CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 1/31

Chapter 8 – Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Learning Objectives
• To develop the linear-strain triangular (LST)
element stiffness matrix.

• To describe how the LST stiffness matrix can be

determined.

• To compare the differences in results using the

CST and LST elements.

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Introduction
In this section we will develop a higher-order triangular element,
called the linear-strain triangle (LST).
This element has many advantages over the constant-strain
triangle (CST).
The LST element has six nodes and twelve displacement
degrees of freedom.
The displacement function for the triangle is quadratic.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 2/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

The procedure to derive the LST element stiffness matrix and

element equations is identical to that used for the CST
element.
Step 1 - Discretize and Select Element Types
Consider the triangular element shown in the figure below:

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Each node has two degrees of freedom: displacements in

the x and y directions.
We will let ui and vi represent the node i displacement
components in the x and y directions, respectively.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 3/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

The nodal displacements for an LST element are:

u1 
v 
 1
u2 
 
 d1  v 2 
d  u3 
 2  
d  v 
d   3    3
d 4  u4 
d5  v 4 
   
d 6  u5  The nodes are ordered
v 5 
  counterclockwise around the
u6  element
v 
 6

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations
Step 2 - Select Displacement Functions
Consider a straight-sided triangular element shown below:
4 2
3
6
y 5

1
x

The variation of the displacements over the element may be

expressed as:
u( x, y )  a1  a2 x  a3 y  a4 x 2  a5 xy  a6 y 2

v ( x, y )  a7  a8 x  a9 y  a10 x 2  a11xy  a12 y 2

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 4/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations
The displacement compatibility among adjoining elements is
satisfied because the three nodes defining adjacent sides
define a unique a parabola.
The CST and LST triangles are variations of the Pascal
triangles as show below.

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations
The general element displacement functions are:
 a1 
a 
 2
1 x y x2 xy y2 0 0 0 0 0 0  ꞏ 
    
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x y x 2
xy y2  ꞏ 
 a11 
 
a12 
  M * a
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 5/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

To obtain the values for the a’s substitute the coordinates of the
nodal points into the above equations:

 u1   1 x1 y1 x12 x1y 1 y12 0 0 0 0 0 0   a1 

u   2 2  
 2  1 x2 y2 x 2 x2 y 2 y 2 0 0 0 0 0 0   a2 
                
    
u6   1 x6 y6 x62 x6 y 6 y 62 0 0 0 0 0 0   a6 
  2  
v1   0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x1 y1 x12 x1y1 y1  a7 

                
    
v 5   0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x5 y5 x52 x5 y 5 y 52   a11 

v 6   0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x62 y 6  a12 
2
 x6 y6 x6 y 6

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Solving for the a’s and writing the results in matrix form gives
1
 a1   1 x1 y1 x12 x1y 1 y12 0 0 0 0 0 0   u1 
a     
 2  1 x2 y2 x22 x2 y 2 y 22 0 0 0 0 0 0  u2 
                 
     
 a6   1 x6 y6 x62 x6 y 6 y 62 0 0 0 0 0 0  u6 
  2   
 a7   0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x1 y1 x12 x1y 1 y1 v1
  
                 
    
 a11   0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x5 y5 x52 x5 y 5 y 52  v 5 

a12  
 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x6 y6 x62 x6 y 6 y 6  v 6 
2

a   x  u
1

where [x] is the 12 x 12 matrix on the right-hand-side of the

above equation.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 6/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

The “best” way to invert [x] is to use a computer.

Note that only the 6 x 6 part of [x] really need be inverted.

  M * a a   x  u   M *  x  u

1 1


The general displacement expressions in terms of interpolation

functions and the nodal degrees of freedom are:

  N u where N   M *  x 

1

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations
Step 3 - Define the Strain-Displacement and Stress-Strain
Relationships
Elemental Strains: The strains over a two-dimensional
element are:
 u 
 
  x   x 
   v 
{ }    y    
   y 
 xy   u v 
  
 y x 
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 7/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations
Step 3 - Define the Strain-Displacement and Stress-Strain
Relationships
Elemental Strains: The strains over a two-dimensional
element are:

u v  a1 
a 
0 1 0 2x y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  2 
 ꞏ 
    0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 x 2y   
 ꞏ
 0 0 1 0 x 2y 0 1 0 2x y 0   
 a11 
 
a12 

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Observe that the strains are linear over the triangular element;
therefore, the element is called a linear-strain triangle (LST).

The above equation may be written in matrix form as

   M 'a
where [M ’] is based on derivatives of [M*].

0 1 0 2x y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
M '   0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 x 2y 

 0 0 1 0 x 2y 0 1 0 2x y 0 
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 8/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

If we substitute the values of a’s into the above equation gives:

   M 'a a   x  u

1
    B d

where [B] is a function of the nodal coordinates (x1, y1) through

(x6, y6).

B   M ' x 
1

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

The stresses are given as:  x   x 

   
 y   [D ]   y 
   
 xy   xy 
For plane stress, [D] is:
1  0 
E  
[D ]  2 
 1 0 
1 
0 0 0.5 1    

For plane strain, [D] is: 1    0 

[D ] 
E   1  0 
1   1  2   0 0

0.5   

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 9/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

The stiffness matrix can be defined as:

[k ]   [B ]T [D][B ]dV
V

However, [B] is now a function of x and y; therefore, we must

integrate the above expression to develop the element
stiffness matrix.

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations
The [B] matrix is:

 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
1 
B   2 A  0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0  6 
  1 1  2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6  6 

The β’s and the γ’s are functions of x and y as well as the nodal
coordinates.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 10/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations
The [B] matrix is:

 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
1 
B   2 A  0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0  6 
  1 1  2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6  6 

The stiffness matrix is a 12 x 12 matrix and is very cumbersome

to compute in explicit form.

However, if the origin of the coordinates is the centroid of the

element, the integrations become more amenable.

Typically, the integrations are computed numerically.

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations
The element body forces and surface forces should not be
automatically lumped at the nodes.
The following integration should be computed:

fb    [N ]T { X }dV
V

fs    [N ]T {T }dS
S
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 11/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

The element equations are:

 f1x   k11 k12 k13  k1,12   u1 

f   k  k2,12  v1 
 1y   21 k22 k23
  
f2 x    k31 k32 k33  k3,12  u2 
      

   
    
f6 y  k12,1 k12,2 k12,3  k12,12  v 6 
12  1 12  12 12  1

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Elemental
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Steps 5, 6, and 7

Assembling the global stiffness matrix, determining the global

displacements, and calculating the stresses, are identical to
the procedures used for CST elements.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 12/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination

Consider a straight-sided triangular element shown below:

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination

The triangle has a base dimension of b and a height h, with mid-

side nodes.
We can calculate the coefficients a1 through a6 by evaluating
the displacement u at each node.
u( x, y )  a1  a2 x  a3 y  a4 x 2  a5 xy  a6 y 2

u1  u (0,0)  a1

u2  u(b,0)  a1  a2b  a4 b 2

u3  u(0, h )  a1  a3 h  a6 h 2
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 13/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination

The triangle has a base dimension of b and a height h, with mid-

side nodes.
We can calculate the coefficients a1 through a6 by evaluating
the displacement u at each node.
2 2
b h b h b bh h
u4  u  ,   a1  a2  a3  a4    a5  a6  
2 2 2 2 2 4 2
2
 h h h
u5  u  0,   a1  a3  a6  
 2 2 2
2
b  b b
u6  u  ,0   a1  a2  a4  
2  2 2

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination

Solving the above equations simultaneously for the a’s gives:

4u6  3u1  u2
a1  u1 a2 
b

4u5  3u1  u3 2  u2  2u6  u1 

a3  a4 
h b2

4  u1  u 4  u5  u6  2  u3  2u5  u1 
a5  a6 
bh h2
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 14/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination

The u displacement equation is:

 4u  3u1  u2   4u  3u1  u3 
u( x, y )  u1   6  x 5 y
 b   h 

 2  u2  2u6  u1   2  4  u1  u4  u5  u6  
 x   xy
 b2   bh 

 2  u3  2u5  u1   2
 y
 h2 

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination
The v displacement equation can be determined in a manner
identical to that used for the u displacement:
 4v  3v1  v 2   4v  3v1  v 3 
v ( x, y )  v1   6  x 5 y
 b   h 

 2 v 2  2v 6  v1   2  4 v1  v 4  v 5  v 6  
 x   xy
 b2   bh 

 2 v 3  2v 5  v1   2
 y
 h2 
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 15/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination
The general form of the displacement expressions in terms of
the interpolation functions is given as  u1 
v 
u  N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N 4 0 N5 0 N6 0   
1

    
v   0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 N5 0 N6   
u
 6
v 6 
where the interpolation functions are:

3x 3y 2x2 4xy 2y 2 x 2x2

N1  1     N2    2
b h b2 bh h2 b b

y 2y 2
N3    2
h h

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination
The general form of the displacement expressions in terms of
the interpolation functions is given as  u1 
v 
u  N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N 4 0 N5 0 N6 0   
1

    
v   0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 N5 0 N6   
u
 6
u6 
where the interpolation functions are:

4xy 4y 4 xy 4y 2
N4  N5    2
bh h bh h

4 x 4 xy 4 x 2
N6    2
b bh b
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 16/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination

The element interpolation functions N have two basic shapes.

The behavior of the functions N1, N2, and N3 is similar except

referenced at different nodes.

The shape function N1 is shown below:

1 3
5

N1
1
4
6
y

2
x

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination

The second type of interpolation function is valid for functions

N4, N5, and N6. The function N5 is shown below:

5
N5
1
4
6
y

x
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 17/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination

The element strain is given as:

   B d
where the [B] matrix is:

 1 0  2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
1 
B   2 A  0  1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0  6 
  1 1  2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6  6 

 N i   Ni 
i  2A    i  2A  
 x   y 

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination
 N  bh
Therefore, since  i  2 A  i  A
 x  2

3x 3y 2x2 4xy 2y 2 4hx

N1  1     1  3h   4y
b h b2 bh h2 b

x 2x2 4hx
N2    2  2  h 
b b b

y 2y 2
N3    2 3  0
h h
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 18/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination
 N  bh
Therefore, since  i  2 A  i  A
 x  2

4xy
N4   4  4y
bh

4y 4 xy 4y 2
N5    2 5  4y
h bh h

4 x 4 xy 4 x 2 8hx
N6    2  6  4h   4y
b bh b b

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination
 N  bh
Therefore, since  i  2 A  i  A
 y  2

3x 3y 2x2 4xy 2y 2 4by

N1  1      1  3 b   4x
b h b2 bh h2 h

x 2x2
N2    2 2  0
b b

y 2y 2 4by
N3    2  3  b 
h h h
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 19/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination
 N  bh
Therefore, since  i  2 A  i  A
 y  2

4xy
N4   4  4x
bh

4y 4 xy 4y 2 8by
N5    2  5  4b  4 x 
h bh h h

4 x 4 xy 4 x 2
N6    2  6  4x
b bh b

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Example LST Stiffness Determination
The stiffness matrix for a constant thickness element can be
obtained by substituting the β’s and the γ’s into the [B] and
then substituting [B] into the following expression and
evaluating the integral numerically.

[k ]   [B ]T [D][B ]dV
V
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 20/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements
For a given number of nodes, a better representation of true
stress and displacement is generally obtained using LST
elements than is obtained using the same number of nodes
a finer subdivision of CST elements.

For example, a single LST element gives better results than four
CST elements.

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements
Consider the following cantilever beam with E = 30 x 106 psi,
 = 0.25, and t = 1 in.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 21/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements
Table 1 lists the series of tests run to compare results using the
CST and LST elements.

Table 1. Comparison of CST and LST results

Series of Test Number of Degrees of Number of
Runs Nodes Freedom, nd Elements
A-1 4 x 16 85 160 128 CST
A-2 8 x 32 297 576 512 CST
B-1 2 x 8 85 160 32 LST
B-2 4 x 16 297 576 128 LST

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements
Table 2 shows comparisons of free-end (tip) deflection and
stress for each element type used to model the cantilever
beam.

Table 2. Comparison of CST and LST results

Tip Deflection x Location

Runs nd Bandwidth, nd
(in) (ksi) (x, y)
A-1 160 14 -0.29555 67.236 (2.250,11.250)

A-2 576 22 -0.33850 81.302 (1.125,11.630)

B-1 160 18 -0.33470 58.885 (4.500,10.500)

B-2 576 22 -0.35159 69.956 (2.250,11.250)

Exact Solution -0.36133 80.000 (0,12)
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 22/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements
The larger the number of degrees of freedom for a given type
of triangular element, the closer the solution converges to the
exact one (compare run A-1 to run A-2, and B-1 to B-2).

Table 2. Comparison of CST and LST results

Tip Deflection x Location

Runs nd Bandwidth, nd
(in) (ksi) (x, y)
A-1 160 14 -0.29555 67.236 (2.250,11.250)

A-2 576 22 -0.33850 81.302 (1.125,11.630)

B-1 160 18 -0.33470 58.885 (4.500,10.500)

B-2 576 22 -0.35159 69.956 (2.250,11.250)

Exact Solution -0.36133 80.000 (0,12)

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements
For a given number of nodes, the LST analysis yields
somewhat better results than the CST analysis (compare run
A-1 to run B-1).

Table 2. Comparison of CST and LST results

Tip Deflection x Location

Runs nd Bandwidth, nd
(in) (ksi) (x, y)
A-1 160 14 -0.29555 67.236 (2.250,11.250)

A-2 576 22 -0.33850 81.302 (1.125,11.630)

B-1 160 18 -0.33470 58.885 (4.500,10.500)

B-2 576 22 -0.35159 69.956 (2.250,11.250)

Exact Solution -0.36133 80.000 (0,12)
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 23/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements
Although the CST element is rather poor in modeling bending,
we observe that the element can be used to model a beam in
bending if sufficient number of elements is used.

Table 2. Comparison of CST and LST results

Tip Deflection x Location

Runs nd Bandwidth, nd
(in) (ksi) (x, y)
A-1 160 14 -0.29555 67.236 (2.250,11.250)

A-2 576 22 -0.33850 81.302 (1.125,11.630)

B-1 160 18 -0.33470 58.885 (4.500,10.500)

B-2 576 22 -0.35159 69.956 (2.250,11.250)

Exact Solution -0.36133 80.000 (0,12)

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements
In general, both the LST and CST analyses yield sufficient
results for most plane stress/strain problems provided a
sufficient number of elements are used.

Table 2. Comparison of CST and LST results

Tip Deflection x Location

Runs nd Bandwidth, nd
(in) (ksi) (x, y)
A-1 160 14 -0.29555 67.236 (2.250,11.250)

A-2 576 22 -0.33850 81.302 (1.125,11.630)

B-1 160 18 -0.33470 58.885 (4.500,10.500)

B-2 576 22 -0.35159 69.956 (2.250,11.250)

Exact Solution -0.36133 80.000 (0,12)
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 24/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements

The results of Table 2 indicate:

That the LST model might be preferred over the CST model
for plane stress applications when a relatively small number
of nodes is used.

The use of triangular elements of higher order, such as the

LST, is not visibly more advantageous when large numbers
of nodes are used, particularly when the cost of the
formation of element stiffnesses, equation bandwidth, and
overall complexities involved in the computer modeling are
considered.

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements

Most commercial programs incorporate the use of CST and/or

LST elements for plane stress/strain problems although these
elements are used primarily as transition elements (usually
during mesh generation).
Also, recall that finite element displacements will always be less
than the exact ones, because finite element models are
always predicted to be stiffer than the actual structures when
using the displacement formulation of the finite element
method.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 25/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements

A comparison of CST and LST models of a plate subjected to

parabolically distributed edge loads is shown below.

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements

The LST model converges to the exact solution for horizontal

displacement at point A faster than does the CST model.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 26/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements

However, the CST model is quite acceptable even for modest

numbers of degrees of freedom.

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparison of Elements
For example, a CST model with 100 nodes (200 degrees of
freedom) often yields nearly as accurate a solution as does
an LST model with the same number of degrees of freedom.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 27/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparing CST and LST triangles – 2 elements
20 in.

10 in.

CST LST

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparing CST and LST triangles – 2 elements

CST LST
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 28/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparing CST and LST triangles – 4 elements

CST LST

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Comparing CST and LST triangles – 4 elements

CST LST
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 29/31

Plane Stress and Plane Strain Equations

Comparing CST and LST triangles – 8 elements

CST LST

Plane Stress and Plane Strain Equations

Comparing CST and LST triangles – 8 elements
CST LST
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 30/31

Plane Stress and Plane Strain Equations

Comparing CST and LST triangles – 16 elements

CST LST

Plane Stress and Plane Strain Equations

Comparing CST and LST triangles – 16 elements
CST LST
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 8 - Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 31/31

Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations

Problems

16. Work problems 8.3, 8.6, and 8.7 in your textbook.

17. Rework the plane stress problem given on page 364 and
6.13 in your textbook using Camp's LST code.

Start with the simple two element model. Continuously

refine your discretization by a factor of two each time until
your FEM solution is in agreement with the exact solution
for both displacements and stress. How many elements did
you need?

End of Chapter 8