CHAPTER 5

SEQUENCES,
MATHEMATICAL
INDUCTION, AND
RECURSION

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

SECTION 5.3

Mathematical Induction II

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Mathematical Induction II
In natural science courses, deduction and induction are
presented as alternative modes of thought—deduction
being to infer a conclusion from general principles using the
laws of logical reasoning, and induction being to enunciate
a general principle after observing it to hold in a large
number of specific instances.

In this sense, then, mathematical induction is not inductive

but deductive.

Once proved by mathematical induction, a theorem is

known just as certainly as if it were proved by any other
mathematical method.
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Mathematical Induction II
Inductive reasoning, in the natural sciences sense, is used
in mathematics, but only to make conjectures, not to prove
them.

For example, observe that

4
Mathematical Induction II

then by substitution

Thus mathematical induction makes knowledge of the

general pattern a matter of mathematical certainty rather
than vague conjecture.
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Example 1 – Proving a Divisibility Property

Use mathematical induction to prove that for all integers

n ≥ 0, 22n – 1 is divisible by 3.

Solution:
As in the previous proofs by mathematical induction, you
need to identify the property P(n).

In this example, P(n) is the sentence

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

By substitution, the statement for the basis step, P(0), is

The supposition for the inductive step, P(k), is

and the conclusion to be shown, P(k + 1), is

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

We know that an integer m is divisible by 3 if, and only if,

m = 3r for some integer r.

Now the statement P(0) is true because

22
0 – 1 = 20 – 1 = 1 – 1 = 0, which is divisible by 3
because 0 = 3
0.

To prove the inductive step, you suppose that k is any

integer greater than or equal to 0 such that P(k) is true.

This means that 22k – 1 is divisible by 3. You must then

prove the truth of P(k + 1). Or, in other words, you must
show that 22(k+1) – 1 is divisible by 3.
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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

But

The aim is to show that this quantity, 22k
4 – 1, is divisible

by 3. Why should that be so? By the inductive hypothesis,
22k – 1 is divisible by 3, and 22k
4 – 1 resembles 22k – 1.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Observe what happens, if you subtract 22k – 1 from

22k
4 – 1:

Adding 22k – 1 to both sides gives

Both terms of the sum on the right-hand side of this

equation are divisible by 3; hence the sum is divisible by 3.
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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Therefore, the left-hand side of the equation is also

divisible by 3, which is what was to be shown.

This discussion is summarized as follows:

Proof (by mathematical induction):

Let the property P(n) be the sentence “22n – 1 is divisible
by 3.”

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Show that P(0) is true:

To establish P(0), we must show that

But

and 0 is divisible by 3 because 0 = 3
0.

Hence P(0) is true.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Show that for all integers k ≥ 0, if P(k) is true then

P(k + 1) is also true:

[Suppose that P(k) is true for a particular but arbitrarily

chosen integer k ≥ 0. That is:]

Let k be any integer with k ≥ 0, and suppose that

By definition of divisibility, this means that

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

[We must show that P(k + 1) is true. That is:] We must

show that

But

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

But is an integer because it is a sum of products of

integers, and so, by definition of divisibility, is
divisible by 3 [as was to be shown].

[Since we have proved the basis step and the inductive

step, we conclude that the proposition is true.]

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Mathematical Induction II
The next example illustrates the use of mathematical
induction to prove an inequality.

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Example 2 – Proving an Inequality
Use mathematical induction to prove that for all integers
n ≥ 3,

Solution:
In this example the property P(n) is the inequality

By substitution, the statement for the basis step, P(3), is

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

The supposition for the inductive step, P(k), is

and the conclusion to be shown is

To prove the basis step, observe that the statement P(3) is

true because 2
3 + 1 = 7, 23 = 8, and 7 < 8.

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

To prove the inductive step, suppose the inductive

hypothesis, that P(k) is true for an integer k ≥ 3.

This means that 2k + 1 < 2k is assumed to be true for a

particular but arbitrarily chosen integer k ≥ 3.

Then derive the truth of P(k + 1). Or, in other words, show
that the inequality is true. But by
multiplying out and regrouping,

and by substitution from the inductive hypothesis,

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

Hence

If it can be shown that 2k + 2 is less than 2k+1, then the

desired inequality will have been proved.
But since the quantity 2k can be added to or subtracted
from an inequality without changing its direction,

And since multiplying or dividing an inequality by 2 does

not change its direction,

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

This last inequality is clearly true for all k ≥ 2. Hence it is

true that .

This discussion is made more flowing (but less intuitive) in

the following formal proof:

Proof (by mathematical induction):

Let the property P(n) be the inequality

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

Show that P(3) is true:

To establish P(3), we must show that

But

Hence P(3) is true.

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

Show that for all integers k ≥ 3, if P(k) is true then

P(k + 1) is also true:
[Suppose that P(k) is true for a particular but arbitrarily
chosen integer k ≥ 3. That is:]

Suppose that k is any integer with k ≥ 3 such that

[We must show that P(k + 1) is true. That is:] We must

show that

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

Or, equivalently,

But

[This is what we needed to show.]

[Since we have proved the basis step and the inductive
step, we conclude that the proposition is true.]
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A Problem with Trominoes

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A Problem with Trominoes
A particular type of polyomino, called a tromino, is made up
of three attached squares, which can be of two types:

Call a checkerboard that is formed using m squares on a

side an m × m (“m by m”) checkerboard.

Observe that if one square is removed from a 4 × 4

checkerboard, the remaining squares can be completely
covered by L-shaped trominoes.
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A Problem with Trominoes
For instance, a covering for one such board is illustrated in
the figure below.

It is a beautiful example of an argument by mathematical

induction.

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A Problem with Trominoes

The main insight leading to a proof of this theorem is the

observation that because , when a
board is split in half both vertically and horizontally, each
half side will have length 2k and so each resulting quadrant
will be a checkerboard.

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A Problem with Trominoes
Proof (by mathematical induction):
Let the property P(n) be the sentence
If any square is removed from a 2n × 2n checkerboard,
then the remaining squares can be completely
covered by L-shaped trominoes.

Show that P(1) is true:

A 21 × 21 checkerboard just consists of
four squares. If one square is removed,
the remaining squares form an L, which
can be covered by a single L-shaped
tromino, as illustrated in the figure to the
right. Hence P(1) is true.
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A Problem with Trominoes
Show that for all integers k ≥ 1, if P(k) is true then
P(k + 1) is also true:
[Suppose that P(k) is true for a particular but arbitrarily
chosen integer k ≥ 3. That is:]
Let k be any integer such that k ≥ 1, and suppose that

If any square is removed from a 2k × 2k checkerboard,

then the remaining squares can be completely
covered by L-shaped trominoes.

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A Problem with Trominoes
P(k) is the inductive hypothesis.
[We must show that P(k + 1) is true. That is:] We must
show that

If any square is removed from a 2k+1 × 2k+1 checkerboard,

then the remaining squares can be completely
covered by L-shaped trominoes.

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A Problem with Trominoes
Consider a 2k+1 × 2k+1 checkerboard with one square
removed. Divide it into four equal quadrants: Each will
consist of a 2k × 2k checkerboard.

In one of the quadrants, one square will have been

removed, and so, by inductive hypothesis, all the remaining
squares in this quadrant can be completely covered by
L-shaped trominoes.

The other three quadrants meet at the center of the

checkerboard, and the center of the checkerboard serves
as a corner of a square from each of those quadrants.
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A Problem with Trominoes
An L-shaped tromino can, therefore, be
placed on those three central squares.
This situation is illustrated in the figure
to the right.

By inductive hypothesis, the remaining

squares in each of the three quadrants
can be completely covered by L-shaped
trominoes.

Thus every square in the 2k+1 × 2k+1 checkerboard except

the one that was removed can be completely covered by
L-shaped trominoes [as was to be shown].
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