Radar Systems and Navigational Aids Exam 2016-2017

(Marking Scheme)

Section A (Attempt all questions)

Question 1. (Compulsory) [20 marks]

(a). Define the following terms:

(i) Doppler effect: if either the source of oscillation or the observer of the oscillation is in
motion, an apparent shift in frequency will result. This is the Doppler
effect and is the basis of CW radar. (2 marks)

(ii) MTI (Moving Target Indicator): The radar which uses the concept of Doppler frequency
shift for distinguishing desired moving targets from
stationary objects i.e., clutter is called as MTI radar
(Moving Target Indicator) (2 marks)

(iii) Coherent Processing Interval (CPI) in radar systems: indicates a group of multiple pulses,
usually with the same PRF and frequency.
And it is given by (M*Tr) where M is the number of
pulses in CPI and Tr is the Pulse Repetition Interval.
(2 marks)
(b). (i) What do you understand by navigational aids?
➢ is the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from
one place to another.
➢ It is also art of directing the movements of craft from one point to another along a
desired path.
(2 marks)

(ii) What do you understand by hyperbolic navigational systems?

Hyperbolic systems are systems based on the measurement of the difference in the
time of arrival of electromagnetic waves from two transmitters to the receiver in the
craft. (2 marks)

(c). (i) An aircraft is flying at an altitude of 1000m, just above a point A on ground.
What is the Doppler shift observed by a 10-GHz radar at a point 3 km (on ground)
from the point A. Assume that the aircraft is moving away from the radar with velocity of 200m/s.

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 Answer: fd = 2 v/λ
λ = c/f
Where c= 3x108m/s and f=10GHz hence λ= 0.03
velocity = 200m/s
` Then fd = 13.3Hz
As the aircraft is moving away from the radar so fd is positive.
(2 marks)
(ii) Given an X-band radar uses PRF of 3KHz and the range resolution of 30 m.
Compute the unambiguous range, bandwidth together with the duty cycle.

𝛿𝑡
Answer: Knowing that the range resolution ∆𝑅 = 𝑐 , it follows that
2
∆R 30
δt = 2 =2∗ = 2 ∗ 10−7 s = 0.2μs (1 mark)
c 3∗108
c 3∗108
Ru = = cT = = 0.5 ∗ 105 m = 50Km (1 mark)
2fr 2∗3000

c c 3∗108
Knowing that ∆R = , it follows that B = = = 0.5 ∗ 107 = 5MHz
2B 2∆R 2∗30
(1 mark)

(d). (i) Which method or technique can be used so that a long pulse can have the same bandwidth
(resolution) as a short pulse?
The technique used is such that the long pulse is modulated in frequency or
phase.
(1 mark)
(ii) In signal compression how the matched filter is being implemented?
The matched filter is implemented by “convolving” the reflected echo
with the “time reversed” transmit pulse. (2 marks)

(iii) What are the four methods of navigation?

- Navigation by pilotage (0.5 mark)
- Celestial or astronomical navigation (0.5 mark)
- Navigation by dead-reckoning (0.5 mark)
- Radio navigation (0.5 mark)

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 Section B (Attempt any two questions)

Question 2. [15 marks]

(a) Given a certain airport surveillance radar with the following parameters: Peak power Pt = 1.4MW,
Duty Cycle = 0.000525, pulsewidth τ =0.6 µsec, frequency f = 2800 MHz, Bandwidth BW=1.67 MHz,
Aircraft cross section = 1m2, Antenna rotation Rare = 12.8 RPM, Pulse Repetition rate = 1200 Hz,
Antenna size = 4.9 m wide by 2.7 m high, Azimuth Beamwidth = 1.35o, system noise temperature
= 950o K. Show that this radar will get a reasonable SNR on this small aircraft at 111 Km range.

Assume that the number of pulses per beamwidth = 21, Losses = 8 dB. (And taking into account the
beam shaping losses of 9 dB i.e this must be subtracted from the total Gain “G” you will calculate).

Pt G 2 2
Answer: ( SNR) 
(4 ) 3 R 4 kTs Bn L
Pt  1.4 Megawatts R  111,000 m
  c / f  0.103 m Bn  1.67 MHz
G  4A /   15670 m 2  42 dB, (actually 33 dB with beam shaping losses of 9dB), then 33dB  2000
2

  1 m2 L  8 dB  6.3
23
k  1.38 10 W / Hz K o
(4 ) 3  1984
Ts  950o K
Number of pulses per beamwidth = 21

(1.4  106 W ) (2000) (2000) (0.1m) (0.1m) (1m 2 )

SNR 
(1984) (1.11 105 m) 4 (1.38  10  23 w / Hz o K ) (950o K ) (6.3) (1.67  106 Hz )

5.6  10 63311 5.6  10 10 5.6  10 10

    1.35  1.3 dB
415  10 3 2023 26 4.15  10 23 2023 26 4.15  10 10

SNR = 1.3 dB per pulse (21 pulses integrated i.e +13.2 dB) => SNR per dwell = 14.5 dB

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 dB Method

SNR = 1.3 dB per pulse (21 pulses integrated i.e +13.2 dB) => SNR per dwell = 14.5 dB
(8 marks)
N.B.: Mark one method only, either linear or dB method.
(b) (i) What are continuous Tracking Methods?
i. sequential lobing (1 mark)
ii. conical scan (1 mark)
iii. monopulse or simultaneous lobing (1 mark)

(ii) What are the limitations to the MTI performance?

a. Equipment instabilities in the transmitter and receiver: (0.5 mark)
➢ Pulse-to-pulse changes in the amplitude, frequency, or phase

b. Physical motions of the clutter: (0.5 mark)

➢ all clutters are not considered as stationary such as (trees,
vegetation, sea, rain) whereas (buildings, water towers,
bare hills or mountains) do not have serious consideration

c. The finite time on target (antenna scanning modulation), (0.5 mark)

d. Limiting in the receiver (by IF amplifier) (0.5 mark)

(iii) What is the need of integrator?

Integrator integrates or adds the energy from the received pulses available from the
target. (2 marks)

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Question 3. [15 marks]

(a) Compute the range resolution before and after pulse compression corresponding to an LFM
waveform with the following specifications: Bandwidth B =1GHz and pulse width τo = 10 ms.

Answer: The range resolution before and after pulse compression is:

c 0 3  108  10  10 3
Runcomp    1.5  106 meters
2 2

1
 n1   1 ns
1  109

c n1 3  108  1  109
Rcomp    15 cm
2 2
(4 marks)

(b) (i) Define the minimum detectable signal?

The weakest signal that can just be detected by the receiver is the minimum
detectable signal (2 marks)

(ii) Differentiate dead-reckoning navigation from radio navigation?

• Dead reckoning: is the process of estimating future position by projecting course
and speed from a known past position.
• The position of the craft at any instant of time is calculated from the previously
determined position, the speed of its motion with respect to earth along with the
direction of its motion and the time elapsed.
(2 marks)

Electronic navigation covers any method of position fixing using electronic means,
including:
–Radio navigation uses radio waves to determine position by either radio direction
finding systems or hyperbolic systems, such as Decca, Omega and LORAN-C.
(2 marks)

(c) Compute the power aperture product for an X-band radar with the following parameters: Signal-to-
noise ratio SNR = 15dB; losses L 8dB; search volume Ω = 2o; scan time Tsc = 2.5s; noise figure
F = 5dB. Assume a -10dBsm target cross section, and range R = 250Km. Also, compute the peak
transmitted power corresponding to 30% duty factor if the antenna gain is 45 dB.
Assume a circular aperture and radar wavelength λ = 0.03m.

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Answer: The angular coverage is 2o in both azimuth and elevation. It follows that the
solid angle coverage is:
2 2
  29.132 dB
(57.23) 2

Note that the factor 360/2π =57.23 converts degrees in steradians. When the aperture is
circular,
Pav AeTsc
SNR 
Equ. 4kT0 FLR 4  is reduced to:

( SNR) dB  ( Pav  A    Tsc  16  R 4  kT0  L  F  ) dB

 Tsc 16 R4 kT0
-10 3.979 12.041 215.918 -203.977

It follows that:

15 = Pav + A – 10 + 3.979 - 12.041 - 215.918 + 203.977 – 5 – 8 + 29.133

Then the power aperture product is:

Pav + A = 38.716dB

Now, assume the radar wavelength to be λ = 0.03m, then

G2
A  3.550 dB
4

Pav   A  38.716  35.166 dB

Pav  103.5166  3285.489 Watts

(5 marks)

Question 4. [15 marks]

(a) A radar receiver consists of an antenna with cable loss L = 1 dB = F1, an RF Amplifier with F2 = 6dB,
and gain G2 = 20dB, followed by a mixer whose noise figure is F3 =10dB and compression loss
L = 8dB, and finally, an integrated circuit IF amplifier with F4 = 6dB and gain G4 = 60dB.
Find the overall noise figure.

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Answer:
F2  1 F3  1 F4  1
F  F1   
G1 G1G2 G1G2 G3

G1 G2 G3 G4 F1 F2 F3 F4
-1dB 20dB -8dB 60dB 1dB 6dB 10dB 6dB
0.7943 100 0.1585 106 1.2589 3.9811 10 3.9811
It follows that:
3.9811 1 10  1 3.9811 1
F  1.2589     5.3629
0.7943 100  0.7943 0.158  100  0.7943
(6 marks)

(b) (i) Give and explain two different types of data which are broadcast by GPS
in the primary navigational signal.
1. Almanac – sends time and status information about the satellites. (1 mark)
2. Ephemeris – has orbital information that allows the receiver to calculate
the position of the satellite. (1 mark)

(ii) States any 4 basic functions of GPS?

➢ Position and coordinates. (0.5 mark)
➢ The distance and direction between any two waypoints, or a position and a waypoint.
(0.5 mark)
➢ Travel progress reports. (0.5 mark)
➢ Accurate time measurement. (0.5 mark)

(c) (i) Differentiate between Moving Target Indicator (MTI) techniques and
Pulsed Doppler (PD) techniques.

Moving Target Indicator (MTI) techniques:

➢ Just separate moving targets from clutter (0.5 mark)
➢ Use short waveforms (two or three pulses) (0.5 mark)
➢ Do not provide target velocity estimation (0.5 mark)

Pulsed Doppler (PD) techniques:

➢ Separate targets into different velocity regimes in addition to
canceling clutter (0.5 mark)
➢ Use long waveforms (many pulses, tens to thousands of pulses)
(0.5 mark)
➢ Provide good estimates of target velocity (0.5 mark)

(ii) Define Error Signal found in Monopulse equation: The Error Signal is a measure of how far
the target is off-boresight. (2 marks)
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