The Effect of Teacher-Student Relationships

on the Academic Engagement of Students

By Meagan Varga

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Master of Education

May 2017

Graduate Programs in Education

Goucher College
 Table of Contents

List of Tables i

Abstract ii

I. Introduction 1

Overview 1

Statement of Problem 2

Hypothesis 2

Operational Definitions 3

II. Review of the Literature 5

Overview of Teacher-Student Relationships 5

Perception of Relationships 6

Contributing Factors 7

Perceived Control 9

Effects of Teacher-Student Relationships 10

Educational Outcomes 11

Developing Positive Relationships 12

Summary 17

III. Methods 18

Design 18

Participants 18

Instrument 19

Procedure 20

IV. Results 24
V. Discussion 26

Implication of Results 26

Theoretical Consequences 28

Threats to Validity 28

Connections to Previous Studies 30

Implications for Future Research 31

Summary/Conclusion 32

References 34
 List of Tables

1. Means, Standard Deviations, and t-test Results for Number of Off-Task

Behaviors per Student during Weighted Baseline and Intervention Periods 25

i
 ABSTRACT

This research explores relationships in schools, specifically interactions between teachers

and students. Initially, the research examined an overview of teacher-student relationships and

factors that contribute to these interactions. This overview included both teacher and student

perceptions and personal characteristics and then examined the effects of teacher-student

relationships on education and how teacher and student behaviors affect educational outcomes.

The overview of the research literature concluded with how to develop positive relationships.

Teacher expectations, attitude, familiarity, and communication all play a role in cultivating

relationships in the classroom environment.

The purpose of the research was to determine if improving relationships between teachers

and students would decrease off-task behaviors during class. The intervention involved four

weeks of initiatives focused on developing improved teacher-student relationships. The mean

number of off-task behaviors per student during the weighted baseline period (Mean = 44.33, SD

= 14.89) was significantly higher than the mean number of off-task behaviors during the

intervention period (Mean = 31.08, SD = 9.68) [t(11) = 5.90, p < .001]. As the data was

significant, the null hypothesis was rejected.

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 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Overview

Receiving a quality education is an important cornerstone in the lives of every individual.

It is imperative that students have the tools they need to be successful—tools that include

motivation and engagement. For some students, however, motivation is not always intrinsic. It

therefore falls to others to guide students along the path to their own education. As teachers

spend an incredible amount of time with their students over the course of the year, it is a

teacher’s responsibility to foster an inclination for learning. Research has indicated that the

relationship between teachers and students is an important predictor of academic engagement

and achievement. In fact, the most powerful weapon teachers have, when trying to foster a

favorable learning climate, is positive relationships with their students. Students who perceive

their teachers as more supportive have better achievement outcomes (Boynton & Boynton, 2005;

Spilt, Koomen, & Thijs, 2011; Skinner & Green, 2008; Rimm-Kaufman & Sandilos, 2012;

Gehlbach, Brinkworth, & Harris, 2012). Additionally, the learning environment plays a

significant role in maintaining student interest and engagement. When students feel a sense of

control and security in the classroom, they are more engaged because they approach learning

with enthusiasm and vigor. Students become active participants in their own education (Skinner

& Green, 2008; Maulana, Opdenakker, Stroet, & Bosker, 2013). Therefore, the first step to

helping a student become more motivated and engaged, and thus academically successful, is

building and maintaining positive teacher-student relationships.

The lack of academic achievement among secondary students is ubiquitous. There are

numerous reasons why students may lose interest in school, and engagement is a key factor.

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Considering that students spend about twenty-five percent of their waking hours in a classroom,

it is essential that students are engaged or they will not be willing to learn. This creates a

problem for both the teacher and the student. Throughout an average school day, teachers

frequently overhear students complaining about an assignment, a class, or even a teacher. If

students have positive relationships with their teachers, they will be more engaged and thus more

motivated throughout each of their classes.

The researcher’s interest in this topic has grown from years of personal experiences,

observations of others, and both teacher and student testimonials. It was her experiences that

indicated students who have positive and meaningful relationships with their teachers are more

motived to succeed in school, specifically in the classes in which they have a positive

relationship with the teacher. The researcher has also taught classes over the years where the

relationships have been strained, and she experienced difficulty connecting with the students.

These classes often had a higher number of students who were not intrinsically motived, which

resulted in an excessive number of poor grades and failures. Because the researcher wondered if

the relationship, or lack thereof, contributed to each student’s lack of motivation, engagement,

and academic achievement, her interest in a possible correlation proliferated.

Statement of Problem

The purpose of this study was to determine if building positive relationships between teachers

and students impacts students’ academic engagement in the classroom.

Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is that there will be no significant statistical differences between the number

of off-task behaviors at momentary time sampling ten-minute intervals among underachieving

2
high school English students during a weighted two-week baseline period and a four-week

Teacher-Student Relationship Building Intervention period.

Operational Definitions

Below are the definitions for all relevant variables and concepts used in this study:

 Relationships: The way in which two or more people are connected through their

interactions; relationships can be defined as either positive or negative.

o Positive Relationships: These relationships include teachers who think about

their practice and search for ways to improve it. These teachers give students

power and choice in the classroom. These teachers make their students feel a

sense of belonging.

o Negative Relationships: These relationships include teachers who do not foster a

welcoming environment. They hold all the power and students do not feel a sense

of belonging or control.

 Off-task behaviors: Off-task behaviors occur while the teacher is reading, providing

instruction, or leading and facilitating class discussion. Off-task behaviors also include

behaviors that occur when the student is expected to be working independently or

collaborating with classmates. These behaviors include sleeping, head down, excessive

discussion on unrelated subjects, cell phone use not related to the task, wandering

purposelessly around the classroom, or completing work not related to the current subject

area. Furthermore, if the student leaves the room to visit the bathroom or the nurse and is

not present during the momentary time-sampling interval, this will be included as an off-

task behavior if it occurs more than two times during the baseline or four times during the

intervention period.

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 Achievement: Achievement is defined as the level of academic skills demonstrated

through both oral and written contributions.

 Low Achievement: Low achievement is defined as a student not meeting grade level

expectations in the curriculum and is based on both oral and written contributions.

 Underachieving High School Students: These are students, based on teacher perception,

who have low achievement levels and are often off-task and unengaged. They appear to

be underachieving academically relative to their abilities due to lack of engagement.

 Academic Engagement: To occupy a student's attention and interest in academic tasks;

not demonstrating off-task behaviors; participating in learning activities through

independently working on class assignments, contributing to class discussions or working

on learning tasks with peers; a student’s willingness and desire to participate in the

learning process.

 Teacher-Student Relationship Building Intervention: The teacher will modify the

conditions of the classroom by greeting students at the door at the start of class and

saying goodbye at the end of class. Additionally, the teacher will amplify interactions

with participants by engaging them in supplemental, individual conversation before the

class period begins.

 Momentary Time Sampling: At ten-minute interval points, the teacher observed whether

participants were engaging in off-task behaviors

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 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Overview of Teacher-Student Relationships

On average, students spend six and a half hours at school each day for 180 days

throughout the year. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that teachers have an enormous amount

of influence on their students. This influence, or power, can significantly impact the learning

environment, which, in turn, affects a student’s achievement in school. The most powerful

weapon teachers have, when trying to foster a favorable learning climate, is a positive

relationship with their students (Boynton & Boynton, 2005). There are many factors that impact

the relationships between teachers and students, yet one point is clear. Multidimensional

relationships in school play a significant role in developing the learning environment.

According to self-determination theory of motivation (SDT), there are three universal,

innate psychological needs: autonomy (ownership, responsibilities, and self-actualization),

belongingness (close relationships, interpersonal regard, and support), and competence (feeling

capable to bring out desired outcomes and effectively cope with challenge). This theory has been

widely applied to the study of motivation and well-being, and fulfillment of these basic needs for

students contributes to intrinsic motivation and academic motivation and achievement (Spilt

et al., 2011). Teachers can fulfill these needs by building and maintaining relationships with their

students. Students need to experience an emotional involvement from their teachers—to know

their teachers care and can provide structure and support.

The review of the literature is organized in the following manner. First, there is an

overview discussing both the teacher's and the student's perception of relationships, factors that

contribute to building relationships, and the impact of a student's perceived control in the

5
classroom. The review then delves into how teacher-student relationships affect both parties,

which includes student behaviors and educational outcomes. Finally, the review describes how

teachers can develop and maintain positive teacher-student relationships. This section includes

promoting control, expectations and attitude, feedback, familiarity, and communication.

Perception of Relationships

Student perception plays an important role in incentive. In fact, research suggests that the

most powerful predictor of a child’s motivation is the child’s perception of control. Perceived

control is the belief that one can determine one’s behavior, influence one’s environment, and

bring about desired outcomes. Because students already have a history of experiences with

whether adults are attuned to their needs, teachers build on these experiences (Skinner & Greene,

2008). Therefore, a student’s perception of the teacher’s behavior impacts the relationship.

Students who feel their teacher is not supportive towards them have less interest in learning and

are less engaged in the classroom (Rimm-Kaufman & Sandilos, 2012).

Moreover, students and teachers influence each other. When a student perceives that he is

welcomed and wanted in the classroom, he is more likely to be engaged and motivated. Thus, the

role the teacher plays in the classroom affects the perception the student has on the relationship

and the classroom environment, which ultimately contributes to achievement. Students who

perceive that their teachers are more supportive have better achievement outcomes on

standardized math tests and English grades (Gehlbach et al., 2012).

In the early years of school, students' perceptions of their relationships with teachers and

teachers' perceptions of those same relationships are very similar. Yet as students develop and

age, the gap between students’ perceptions of teachers and teachers' perceptions of students

grows and widens (Rimm-Kaufman & Sandilos, 2012). Therefore, it is essential for teachers to

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reflect on their relationships as well as their practice. Teacher perception is just as powerful as

student perception when constructing relationships. In order for teachers to build and improve

upon their practice, teachers need to reflect and think about their teaching. Teacher thinking

results in teacher learning (Kennedy, 2008). Reflection is imperative for the classroom

environment—each lesson should be tailored to the needs of the students who are currently

present in the classroom. When the classroom environment is structured to meet the students’

needs, teachers are also able to fulfill the three universal, innate psychological needs of the

students—autonomy, belongingness, and competence.

Because teachers play important roles in children’s lives, teacher well-being, at least

indirectly, has significant effects on children’s socio-emotional adjustment and academic

performance (Spilt et al., 2011). Yet, teacher well-being is affected when teachers feel

unprepared to handle a diverse group of students, especially when there are discipline concerns.

These concerns, as well as a lack of classroom management skills, can hinder teachers from

helping their students succeed academically (Price, 2008). When teachers experience negative

relationships or negative interactions with their students, teachers feel stress and internalize these

feelings. Teachers also feel negative effects when their relationships are characterized as

disrespectful or distant (Spilt et al., 2011). An internalization of negative interactions can then

lead to a negative teacher perception; thus, the relationships do not improve and the classroom

environment is not fulfilling for either the teacher or the students.

Contributing Factors

Personal characteristics of both teachers and students contribute to the interactions and

relationships between the two groups. As stated above, teacher well-being plays a role—teachers

who have a higher sense of self-efficacy and believe that classrooms should center on student

7
interests and needs tend to create a classroom environment that fosters better relationships

(Jerome & Pianta, 2008). The nature of the interaction that takes place between a teacher and

student affects the relationship. Because the way teachers communicate plays a critical role,

teachers who are friendly and positive develop better relationships with their students. Teachers

who respond in different ways depending on the student are less likely to maintain positive

relationships and will have more negative interactions. Thus, teachers have a responsibility to

welcome all students and create an air of respect between them so that more positive

relationships can be formed.

Students who have had past negative experiences have a more difficult time forming

positive relationships with teachers. These experiences can include interactions with prior

teachers or other adults, and these relationships are sometimes affected by the student’s socio-

economic status. Children who come from less economically and socially advantaged families

are at risk of having poorer relationships with teachers and parents. Unfortunately, students who

have poor relationships with their primary attachment figure, such as a parent, are likely to have

poor relationships with their teachers (Jerome & Pianta, 2008). In addition, students who have

behavioral problems are more likely to have conflict with their teachers. It is more difficult for

teachers to form positive and supportive relationships with students who misbehave and elicit

negative attention.

On the other hand, when a student has positive relationships with teachers each year, it

improves the likelihood of forming good relationships with future teachers. These students feel a

sense of control and security. Additionally, students who achieve at higher academic levels have

more positive relationships with teachers. Because these relationships are formed in the school

setting where the main objective is to be academically successful, it is possible that teachers

8
invest more time in relationships with students who are more likely to succeed (Jerome & Pianta,

2008).

Perceived Control

As stated in the overview of teacher-student relationships, perceived control plays a

significant role in forming relationships. Students need to develop a sense of control by having a

structured classroom environment and by experiencing a caring and trusting relationship with

teachers (Skinner & Greene, 2008). The effects of perceived control directly contribute to

forming relationships with teachers and the student’s education. When students do not feel a

sense of control or when they feel their teachers do not care about them, there are many negative

consequences. Students will avoid challenges and will not seek help from their teachers. In fact,

these students will only complete the minimum and do enough to get by but will never truly

engage in their own education. Feeling distracted, anxious, distressed, and unmotivated are also

consequences when the student feels he has no control. Unfortunately, these students will

procrastinate, make excuses, and quit as soon as possible, resulting in low academic

achievement.

On the other hand, when a student does perceive he has control, there are a multitude of

positive academic consequences. This includes, but is not limited to, engagement in academic

activities, setting high and concrete goals, increased focus on tasks, and more preemptive action

like study and practice. These students actually learn more because they approach learning with

enthusiasm and vigor, enjoy challenges, and seek help when needed (Skinner & Greene, 2008).

These positive consequences of perceived control are skills that will help students throughout

their academic careers and further strengthen relationships between teachers and students.

9
Therefore, teachers should seek to build a sense of student control; the positive consequences of

control can have numerous and lasting effects on students.

Effects of Teacher-Student Relationships

Good teacher-student relationships can positively impact student behaviors in the

classroom. The learning environment plays a significant role in developing a student’s

motivation to learn, and positive relationships can help maintain student interest and active

engagement in learning (Maulana et al., 2013). On the other hand, if the foundation for a good

relationship is lacking, it will negatively impact student behaviors. Students will resist rules and

procedures, and they will neither trust teachers nor listen to what they have to say if they sense

teachers do not value or respect them (Boynton & Boynton, 2005). To reiterate self-

determination theory, students need to experience an emotional involvement from their teachers.

Furthermore, students who have positive relationships with teachers are less likely to avoid

school (Rimm-Kaufman & Sandilos, 2012). Experiencing a sense of belonging greatly

contributes to developing positive relationships and positive behaviors.

The nature of teacher and student interactions shape the quality of the relationships;

teachers tend to have more negative interactions with students who are peer rejected or less

academically and behaviorally competent. Unfortunately, this interaction not only impacts the

relationship that the teacher has with the student, but it also affects the way the student’s peers

view him; this negative interaction can influence other classroom relationships (Jerome & Pianta,

2008). In order to correct this, teachers need to be more cognizant of their interactions and the

influence they have on students. Teachers should be aware that positive relationships predict

school adjustment and may serve as a defensive factor for children at high risk of poor school

and development outcomes (Lander, 2009). Taking time to build positive relationships with

10
students can have profound effects on that child’s school experiences—both within and outside

of the classroom.

Educational Outcomes

Intrinsic motivation tends to deteriorate over time. Because learning environments play

such a significant role in determining motivation, students must feel a sense of belonging, which

is a predictor of motivational outcomes and engagement. When a teacher creates a welcoming

environment and considers the needs of the students, learning outcomes will be ideal—students

will effectively perform tasks they find personally important or interesting (Maulana et al.,

2013). Creating a climate of warmth and caring as well as supporting autonomy and self-

determination will help students feel a sense of control (Skinner & Greene, 2008). All students

should have a respectful, caring, and positive learning environment that enhances the joy of

learning. The nature of the classroom environment has a powerful influence on how well

students achieve educational outcomes (Asiyai, 2014). When teachers have positive relationships

with their students, they improve the classroom and environment, which results in more

motivation.

Research suggests that good teacher-student relationships are important for maintaining

adolescents’ interests and academic engagement in learning (Maulana et al., 2013). As

previously stated, students who have more positive relationships with their teachers have better

achievement outcomes on standardized math tests and English grades. The inverse is also true—

negative teacher-student relationships correspond to worse student outcomes. One study found

that teacher-student conflict was consistently related to lower grades in math and English

(Gehlbach et al., 2012). Therefore, it is essential that teachers consider the nature of the work

itself. When academic activities are interesting, challenging, fun, and relevant to the lives of

11
students, students will want to put forth more effort and engage in these activities. Student choice

also allows students to tailor activities to their own interests—project-based learning is

significantly more effective in increasing intrinsic motivation than drills and worksheets (Skinner

& Greene, 2008).

Students’ motivation to learn and receive an education drives their thoughts and actions.

This motivation plays an important role in their efforts to learn, perform, and behave. It is no

surprise then that students’ educational expectations and perceptions of experiences are

important influences on their decision to drop out. With more than 16,000 students in their study,

Fan and Wolters (2014) found that student perceptions and expectations greatly influenced

dropout rates with a strong correlation between perceived ability and actual performance in math

and English. Therefore, student beliefs and perceptions of their abilities play a key role in their

intrinsic value and decision-making. Positive teacher-student relationships are fundamental.

Self-determination theory emphasizes competence—feeling capable to produce desired outcomes

and effectively cope with challenges. Thus, teachers should ensure that every child feels capable

and can meet expectations set forth in the classroom.

Developing Positive Relationships

Promoting Control

To reiterate, perceived control plays a significant role in forming relationships.

Experiencing control requires students to be actively engaged. Structure is also key in developing

control. Information and support that leads toward desired outcomes can help students be

successful. Other classroom practices that promote a sense of control include, but is not limited

to, the following: teach strategies that focus on the processes of learning, provide clear and

concise feedback, monitor individual progress and improvement, encourage revision and repair,

12
provide opportunities for practice and study, and model enthusiasm, strategizing, hypothesis

testing, and resilience (Skinner & Greene, 2008). When teachers initiate the classroom practices

listed above, they promote control. Consequently, the values of these practices have long-term

effects on student engagement.

Expectations and Attitude

Teachers need to have and communicate high expectations—academic and behavioral—

for all students. Communicating these expectations helps students feel a sense of belonging in

the classroom. For instance, when teachers call on the same students repetitively, they fail to

recognize certain students—usually the low performing ones. This conveys a low level of

confidence in their abilities (Boynton & Boynton, 2005). Teachers who make an effort to include

all students, especially those who are typically off task or perform at a low level, will see less off

task behaviors and higher academic achievement over time. To easily integrate this practice into

the classroom, teachers could use a checklist to document which student she calls on and how

many times during the lesson. This will allow the teacher to visually ensure all students are

included throughout the class period. Including all students will also help develop the feeling of

belonging, which will improve the relationships among teachers and students. Teachers have a

responsibility to include all students and greet each one with a positive attitude, regardless of the

teacher’s perception of the student.

Feedback

Feedback given by teachers is very important to relationships. Students who feel like the

teacher is criticizing their person feel negatively toward the teacher and the relationship.

Feedback can be delivered two ways: (1) referring to the person, which attributes outcomes to

stable factors like ability levels and (2) referring to the process, which attributes the outcome to

13
unstable factors like effort. Research suggests that person forms of feedback lead to more

negative outcomes following failure than positive ones. In fact, students who receive person

praise or criticism were more likely to feel negative about their performance and themselves and

were less likely to persevere and improve. Process feedback and emphasizing effort promotes

student growth (Skipper & Douglas, 2015). When students believe that future effort could lead to

success, they are more likely to put forth effort and work toward accomplishing their goals while

maintaining positive and productive relationships with their teachers.

In addition, one of the most critical aspects of control is how students interpret their

mistakes. Mistakes should be treated as learning opportunities and targets for future

development. The goal is for students to learn (Skinner & Greene, 2008). Positive feedback and

praise will not only encourage students to learn from their mistakes, but it is also vital to both

building and maintaining strong teacher-student relationships.

Familiarity

Children are more likely to be respectful when important adults in their lives show

respect toward them. When teachers show interest in their students’ lives, children know they are

cared about and are then more likely to care about others. In fact, demonstrating caring is one of

the most powerful ways to build positive relationships. When teachers’ actions and words

sincerely demonstrate that they care for their students, those students are more likely to want to

perform well (Boynton & Boynton, 2005). Moreover, these interactions impact students in ways

they may not even recognize. One study explored the role of high school students’ perceptions in

the development of teacher-student relationships. One of the students interviewed stated that she

did not believe teachers should be overly familiar with the lives of their students. However, when

asked who the best teacher she ever had was, the student described a teacher who always asked

14
about her life and who is someone she could talk to. Another student believed that her English

teacher did not care about her as much as her other teachers because the teacher would get up,

teach, and then sit back down, interacting minimally with the students (Cooper & Miness, 2014).

Thus, it is clear that familiarity plays a critical role in developing positive teacher-student

relationships.

There are many strategies that teachers can incorporate to show that they care. This

includes showing an interest in students’ personal lives, greeting students as they enter the

classroom, touching base with students who display strong emotions, listening with sincerity to

students, and empathizing with students. Some teachers even make it a point to regularly attend

extracurricular activities, such as sporting events, so that their students know they are cared

about both within and outside of the classroom (Boynton & Boynton, 2005).

Many researchers have called attention to the importance of strong personal attachments

of teachers to their students. Teachers also feel the basic need of relatedness, especially with

students in their classes. When teachers have negative relationships with students, it can lead to

stress and feelings of alienation, which affects both their practice and their well-being. The

importance of positive teacher-student relationships extends to both parties—teachers place

value on the personal relationships they have with students in their classes (Spilt et al., 2011).

Therefore, familiarity with students is essential for building and maintaining positive

relationships. Teachers and students can motivate each other as they work towards enhancing the

classroom environment.

There are, however, some teachers who may struggle with the concept of allowing

students to get to know them on a personal level. Some teachers may even fear that familiarity

will create a more undisciplined atmosphere in the classroom. Yet, when students feel welcomed

15
and comfortable, they are more receptive. When teachers and students become more familiar

with each other, it creates a sense of community (Brown, 2010). Taking time to show students

that their individuality is welcomed and that they are cared about not only helps students feel that

they belong but also helps foster an encouraging learning environment where both relationships

and education can flourish.

Communication

When communicating with students, teachers need to communicate in a polite and

respectful way. Beginning the first day of school, teachers must send the message that they are in

control. Yet, this should not include being overbearing, authoritarian, or inflexible. Teachers

need to establish and maintain boundaries, but it is important that teachers are also approachable.

Effective communication also includes both verbal and nonverbal cues. Body language, voice

inflection, and facial expressions are all key aspects of communication (Brown, 2010). Teachers

should consider their behaviors from the perspective of students in order to ensure their words

and actions are always forms of positive communication.

In addition, when teachers need to correct and discipline students for inappropriate

behaviors, proceeding in a constructive way will allow students the opportunity to reflect on their

behaviors and understand the teacher cares and respects them. Student reactions to being

disciplined are often a result of the manner in which they were disciplined. The discipline

process will be counterproductive if the teacher is bitter or sarcastic (Boynton & Boynton, 2005).

When teachers need to correct and discipline students, it is essential for teachers to remember the

goal: students learning from their behaviors. Students should be allowed to keep their dignity; a

teacher should never communicate in a hostile or belittling manner.

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 When correcting students, teachers can employ the following steps: review what

happened; identify and accept the student’s feeling; review alternative actions; explain the school

policy and remind the student that all students are treated the same; invoke an immediate and

meaningful consequence; and communicate an expectation that the student will do better in the

future (Boynton & Boynton, 2005). When students know the teacher cares and is disappointed

that she must invoke said consequences, the student is more likely to learn from his actions. This

procedure will also maintain the positive relationship between the teacher and student without

evoking resentful feelings due to the discipline.

Summary

Because teachers and students spend so much time together, teachers wield a

considerable amount of power over their students. Teachers should use this power to better

themselves, the classroom environment, and their students. Therefore, improving relationships in

schools between teachers and students will have positive implications for all involved. Research

suggests that relationships with students are the most important source of enjoyment and

motivation for teachers. When teachers are motivated and sincerely care for their students, they

are more likely to think about their practice and employ strategies that create a welcoming and

enjoyable learning environment. The research also suggests that students who feel a sense of

control and belonging achieve higher academically. Therefore, teachers have a responsibility to

foster a welcoming and motivating learning environment for their students. The best way to

accomplish this is by having constructive interactions with students and building and maintaining

relationships. Positive relationships result in better experiences for the child, a more productive

learning environment, and higher academic achievement.

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 CHAPTER III

METHODS

The purpose of this research study was to determine if building positive relationships

between teachers and students impacts students’ academic engagement in the classroom.

Design

This study has a pre-experimental design that is similar to a one-group pretest-posttest

design, except that data was gathered over a baseline and intervention period. Baseline data was

gathered over a two-week period and was followed by the intervention, which lasted for four

weeks. The independent variable was whether or not the Teacher-Student Relationship Building

Intervention was in place and the dependent variable was the number of off-task behaviors at

momentary time sampling ten-minute intervals.

Other factors considered when designing the study included (1) student absences during

both the baseline period and the intervention and (2) class scheduling; students have each class

every other day for a period of eighty-two minutes.

Participants

The participants in this study were secondary students who attend a co-educational public

high school in Maryland. The school is the employment site of the researcher. This high school

embodies students from a range of incomes and is predominately Caucasian. The participants

chosen to be part of this study were students from two of the researcher’s ninth grade English I

classes. These two classes were Cooperative Collaborative classes, which means there was a

special educator in the room in addition to the general educator. In addition to the general

education students, there were students in these clasess who had IEPs or 504 plans for a variety

of learning disabilities. The sample population included twelve boys, six from each of the two

18
classes. Of the twelve participants, six had IEPs for learning disabilities. The demographic

breakdown of the sample population was 100% Caucasian.

The type of sampling used for this study was a convenience sampling because each

participant is a student in one of the researcher’s classes. The participants shared the same

approximate age (14-15 years old) and ability level. Because they all shared a similar disposition

for off-task behaviors and low achievement levels during class, these twelve students were

selected as participants for the study. These students were perceived by the teacher to be

underachieving. In addition, the relationship between the teacher and each of these students was

strained, which made these students ideal candidates with whom to build a positive relationship.

Instrument

The researcher designed the instrument used in this study, which was a behavioral

observations chart. The researcher used momentary time sampling at ten-minute intervals. The

behavioral observations chart was used to record the participant’s off-task behaviors. At each

ten-minute mark, the researcher would observe the behavior of each subject at that moment and

would make a tally mark on the chart if there was an off-task behavior. At the end of the class

period, the teacher would record the total number of off-task behaviors for each participant

during the momentary time sampling observations.

There is no reliability or validity data for the behavioral observations chart because the

researcher developed it. However, momentary time sampling has been used in multiple

published studies as a measure of academic engagement. The National Center on Intensive

Intervention provides data from multiple academic engagement studies using 15-second

momentary time sampling intervals that suggest that it is a reliable and valid method of gathering

information. The studies included preschool, elementary, middle, and high school students as

19
well as learning disabled, emotionally/behaviorally disturbed, and general education students

(American Institutes for Research). In addition, a study with early childhood students by Wood,

Hojnoski, Laracy, and Olson (2016) reported that momentary time sampling measures were

highly correlated with continuous duration recording measures and that the momentary time

sampling measurements were closer to continuous duration recording measurements than whole-

interval and partial-interval recording. Inter-observer agreement (mean = 95.5%) was high.

Expert ratings of student engagement, but not teacher ratings, were significantly correlated with

momentary time sampling measurements.

Procedure

The study was completed during February and March 2017. The baseline data was

collected over a two-week period. The data was collected on an every other day basis because

the high school follows an A-day/B-day rotation schedule; the researcher sees each of her classes

every other day. In addition to seeing the classes every other day, the researcher would see the

classes at different times of the day depending on the rotation schedule. The Teacher-Student

Relationship Building Intervention occurred over a four-week period immediately following the

collection of baseline data.

All students in the researcher’s English I classes were present during the study. During a

typical class period, the teacher provides each student with a worksheet on which to complete the

assignments for the day. Class begins with a warm-up activity that directly corresponds to the

motif in the upcoming reading. The teacher reads a section of text aloud and then asks the

students to respond to comprehension questions. After responding individually, students are

asked to discuss their answers with their group before discussing as a whole class. This process

is repeated again for the second half of the reading. At the conclusion of the story, students are

20
asked to journal; they find a quotation from the text and analyze its meaning in relation to the

literary focus for the day (characterization, irony, tone, etc.). The summative activity for the class

period includes a small group activity or a brief constructed response. During the collection of

baseline data, the students studied Edgar Allan Poe. The texts read included “The Black Cat,”

“The Cask of Amontillado,” and “The Masque of the Red Death.” During the intervention

period, the students studied mythology. They read the myth “The Creation of the Titans and the

Gods” and several books from The Odyssey by Homer. While the units of study were different,

both units followed similar routines, as described above. In addition, both units included texts the

students found challenging due to the author’s style and archaic diction.

When the baseline data was collected, the teacher made no changes to the routines or

behaviors in the classroom. Because the class period was eighty-two minutes, the teacher

checked for off-task behaviors every ten minutes, for a total of seven times during the class

period. Prior to the start of class, the teacher recorded the exact time when she would check for

off-task behaviors on the behavioral observations chart. Because she kept the chart in hand all

period, this allowed the teacher to accurately record the behaviors at the proper time and interval.

There were six students selected for the sample in two different classes. The first

observation was made ten minutes into the class. At each ten-minute mark of the class period,

the teacher would observe the behavior of the six students and record it on the chart if a student

was off-task during the momentary observation. The time interval at 80 minutes into the class

period was not included on the behavioral observations chart because at this time the students

typically do not have task requirements because they are preparing to depart for their next class.

If the student was engaged in any off-task behaviors, the teacher recorded one tally mark

in the box for the appropriate interval. Only one tally mark was assigned per observational block,

21
even if the student were engaging in multiple off-task behaviors (e.g., talking while playing on

his phone). Off-task behaviors included behaviors that were not associated with the task and

occurred while the teacher was reading, providing instruction, or leading and facilitating class

discussion. Off-task behaviors also included any behaviors that occurred when the student was

expected to be working independently or collaborating with classmates. These behaviors

included sleeping, head down, excessive discussion on unrelated subjects, continuous cell phone

use, wandering purposelessly in the classroom, or completing work not related to the current

subject area.

After the period dedicated to collecting baseline data, which was five classes over a two-

week period, the teacher implemented the intervention. The intervention included greeting each

student at the door before class began and saying goodbye to each student during departure from

the classroom. While each student in the class received the same salutations, additional attention

was paid to the students who were selected as part of the study’s sample. The teacher engaged

these students individually in extra conversation, which included asking about the child’s day,

complimenting his attire, inquiring about his weekend plans, etc. Each conversation lasted about

one minute and occurred three or four times during each class period. Data was collected over a

period of four weeks, for a total of ten class periods. The data for the intervention stage was

collected on the same chart that was used to collect the baseline data.

Data from the baseline and intervention periods were prorated to adjust for absences. At

the end of the study, the number of off-task observations during the baseline period was doubled,

to create a weighted baseline to adjust for the fact that the baseline was half the duration of the

intervention. The number of off-task behaviors per student during the momentary time sampling

22
under the baseline and intervention conditions, were compared using a non-independent samples

t-test.

23
 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

During the study, the researcher recorded off-task behaviors of twelve boys aged 14-15 in

ninth grade English I classrooms. The researcher collected baseline data for two weeks before

introducing an intervention. The four-week intervention included greeting each student at the

door before the start of class and saying goodbye to each student as they departed. Moreover,

additional attention was paid to the selected students; the teacher engaged these students

individually in supplemental conversation throughout the class period.

The mean number of off-task behaviors per student during the weighted baseline period

(Mean = 44.33, SD = 14.89) was significantly higher than the mean number of off-task behaviors

during the intervention period (Mean = 31.08, SD = 9.68) [t(11) = 5.90, p < .001] (Please see

Table 1 on following page). Consequently, the null hypothesis that there will be no significant

statistical differences between the number of off-task behaviors at momentary time sampling ten-

minute intervals among underachieving high school English students during a weighted two-

week baseline period and a four-week Teacher-Student Relationship Building Intervention

period was rejected.

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 Table 1

Means, Standard Deviations, and t-test Results for Number of Off-Task Behaviors per Student

during Weighted Baseline and Intervention Periods

Mean Std. Deviation t-statistic

Weighted Baseline 44.33 14.89 5.90*

Intervention 31.08 9.68

N = 12

*Significant at p < .001

When looking at the raw data, some students had high numbers of off-task behaviors

while other students had exhibited fewer off-task behaviors. Additionally, in reviewing the

pattern of behaviors, there were a few students whose off-task behaviors did not appear to be

impacted much by the intervention. However, as can be seen in Table 1, the mean number of off-

task behaviors per student during the baseline period was significantly higher than during the

intervention period. Therefore, the Teacher-Student Relationship Building Intervention yielded

positive results in reducing the total number of off-task behaviors throughout a class period.

25
 CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

This study examined the impact of teacher-student relationships on students' academic

engagement, as the researcher sought an answer to the question of whether building and

maintaining positive relationships could impact students' performance and engagement in the

classroom. The researcher hypothesized that there would be no significant statistical differences

between the number of off-task behaviors at momentary time sampling ten-minute intervals

among underachieving high school English students during a weighted two-week baseline period

and a four-week Teacher-Student Relationship Building Intervention period. After the study was

completed, the null hypothesis was rejected. There were fewer off-task behaviors during the

intervention period.

Implications of Results

The results of this study indicate that building and maintaining positive relationships

between teachers and students will improve student engagement and motivation during class. It

was observed that students were engaged in fewer off-task behaviors during the four-week

intervention period. Although the study did not measure academic growth, it is likely that

because students were more engaged in the lessons and activities, they retained more information

and grew academically.

Furthermore, the researcher noticed differences in the attitudes and demeanors of the

students. The students for whom the intervention was intended were more likely to comply with

directions and participate during class. These students also came to class prepared and ready to

learn. Students who engaged in off-task behaviors such as sleeping, putting their head downs,

playing on their cell phones, or working on assignments for other classes, were more involved in

26
the material at hand. These students were also more open and friendly with the teacher. At the

start of the intervention, the teacher took full responsibility for initiating greetings and

conversation with the students. As the intervention progressed, students also took responsibility

for this task. They greeted the teacher, asked polite questions about her day, and seemed

genuinely interested in her response. The teacher may have built positive relationships with her

students, but both the teacher and students sought to maintain them.

Positive relationships increased engagement among students, yet it also created a more

productive and fulfilling learning environment for all. Teacher well-being is affected by the

quality of relationships, and when the teacher perceived that her students were responsive to her

greetings and conversations, she grew more motivated to continue this behavior and foster better

relationships. Thus, there were positive outcomes for both the teacher and the students, which

resulted in a better learning environment.

On a practical level, the intervention is simple to include among daily classroom routines,

and all teachers, especially those with off-task and non-engaged students, could implement this

intervention. For all intents and purposes, the intervention is effortless and does not require the

teacher to spend much time to implement. In fact, greeting students and saying goodbye takes

only a moment of the teacher’s time and demonstrates to students that the classroom is a

welcoming environment. During instruction, teachers already circulate around the room to check

on the progress of students, so minor additional conversation can be added to this routine

seamlessly. It is possible there will be days when the teacher has to exert more energy when

smiling and conversing with students, yet this small additional effort goes a long way when

building positive relationships with students. In addition, the intervention had no cost, which

makes it valuable to educators in every school and community.

27
 Theoretical Consequences

On a theoretical level, the results of this study prove that students benefit immensely

from positive teacher-student relationships. During the intervention period, students participated

in fewer off-task behaviors and were more engaged in classroom activities. Because the targeted

students were less distracted and distracting to others, it created a better learning environment for

the entire class. There was increased participation, productive small group collaboration, and

better whole class discussions. As stated previously, academic growth was not measured during

this study, but it is likely that there was an increase in academic achievement.

Threats to Validity

There are numerous threats to the internal validity of this study. First, the sample size was

small and the researcher used convenience sampling by focusing the intervention on twelve

students from two of her classes. Although the classes were both Cooperative Collaborative

classes and the students shared the same approximate ability level and disposition for off-task

behaviors, each class has its own unique chemistry. The differences in the chemistry among each

group of students contributed to the off-task behaviors in which the students participated. Some

of the students fed off the behaviors of others.

Another threat to the validity of the study was student attendance. There were not a large

number of absences and the number of off-task behaviors was prorated to adjust for absences;

however, prorated values are less valid than actual values. In addition, these students met with

the teacher every other day; one day absent from class meant the teacher and student did not

interact for multiple days, which could have affected the relationship the teacher was attempting

to build.

28
 The third threat to the internal validity was curricular differences between the baseline

period and the intervention period. During the collection of baseline data, the students studied

Edgar Allan Poe and, during the intervention period, the students studied Greek mythology.

While the units of study were different, both units followed similar routines and included

challenging texts. However, the researcher’s observations of the classes indicated that the

mythology unit was more enjoyable for the students as they had substantial prior knowledge.

Because the students appeared to enjoy their studies more during the intervention period, this

could have affected the number of off-task behaviors in which the students engaged.

Additionally, the short time frame of the intervention affected the internal validity of the

study. Baseline data was collected over a two-week period (five class periods) and the

intervention data was collected over a four-week period (ten class periods). It is impossible to

know, therefore, what the results would be if both the baseline data and intervention data were

collected over a longer period of time.

There are also threats to external validity that future research on a similar topic should

take into account. The participants in this study were all Caucasian ninth grade boys,

approximately 14 and 15 years old, that engaged in a multitude of continuous off-task behaviors.

In addition, 50% of the participants had an IEP for a specific learning disability. All twelve

participants were students in the researcher’s classes. It is also important to note that the school

where the intervention took place follows an A-day/B-day rotation schedule, which means that

the teacher saw her students every other day. Duplicating this intervention in a different setting

may not yield the same results. In the case of a setting where classes meet every day, the person

implementing the intervention would have to consider not growing overly familiar with the

students and neglecting an appropriate balance in the relationship. In addition, the data was

29
collected using momentary time sampling. The researcher checked for off-task behaviors every

ten minutes, for a total of seven times during an 82-minute class period. If the intervention was

duplicated during shorter class periods, it may not yield the same results.

Furthermore, the time of year should be considered if the intervention were to be

duplicated. The intervention described in this study occurred during February and March, which

is the third quarter of the year. At this point during the school year, the teacher and students are

already accustomed to classroom procedures and have established relationships. If the

intervention were duplicated at the beginning of the school year or closer to the end of the year,

the results could vary.

Connections to Previous Studies

A study by Allday and Pakurar (2007) determined how teacher greetings affected off-task

behaviors of middle school students. The students used in the study were identified by their

teachers as having problem behaviors. Momentary time sampling was used to measure on-task

behavior during the first ten minutes of class. The occurrence or non-occurrence of on-task

behavior was recorded in 15-second intervals. Data was recorded in each student’s classroom as

the students participated in the normal class routines. Students were observed two days a week

for a total of six weeks. During baseline, teachers maintained their typical daily routines. During

the intervention phase, teachers greeted the target students at the door by using the student’s

name along with a positive statement. The results indicated that teacher greetings were

associated with an increase of on-task behavior for all participants.

Similar to the Allday and Pakurar (2007) study, this study focused on off-task behaviors

and used momentary time sampling. Both studies used a similar technique to build positive

relationships—teachers greeted students as they entered the classroom and engaged students in

30
meaningful individualized conversation. There are, however, multiple differences between the

studies. Allday and Pakurar only tracked behaviors during the first ten minutes of class, whereas

this study observed behaviors at ten-minute intervals throughout the entire class period. The

population was also different. Allday and Pakurar used three students in three different middle

schools, while this study used twelve students in two different classes taught by the same

teacher. Both studies prove that positive teacher-student relationships can reduce off-task

behaviors during class and provide evidence that the intervention can be effective with students

at different grade levels.

Implications for Future Research

This study could be improved by addressing the weaknesses of the study. For example,

future research could duplicate the study and add a control group that does not receive an

intervention. However, the person who implements the study must be careful that he or she is not

doing a disservice to the students in the control group. The current study could also be

strengthened by including another teacher who teaches a class of students with similar ability

levels and dispositions for participating in off-task behaviors. Being able to compare results from

multiple teachers would help validate the results of the study.

Future research could build on this study by duplicating the intervention with different

populations. For example, future research could include a larger population comprised of both

boys and girls. It would also be beneficial to duplicate the study across multiple grade levels,

especially the younger grades when students first form bonds with their teachers and

expectations for school. This could serve as a comparative analysis of the benefits of positive

relationships throughout multiple years of schooling.

31
 Additionally, future research should consider the length of the study. If the study

occurred for more than six weeks, would the off-task behaviors continue to decrease? On the

other hand, it is possible that the number of off-task behaviors would plateau or even increase

when the novelty of the intervention wears off or if the students grow too comfortable and

friendly with the teacher. Future research should also consider whether once a solid relationship

has been established between the teacher and students, if the individualized conversations can be

reduced. These interactions should not be excessive, and if they were tapered off during the

intervention it could affect the number of off-task behaviors either positively or negatively.

Furthermore, once the teacher has established positive relationships with the targeted students,

the interactions should be phased out so that it does not appear the teacher favors certain students

over others. Greeting students as they enter class and saying goodbye as they leave can occur

throughout the entire school year, but the implications of extra conversation for selected students

needs to be considered when duplicating this intervention.

Since the primary goal of education is to increase academic skill development, it would

be valuable to examine the academic growth of students during the intervention. Future studies

could implement a similar intervention but collect data that not only tracks the number of off-

task behaviors in which the students participate but also any changes in their academic

performances.

Summary/Conclusion

In summation, building and maintaining positive teacher-student relationships is essential

for success in the classroom. This study examined the effect of simple relationship building

strategies on the off-task behaviors of students who were often non-engaged. The number of off-

task behaviors was significantly lower during the intervention period. These results suggest that

32
classroom behavior can be improved through an enhancement in the relationships between

teachers and students. The intervention used in this study simply involved greeting students as

they entered the classroom and saying goodbye as they departed, which is something that every

teacher could include in his or her daily routine, and holding brief interpersonal conversations

each class period. By making a few small changes in demeanor and routine, teachers can

promote a positive and productive learning environment for all students. Because students spend

about 25% of their waking hours in a classroom, it is essential that they feel a sense of belonging

in order to be engaged, motivated, and successful.

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