion common in this region.

Water is one of nature’s most important gift and essential to
life. Nagaur receives less rainfall due to which groundwater is Table 1: Fluoride toxicity in water sample of different villages
declining subsequently and salinity of water is increasing. Village Temperature(C) TDS(ppm) Fluoride (ppm)
Rainfall is a main source of surface water but the western Bichava 25oC 158 8.50
Rajasthan lies in the arid and the rain shadow region because Kacholiya 24.4oC 280 15.50
it receives less than 50 cm of rainfall for very short time Spadde 27oC 233 11.00
period 2-3 months. The less availability of surface water puts Kalyanpura 32oC 154 18.20
immense pressure on groundwater. The groundwater level is Toshina 32oC 157 19.00
decreasing day by day due to the over exploitation of it. NagvadaKalla 29oC 259 22.00
Globally, fluoride in groundwater is known to contaminate the Asarva 27.9oC 222 18.30
water sources. In surface waters, fluoride can occur naturally Mokhumpura 29oC 356 15.60
by the deposition of atmospheric derived particles and /or by Kanade 29oC 356 15.90
fluoride-containing soils and rocks weathering and in ground Basada 31.6oC 277 15.30
water resources by leaching of rocks and soils. The problem of Givadhya 29.1oC 308 9.80
high fluoride content in drinking water has become a serious Mudi-charana 26oC 300 16.30
environmental issue in the field of water quality management Khurad 21oC 218 15.30
GedaKalan 30oC 288 16.50
and human health. Fluoride ions have dual significance in
Ram siya 26.1oC 226 19.30
water supplies (Rana, 2015). Health is also in worse condition
Jasvantpura 27oC 255 11.00
because of less water availability and poor quality of water Nundada 24.2oC 262 9.50
due to high concentration of Fluoride and Nitrate. Due to the Naussariya 32oC 450 28.00
contamination of fluoride either bone is enlarged or become Gunsuli(kiroda) 25.4oC 454 8.50
week consequent to which joint pain problem are quite Source: Primary Survey, 2014

Source: Prepared by Researcher

Fig 3: Water Samples

Causes of Water Problems areas are left as they are after the activities concluded. Thus
The cause of water problem in Nagaur district can be divided further misbalancing is harming the ecosystem. After the
into two parts mining activities are concluded the effluents released during
the mining activities get discharged into surface and ground
Anthropogenic Problems water. These effluents are believed to have high amount of
i) Mining activities toxic chemicals like Arsenic and cyanide along with some less
Mining occurs in the peripheral areas of Nagaur. It is a stretch toxic chemicals like copper and zinc. This release of effluent
consisting of parallel belts of mines can be observed within 2- leads to increase in the acidity of the surface and ground
3 kilometres. The depth of these mines ranges from 400-600 water. Thus making it unfit for human consumption.
meters and it reaches or touches the groundwater. The mining

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Source: By Researcher Source: By Researcher

Fig 4: Visibility of Ground water due to Mining Fig 5: Waste Dumps after Mining

ii) Waste dumping iii) Over exploitation

During the cutting polishing of the marbles fluoride and Over exploitation of ground water table is cause of concern
marble dust is released and which are dumped into water water from tube wells is a source used by locals which has led
which cause increase in fluoride and several toxic chemicals to decrease in ground water table up to 20-25 cm. The use of
which make water unfit for human consumption. motors for the purpose of extraction has led to such decline.

Source: By Researcher
Fig 6: Groundwater level from tube well

Physiographic Problem
i) Precipitation
Nagaur district is located in the rain shadow region due to the
presence of Aravali hills which act as a cloud barrier and does
not allow clouds to pass through them clouds which are at
high altitude are able to reach Nagaur region and average
annual precipitation of the region is 300-400 mm. The rainfall
takes place from 10-15 days during a year in an irregular
pattern this leads to water scarcity, ground water table does
not get recharged or in case of less/ no rainfall it leads to
Source: By Researcher
adverse condition.
Fig 7: Aravalli hills creating rain shadow region for Nagaur District

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ii) Temperature is porous due to the absence of clay due to which water cannot
Nagaur is located in Semi-Arid Region. Having average resist on the surface. Rocks in the soil profile have very high
temperature in summer 40-45oC and in winter 25-30oC in concentration of lime stones and sandstone (e.g. - Marble)
daytime. In summer the rate of evaporation is very high thus which lad to high fluoride content in the soil. After percolation
leading to decreases in amount of water and soil moisture. of water in these layers the water gets mixed with the element
constituted by the rock leading to increase in amount of
iii) Soil fluoride and salts in water. This in turn makes water unfit for
Soil in Nagaur region is sandy which are finer in nature. Soil human consumptions.

Source: By Researcher
Fig 8: Sandy Soil for Agriculture

Topography being the most uneducated. Woman are mainly engaged in

The topography/terrain of Nagaur is irregular and consisting household work are not allowed by the society to study or to
plateaus as well as depressions. Water canals and water do any kind of other activities. Due to lack of education
pipelines for human use cannot be constructed due to their people are unaware regarding the deteriorating water quality
high cost and irregular terrain. as people are uneducated they are not able to identify or
counter these problem. As the quality of water is not good
Impact enough the local go too far off places to fetch potable water,
The continuous degradation of surface and ground water, has thus reducing their time for education.
led to serious consequences for the locals. The locals have
experienced water problems ranging from health to economic
activities.

iv) Economy
90% of the Nagaur village population is poor due to which
they are not able to afford money to buy drought resisting
seeds or HYV seeds and for higher education for their
children. Due to poverty people are not able to build Pucca
House so roof top rain water harvesting could not be
implemented due to irregular rainfall. There is a higher
possibility of crop failure and farmers face huge money loss.
Loans are taken from village administration and farmers are
Source: By Researcher
unable to pay back the loans with high interest rates. Thus it
results in loss of land. Fig 9: School in Makrana

Soil Excess Fluoride: A Major Public Health Concern

Soil in Nagaur region is fine grained. It is good quality soil Fluoride intake has negative effects in causing tooth enamel
cultivation duly if potable water was available. Tubes well and skeletal fluorosis following prolonged exposure to high
were installed on the fields, due to higher contamination of concentrations. Excessive fluoride intake usually occurs
fluoride in soil get affected and farmer are unable to use land through the consumption of groundwater naturally rich in
for cultivation for the next 10 years and suffers an economic fluoride or crops that take up fluoride from high-fluoride
loss. irrigation water. In these areas, means should be sought to
manage intakes by providing drinking-water with a moderate
Education (i.e. safe) fluoride level or using alternative sources of water
Most of the population of Nagaur is illiterate with women for irrigation. Although removal of excessive fluoride from

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drinking-water may be difficult and expensive, low-cost health disorder/issues due to unavailability of portable water.
solutions that can be applied at a local level should be Fluoride accumulates in human body leading to curving of
developed. Acute high-level exposure to fluoride is rare and bones and joint pain. Jitu, a 9 year old boy in village Geda of
usually due to accidental contamination of drinking-water or Nagaur district has dreams in his eyes but is caught in the web
due to fires or explosions. Moderate-level chronic exposure of circumstances dimming his future. While boys of his age
(above 1-1.5 mg/litre of water - the WHO guideline value for chirp around, the little kid is confined to the four walls of his
fluoride in water) is more common. People affected by home. Bearing stiffness and pain in his joints, he is one of the
fluorosis are often exposed to multiple sources of fluoride, many suffering from ‘Skeletal Fluorosis ‘. Jitu is a perfect
such as in food, water, air (due to gaseous industrial waste). depiction of the situation prevailing in Bankapatti where
However, drinking water is typically the most significant contaminated ground water has taken a toll on health of
source. A person's diet, general state of health as well as the common people.
body’s ability to dispose of fluoride all affects how the He isn’t an exception, as Mathura Devi, a 64 year old woman
exposure to fluoride manifests itself. from Asarva village is restricted from normal movements had
The toxic effects of high fluoride intake are due to the fact that enlarge joints due to regular intake of ground water. This is
it is a direct cellular poison, which binds calcium and due to the fact that fluoride disturbs calcium absorption
interferes with the activity of proteolytic and glycolytic pathway which results into enlarged joints. These are all cases
enzymes. Ingested fluoride reacts with gastric acid to produce of abnormal morphology of skeleton, called Skeletal Fluorosis
hydrofluoric acid in the stomach. Thus, acute exposure to high as it has resulted from high intake of fluoride i.e. above
concentrations of fluoride results in immediate effects: 6mg/day.
abdominal pain, excessive saliva, nausea and vomiting.
Seizures and muscle spasms may also occur. Death due to
respiratory paralysis is a possibility. The acute effects of
inhalation of hydrogen fluoride are severe irritation of the
respiratory tract, with coughing, choking and pulmonary
oedema. Severe burns or prolonged visual defects may result
from skin or eye contact. Inhalation or dermal exposure can be
fatal. Repeated or prolonged exposure via inhalation of
aluminium fluoride, primarily in occupational settings, may
cause asthma. The main cause of respiratory disease is due to
long term inhalation of high concentration of fluoride due to
anthropogenic activities.
 Dental fluorosis is another major consequence of high
fluoride intake which develops during tooth development.
It is characterized by white patches on teeth which may
Source: By Researcher
result into stained and pitted teeth from reduced
mineralization of enamel. Fig 10: Enlarged joints of a woman
 Enamel /Dental fluorosis can develop only in children, as
it results from intake of high levels of fluoride during the Ganga Ram, 45 year old man from same village suffering
period of tooth development. It is characterized by the from curved/concave shaped legs owing to consumption of
appearance of white areas in the enamel and in this form is contaminated water from ages with the high amount of
considered an aesthetic issue. In the more severe form, fluoride concentration
reduced mineralization of the enamel results in stained and
pitted teeth.
 In skeletal fluorosis, fluoride accumulates progressively in
the bone over many years. Early symptoms include
stiffness and pain in the joints. Crippling skeletal fluorosis
is associated with osteosclerosis, calcification of tendons
and ligaments, and bone deformities. There is an elevated
risk of skeletal effects at fluoride intakes above 6 mg/day.
These intake levels occur in many areas of the world
because of naturally high fluoride levels in the
groundwater.
 While the global prevalence of dental and skeletal
fluorosis is not entirely clear, it is estimated that excessive
fluoride concentrations in drinking-water have caused tens
of millions of cases of dental and skeletal fluorosis
worldwide over a range of years.
Source: By Researcher
Plight of Banakapatti: Case Study
Most of the population in Nagaur Villages are facing various Fig 11: Concaved shaped leg of a man

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Kannu Devi, 60 years old, who developed osteoporosis type1 folic acids and vitamin B12 which are responsible for
disease on reaching age of 45 years when she started bending absorption of calcium in bones. So, there is also decrease in
from waist. An explanation to this is that after menopause calcium absorption because of which many people witness
there is decrease in the level of hormones (oestrogen), iron, bending of vertebral column.

Source: By Researcher
Fig 12: shaped bent of a woman

Poornima Kumari a 18 year old girl had yellowish teeth which village had reportedly developed dental fluorosis during
caused by Dentine fluorosis with the increase in level of childhood which accelerated with continuous consumption of
fluorine there is decaying of enamel which cause discoloration contaminated water for all through his life.
and lead to falling of teeth. Parbhu, 68 years old from Toshina

Source: By Researcher
Fig 13: Dental fluorosis

Government Initiative drinking water). It was very surprising to see that RO systems
The RO water system is setup by government under the set up by government in few villages haven’t found any takers
provision of National Rural Drinking Water Mission. The for a minimal price of water at 10L/1Rs even. It is still to be
TDS level of these RO systems was recorded in between 25 understood by people in Nagaur that Prevention is always
PPM to 36 PPM which is the under the drinking water better than cure, and many diseases can’t even be cured, thus
standards (Below 90 PPM water is permissible limit of proving to be fatal lifelong.

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Source: By Researcher
Fig 14: Government RO System

Water Harvesting Techniques: Remedy for Nagaur

habitat
Water harvesting can play a major role for tackling different
health hazard. Through the research, various water harvesting
techniques have been suggested to solve various water related
health problem. Umbrella, Inverted roof top, Roof top rain
water harvesting techniques can be implemented on an
individual basis but meagre economic conditions impose a
barrier on their adoption. The only feasible solution is
Community tank rain water harvesting technique which is also
hindered by untouchability. On the other hand, lack of
irrigation facilities have led to one cropping system.
Therefore, curved road, khadin, jalabh, sand dune technique
along with drip and sprinkler irrigation can be used to increase
land productivity. The solely solution of major problem of the
concerned area is water harvesting through different
techniques which are mentioned below:-

i) Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting Technique:

iii) Pit
The pits are drug and the base of the pit is cemented for the
purpose of collection of rain water. The pit can be used for
irrigation/cultivation and drinking purpose. Barren land is
cemented in such a way that water is collected at the central
point in a storage tank in a circular shaped structure or water
is collected in storage tank located at the end of rectangular
shaped structure.

ii) Depression
The depression is surrounded by slope. The rainwater is
collected in a depression which resist on the surface due to the
presence of black soil.

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iv) Umbrella Technique falls on these roads quickly descends towards both sides of the
In this technique the roof top which is conical in nature, is road and its collected in a canal like structure which then
covered with plastic so that the rainwater which falls over it collected in a storage tank at the area which is easily
slide down towards the edge and is collected in the tanks. accessible by the locals.

vi) Central Rain Water Harvesting Technique

(Community Tanks)
The rainwater is harvested from the roof top to a smaller
chamber which is connected to a main central pipeline. The
central pipe lead to a main central chamber/ tank which has
v) Curved Road Technique various inlets from different side coming from different
The road is constructed in a curved shape. Water from the rain houses. The main central tank will have a single outlet.

Source: pinterest.com
Fig 15: Community tank

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vii) Inverted Roof Top Water Harvesting Technique gravelly uplands. Sluices and spillways allow excess water to
Inverted Roof top rain water harvesting is the accumulation of drain off. The Khadin system is based on the principle of
rain water on the inverted roof top and that water goes through harvesting rainwater on farmland and subsequent use of this
a pipeline, which is connected to a storage tank and water is water-saturated land for crop production.
collected and stored in water storage tank.

viii) Uplifted Rainwater Harvesting Technique

This technique is very appropriate for the rainwater harvesting
system. In this application, we have to stand a sloped
tin/plastic body over the water storage tank. Cover the tin
body with plastic sheet so that rain water accumulates over the
slope will fall down through a pipe, and flows down into the
tank for the equality of the rain water, put a filtration net on
the top of the pipe, so, that water flows down into the water
storage tank pure. When the tank full, it will overflow. So, to
save that overflowing water, use will put a removable pipe,
connecting with the pipe, so that through that removable pipe,
the water flows to the other or can be used for other purposes.

ix) Uplifted Tin Tank Rainwater Harvesting Technique

The technique is the second part (B) of the uplifted tin tank
rainwater harvesting. In this technique, we can utilize the
usual cemented tank by covering the tank with a fiber/tin
/plastic in a sloping manner’s. The fiber plastic can be used on
the top of the tank and can also be used middle side of the
tank so that the rainwater flows down through a pipe, which is Source: By Researcher
connected with a community tank for the people.
Fig 16: Johar

Conclusion
Nagaur, a district in north-western part of Rajasthan is
adversely affected by an epidemic like situation arising out of
non-availability of potable water. Natural and anthropogenic
reasons have contributed to contamination of ground water
which now has contents of fluoride and other toxic chemicals.
Ground water consumption hasn’t seen a noticeable decline
with generations leading to prevalence of diseases like
Skeletal and Dental Fluorosis in a particular belt of district
known as Bankapatti. In such conditions, rain water
harvesting techniques as per se precipitation, structure,
household need, economic viability can be applied to suffice
for essential water needs of a family or for other purposes.
The techniques proposed for Pukka house owners are
Umbrella, inverted roof top, roof top water harvesting;
Khadin/Johar feasible technique for Kuccha house owners is Community
This ingenious construction harvests surface runoff water for tank; for irrigation purposes curved road, Khadin, Jhalabh and
use in agriculture. Its main feature is a 100-300m earthen Sand dune technique can be applied. Water is the prime cause
embankment built across lower hill slopes lying below of distress and the only hope for the people of Nagaur.

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