Chapter 2

Lasers

Introduction:

Laser:

 Laser is one of the outstanding inventions of the 20th century.

 A laser is a photonic device that emits light(electromagnetic radiation) through a
process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of
electromagnetic radiation.
 The term "laser" originated as an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
Characteristics of Lasers:
Laser has certain unique properties when compared to ordinary sources of light. They are
 Monochromatic
 Directional
 Intensity
 Coherent

1. Monochromaticity:

 Mono means single and chromo means color. i.e., Monochromatic means that it
consists of single color or wavelength or frequency.
 The light emitted from a laser is highly monochromatic, i.e., it is consists of one
color/wavelength/frequency. But ordinary white light is a combination of many
colors (or wavelengths) of light.

2. Directionality:
 Directional means that the beam is well collimated (very parallel) and travels over
long distances with very little spread.
 The light emitted from a laser is highly directional,i.e, laser light is emitted as a
relatively narrow beam in a specific direction with very little spread
 An ordinary source of light (bulb) emits light waves in all the directions and is
highly divergent.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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 Fig: Measurement of beam divergence.
d2 −d1
The angular spread or divergence (θ) = degrees
𝑙2 −𝑙1

Where: d1 = Beam diameter at point 1.

d2 = Beam diameter at point 2.
l1 = Distance from laser to point 1.
l2 = Distance from laser to point 2.
The angular spread of ordinary light is 1meter/meter or 1 radian.
The angular spread of laser light is 1mm/meter or 10-3 radians.

3. Intensity:
 An ordinary light spreads in all directions; the intensity reaching the target is very
less.
 But in the case of laser, due to high directionality many beams of light incident
in smallarea, therefore the intensity of light high. Hence its brightness is more.
4. Coherence:
 The light from a laser is said to be coherent, which means that the wavelengths of
the laser light are in phase in space and time.
 Ordinary light can be a mixture of many wavelengths.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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Interaction of radiation with matter:
Introduction:
When the incident radiation (Photon) interacts with atoms in the energy levels then three
three distinct processes can takes place.
 Absorption of radiation
 Spontaneous emission of radiation
 Stimulated emission of radiation
1. Absorption of radiation:
Suppose If an atom in the lower energy level (or) ground state energy level E1 and
absorbs the incident photon radiation of energy then it goes to the higher energy level (or)
excited state E2 as shown in fig(1). This process is called absorption of radiation.

Fig: Absorption of radiation

The process may be expressed as

A +h𝜐 ⟶ 𝐴∗
Where A=Atom in the ground state
𝐴∗ = Excited atom
h𝜐 = Incident photon
 The number of absorptions depend upon the number of atoms per unit
volume (N1) in lower energy level ( E1) and the number of photons per
unit volume of radiation i.e. incident radiation density ρυ .
The rate of absorption (R12) is proportional to the following factors
i.e., R12 ∝ incident radiation density (ρυ )
∝ No. of atoms in the ground state (N1)

∴ ⟶ (1)
R12 =B12 ρυ N1

Where B12 is a constant and is known as Einstein’s coefficient of absorption of

radiation.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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2.Spontaneous emission of radiation:

Normally the atom in the excited state will not stay there, for a long time i.e., it can stay
up to 10-9 second. This called life time of atom. After the life time of the excited atom it
returns to the ground state by emitting photon energy E= E2-E1 = h𝜐, spontaneously
without any external energy as shown in fig (2).
This process is known as Spontaneous emission of radiation.

Fig: Spontaneous emission of radiation.

The process may expressed as

A∗ ⟶ A +h𝜐

Where A=Atom in the ground state

A∗ = Excited atom
h𝜐 = Incident photon.

The number of spontaneous emission of radiation depends on the number of

atoms per unit volume in higher energy level i.e. N2
∴The rate of spontaneous emission is R21(SP) ∝ N2

∴ R21(SP) = A21N2 ⟶ (2)

Where A21 is a constant called Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission of

radiation.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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3. Stimulated emission of radiation:

Suppose if we incident some suitable form of energy on the atom in the excited state,
then it can also return to the ground by emitting a photon, known as stimulated emission.
In this process two photons are released. They have same frequency, wavelength and in
phase difference and of same directionality as shown in fig.

Fig: Stimulated emission of radiation.

The process may be expressed as
A∗ +h𝜐 ⟶ A+2 h𝜐

The number of stimulated emission depends on the number of atoms in the energy level
(E2) ,N2 and the incident radiation density ρυ .

∴ The rate of stimulated emission R21 is given by

𝑅 21(St) ∝ N2

∝ ρυ

𝑅 21(St) ∝N2 ρυ

∴ 𝑅 21(St) = B21 ρυ N2 ⟶ (3)

Where B21 is a constant called Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission of radiation

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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Difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation

Spontaneous Emission of radiation Stimulated Emission of radiation

1. This emission is postulated by Bhor 1. This emission is postulated by Einstein.

2. Emission of radiation takes place 2. Emission of radiation takes place with

without any inducement or stimulus help of inducement or stimulus energy.
energy.

3. The emitted photons move in all 3. The emitted photons move in same
directions and are random. direction and is highly direction

4.Incoherent radiation 4.Coherent radiation

5. Low intense and less directional 5. High intense and more directional

6.Polychromatic radiation 6.Monochromatic radiation

7.It is an uncontrollable process 7.It is controllable process

8.The rate of spontaneous emission is 8. The rate of stimulated emission is

𝑅 21(St) = B21 ρυ N2
R12(SP) = A21N2

9. Example: Light from sodium vapor 9. Example: Light from Ruby laser, He-Ne
lamp and mercury vapor lamp laser and GaAs laser etc.

Population:

The number of atoms per unit volume in an energy level is known as population of that
energy level.

According to Boltzmann`s distribution law; if N is the number of atoms per unit volume
in an energy state E, at temperature T , then the population of that energy level E is given
by
−E
N=NO exp KB T

Where, NO is the population of lower energy level and KB is Boltzmann`s constant

(1.3807 × 10− 23 J K− 1)
−E
N=NO exp KB T

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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Einstein’s coefficient’s and their relations:-
In 1917 Einstein proposed a mathematical relation between absorption and emission of
radiation based on Boltzmann’s distribution law and Planck’s theory of radiation.

Consider two energy levels of energies E1 and E2 (E2 >E1) .Let N1 and N2 be the number
of atoms per unit volume of E1 and E2.

Fig: Three different processes during the interaction of light with matter.

We know that when the incident radiation (photon) interacts with atoms in the energy
levels then three distinct processes takes place.

1) Absorption :-
The rate of absorption (R12) =B12 ρυ N1 ⟶ (1)
2) Spontaneous emission :-
The rate of spontaneous emission is given by
R21 (SP) = A21N2 ⟶ (2)
3) Stimulated Emission:-
The rate of stimulate emission is given by

R21(St) = B21 ρυ N2 ⟶ (3)

Under thermal equilibrium,

The rate of absorption = The rate of emission

i.e., Eq(1) = Eq(2) +Eq(3)
B12 ρυ N1 = A21N2 + B21 ρυ N2

B12 ρυ N1 - B21 ρυ N2 = A21N2

ρυ (B12 N1- B21 N2) = A21N2

A21 N2
ρυ =
B12 N1 −B21 N2

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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 A21 N2
= N
N2 (B12 1 −B21)
N2

A21
ρυ = N → (4)
B12 ( 1 )− B21
N2

A21
= N1 B21 → (5)
B12 [ − ]
N2 B12

We know that; Boltzmann distribution law

−E1
N1 = N0 exp → (6)
KBT

−E2
Similarly N2 = N0 exp → (7)
KBT

N1 −E1 E2
And = exp . exp
N2 KBT KBT

N1 (E2 −E1 )
i.e., = exp
N2 KBT

Since E2 –E1 = h𝜐, we have

N1 hυ
= exp K → (8)
N2 BT

Substituting Eq (8) in Eq (5) we have

A21
ρυ = hυ B21
→ (9)
B21 [ exp − ]
KBT B12

According to Planck’s quantum theory of radiation, the incident radiation density is

given by,

8πh𝜈3 1
ρυ = [ hν ] → (10)
C3 −1
expkBT

Therefore comparing equations (9) and (10), we can write

B21
B12
= 1 or B21=B12=1 and → (11)

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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 A21 8πh𝜈3
= → (12)
B21 C3

These results were obtained by Einstein in 1917, and that is why the coefficients A21 B21
and B12 are called Einstein’s coefficients.
From eq. (11), we conclude that the coefficient of absorption B12 is equal to the
coefficient of stimulated emission B21.
From eq. (11), we conclude that the coefficient of spontaneous versus stimulated
emission is proportional to the third power of frequency of the radiation.
A21
i.e., 𝛼 𝜈3
B21

Thus, the spontaneous emission of radiation dominates the stimulated emission of

radiation at normal conditions. This is why it is difficult to achieve laser action.
The spontaneous emission produces incoherent light, while stimulated emission produces
coherent light. In an ordinary conventional light source, the spontaneous emission is
dominated. For, laser action stimulated emission should be predominant over
spontaneous emission and absorption. To achieve this, an artificial condition, known as
population inversion, is required.
Population Inversion:
In general, the population of lower energy level will be greater than that of the higher
energy level. To get stimulated emission of radiation, the population of higher energy
level (E2) should be greater than the population of the lower energy level (E1).i.e., N2>N1.

The process of making a state in which the population of higher energy level (E2) is
greater than the population of the lower energy level (E1) is known as population
inversion.

Fig: N1>N2 Fig: N2>N1

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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 Explanation:
 To explain Population Inversion, let us Consider a there energy level system in which
three energy levels E1, E2 and E3 are present and populations in those energy levels are
N1, N2 and N3 respectively.
 In normal conditions E1<E2< E3 and N1> N2 > N3 obeying Boltzmann’s distribution law.
 E1 is the lower energy state with more time of an atom, E3 is the higher energy state with
less lifetime of an atom (10-9sec) and E2 is the intermediate energy state with more life
time of an atom (10-3sec) compare to that of E3.
 This intermediate energy state with more life time of atoms is known as metastable state.
 This state provides necessary population inversion for the laser action.
 When suitable form of energy is supplied to the system, then the atoms excite from
ground state E1 to higher energy state E3 and E2.
 Graphically this has been as shown in fig.

Fig: (a) Boltzmann’s distribution Fig: (b) Population inversion between E1 and E2

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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 Let the atoms in the system be excited from E1 state to E3 state by supplying energy equal
to E3-E1= h𝜐 from an external source.
 The atoms in E3 state are unstable; they can stay up to 10-9 s. This called life time of
atoms. After the life time of the excited atoms, they can returns to the meta stable state
E2 without emission of any radiation .This process is called non-radiative transition.
 In E2 state, the atoms can stay for a very long time(10-3s).
 As atoms in E1 state are continuously exciting to E3 , so the population in E1 energy state
goes decreasing.
 A state will reach at which the population in E2 State is greater than E1 state (i.e.N2>N1).
This situation is known as population inversion.

Excitation mechanisms:
Pumping:
The population inversion cannot be achieved thermally. To achieve population inversion
suitable form of energy must be supplied. The process of supplying suitable form of
energy to a system to achieve population inversion is called pumping. There’re several
methods for achieving the condition of population inversion necessary for laser action.
Some of the most commonly used pumping methods are,
(i) Optical pumping method
(ii) Electrical discharge(Direct electron excitation) pumping method
(iii)Inelastic atom-atom collision pumping method
(iv) Direct conversion pumping method
(v) Chemical reactions pumping method.
(i). Optical pumping method:
 The process of supplying suitable form of optical energy to a system to
achieve population inversion is called optical pumping.
 In this method, light source is used to supply suitable form of optical
energy to excite the atoms to higher energy level to achieve population
inversion.
 This type of pumping is used in solid state lasers (Ex: Ruby laser and Nd-
YAG Laser).
(ii). Electrical discharge (Direct electron excitation) pumping method:
 In this method, a high voltage or electric field is applying to electrodes at
both sides of the discharge tube containing the gas causes Electrons are
ejected from the cathode, accelerated toward the anode, and collide with
the gas molecules along the way.
 During the collision, the mechanical kinetic energy of the electrons is
transferred to the gas molecules, and excites them. (This same method of
energy transfer is used in common fluorescent lights).
 This type of pumping is used in gaseous ion lasers (Ex: He-Ne laser and
co2 Laser).

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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(iii). Inelastic atom-atom collision pumping method

 In this method a combination of two types of gases are used say A and B,
both having same or nearly coinciding excited states A* and B* .
 In the first step ,during electric discharge , A gets excited to A* (meta
stable state) due to collision with electrons .The excited atom now collide
with the B atoms so that B goes to excited state B* .

e- + A A*
A* +B B* +A

 For example, in the helium-neon laser the electrons from the discharge
collide with the helium atoms, exciting them. The excited helium atoms
then collide with neon atoms, transferring energy so that Ne atoms go the
excited state.

(iv).Direct conversion pumping method

 In this method, when a p-n junction diode is forward biased and then the
recombination of electrons and holes across the junction emits the
radiation.
Electron + hole photon

 This method is used in semiconductor lasers.

(v).Chemical reactions pumping method

 In this method, due to some chemical reactions, the atoms may be raised
to excited state.
 For example, hydrogen fluoride chemical laser, in which hydrogen can
react with fluorine to produce hydrogen fluoride liberating heat energy.
This heat energy will try to excite the atoms to higher energy level.

H2 + F2 2HF + Heat energy

Block diagram of a laser system:

The block diagram of laser system contains three parts, they are
(i) Source of energy
(ii) Active medium and
(iii) Optical resonator as shown in fig.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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 Fig: Components of LASER system.
(i) Source of energy:
 To achieve population inversion suitable form of energy must be supplied. It
supplies suitable form of energy by using any one of the pumping methods.
 For example in ruby laser, helical xenon flash tube used as pumping source.
 In helium-neon laser, electrical discharge tube used as pumping source.

(ii) Active medium:

 To achieve population inversion medium is necessary.
 The material medium in which population inversion takes place is called as
active medium. In which metastable state is present.
 In metastable state only the population inversion takes place. It can be a solid,
liquid, gas or semiconductor diode junction.
 The material medium in which the atoms are raised to exited state to achieve
population inversion is called as active centers.
 For example in ruby laser, the active medium is aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
dopedwith chromium oxide (Cr2O3). In which chromium ions (Cr3+) act as
active centers.
 In helium -neon laser it is the combination of helium and neon in the ratio of
10:1 in which Ne atoms act as active centers.

(iii)Optical resonator:
 An optical resonator which consists of two mirrors. One mirror is fully
reflective and other is partially reflective.
 An active medium is kept between in them. The light emitted due to the
stimulated emission of radiation bounces back and forth between the two
mirrors and hence the intensity of the light is increased enormously.
 Finally the intense, amplified beam called laser is allowed to come out
through the partial mirror as shown in fig.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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Types of lasers :

Nd-YAG [Neodymium-Yttrium Aluminum Garnet] laser:-

Characteristics of laser:-
Type : Solid state laser (4-level solid state laser)
Active medium : Yttrium Aluminum Garnet [Y3Al5012]
Active centre : Nd3+ ions
Pumping method : Optical pumping
Pumping source : Xenon flash lamp
Optical resonator : two ends of the rod polished with silver
Nature output : pulsed
Power output : 2x104 watts
Wave length : 1.064 µm.
Principle:-

The neodymium ions are raised to exited states optical pumping using xenon flash
lamp. Then the ions are accumulated at Meta stable state by non radiative
transition. Due to stimulated emission the transition of ions takes place from Meta
stable state to ground state, the laser beam of wavelength1.064 µm emitted.

Construction

 A Nd-YAG laser consists of a cylindrical Nd-YAG rod [Y3Al5012].

 In the Nd-YAG rod, Nd3+ ions are the active ions taking part in the laser action.
 The Nd-YAG rod will act as an active medium.
 One end of the Nd-YAG rod is fully silvered and the other end is partially
silvered so that the two ends will act as optical resonator (or) cavity.
 The Nd-YAG rod surrounded by elliptical glass cavity which in turn is enclosed
by xenon flash lamp filled with xenon gas s shown in fig.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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 Fig; Construction of Nd-YAG laser.

Fig: Energy level diagram of Nd-YAG laser.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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 Working:-

 The xenon flash lamp is switched on.

 A few thousand joules of light energy are discharged in a few milliseconds.
 A part of this light energy will be flashes on the Nd-YAG rod.
 Then the Nd3++ ions in the rod absorbs the particular wavelength of the incident
light energy and are excited to higher energy states as shown in fig(2).
 The Nd3+ ions absorbs the light of photon of wavelength 0.73 µm and go to E4
excited state and by absorbing wavelength 0.80 µm they go to E3 excited state as
shown in the energy level diagram.
 The excited Nd3+ ions then make a transition from these energy levels.
 The Nd3+ ions remain for about 10-9 second in these energy levels and makes non-
radiative transition to the Meta stable state (E2).
 In Meta stable state, the Nd3+ ions remain for longer duration of the order 10-3
second, so population inversion takes place between Meta stable and ground state.
 As a result, stimulated emission takes place and Nd3+ ions translated from Meta
stable state to ground state.
 Hence, pulsed form of laser beam of wavelength 1.064 µm is emitted during
transition from E2to E1.

Applications of Nd-YAG Laser

 These lasers are widely used for cutting, drilling, welding in the industrial
products.
 It is used in long haul communication systems.
 It is also used in the endoscopic applications.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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Applications of laser: - Lasers find applications in various fields of science technology.
They are described below.
Medical applications :-

 Lasers are used in eye surgery.

 Lasers are used for treatments such as plastic surgery, skin injuries and to remove
moles and tumours developed in skin tissue.

 Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Scientific field:-

 Lasers are used in counting of isotopes separation and to separate isotopes of

uranium.

 Lasers are used to estimate size and shape of biological cells such as erythrocytes.

 Lasers are used to create plasma.

 Lasers are used to produce chemical reaction

 Lasers are used in recording and reconstruction of a hologram.

3) Industry applications:-

 Lasers are used to cut glass and quartz.

 Lasers are used to drill holes in ceramics.

 Lasers are used to drill aerosol nozzles.

 Lasers are used for heat treatment in the tooling and automotive industry.

N. SUBRAMANYAM, Assistant Professor of Physics, Swetha Engineering college, Tirupati.

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