 INTRODUCTION

Nuclear chemistry is the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear

processes, such as nuclear transmutation, and nuclear properties.
It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as the actinides, radium and radon
together with the chemistry associated with equipment (such as nuclear reactors)
which are designed to perform nuclear processes. This includes the corrosion of
surfaces and the behaviour under conditions of both normal and abnormal
operation (such as during an accident). An important area is the behaviour of
objects and materials after being placed into a nuclear waste storage or disposal
site.
It includes the study of the chemical effects resulting from the absorption of
radiation within living animals, plants, and other materials. The radiation
chemistry controls much of radiation biology as radiation has an effect on living
things at the molecular scale, to explain it another way the radiation alters the
biochemical within an organism, the alteration of the biomolecules then changes
the chemistry which occurs within the organism, this change in chemistry then can
lead to a biological outcome. As a result, nuclear chemistry greatly assists the
understanding of medical treatments (such as cancer radiotherapy) and has
enabled these treatments to improve.
It includes the study of the production and use of radioactive sources for a range
of processes. These include radiotherapy in medical applications; the use
of radioactive tracers within industry, science and the environment; and the use of
radiation to modify materials such as polymers.
It also includes the study and use of nuclear processes in non-radioactive areas of
human activity. For instance, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is
commonly used in synthetic organic chemistry and physical chemistry and for
structural analysis in macromolecular chemistry.

 RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity is a natural process in which nucleus of atom disintegrates

spontaneously in the form of alpha, beta, gamma rays and such elements are
known as radioactive elements and the activity is known as Radioactivity.(e.g.
elements polonium to hafnium and isotopes of some elements).
If the ratio n/p is equals to 1 the element will be very stable. If n/p greater than 1
(i.e. nearly 1.5) element will be radioactive. If n/p less than 1 element will be
unstable.
A modern theory for stability of element is Einstein equation i.e. E=mc2, where m
is reduced mass or mass defect .
Mass defect is the mass converted into energy to bind electron, proton and
neutron.
Per nucleon (proton and neutron) binding energy decide the stability of element,
greater the value of per nucleon binding energy greater the stability and vice versa.
It is experimentally found that if per nucleon binding energy comes up to 8 MeV
the element will be stable and if more and less than 8 the element will be unstable.

 SHELL MODEL OF ATOM

This model is also known as independent particle model. According to this model,
the nucleons are arranged in shells corresponding to different energy levels. When
the nucleons occupy the lowest energy level this corresponds to the ground state.
Under different conditions the nucleons may occupy different energy levels.
Usually the population of these higher energy levels is too short lived that it cannot
be observed. Thus the properties of the nucleus depend only on the number of
neutrons and protons and not on the energy levels they occupy.
Many nucleii are unstable even when they correspond to the ground state and
stable nuclei decomposed by using various particles and electromagnetic radiation
and this is known as radioactive decay.
In 1937 the German scientist T. Schmidt and H. Schuler independently showed that
the concept of nuclear shells would be fairly well correlated in a simple manner
with the known magnetic moments of nucleii.
Nuclear shell model is sometimes referred to be independent particle model as it
postulates more or less independent behaviour of the nucleons in the nucleus. It is
based on the realisation that there are specific numbers of protons and neutrons
that is referred to as magic numbers.
Mayer brought about evidence showing the reality of the so-called magic numbers
of nucleons namely 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, which represent the closed shells in
the nucleus.
Some of the main aspects of the evidence are as below

I. Elements of even atomic number are more stable and more abundant than
neighbouring elements of odd atomic number. This is known as Harkins rule
(exception hydrogen is the most stable).
II. Elements even atomic numbers are richer in isotope and never have less than
three stable isotopes elements with odd atomic numbers of fun have only
one stable isotope and never have more than 2.
III. Their tendency for the number of neutrons and the number of protons in the
nucleus to be even.
This suggests that nucleons may be paired in the nucleus in a similar way to
the pairing of electrons in an atomic and molecular orbital. The magnetic
field they produce naturally cancel each other. The small amount of binding
energy generated is sufficient to stabilize the nucleus.
IV. Elements having the largest numbers of stable isotopes are those containing
20 and 50 protons or 20,50 and 82 neutrons.
For e.g. Tin atomic no. 50 has 10 isotopes. It also has three stable isotopes of
odd mass no. (115,117&119).
Thus O, Ca, Sr, Y, Zr, Sn, Ba(56), Ce(58) & Pb(82) have magic numbers of
protons and neutrons.
Stability of nucleus containing magic number of neutrons have small cross
section area.

Other phenomenon correlated with special stability of magic number:-

I. The high bonding energy of last neutrons in such nucleosides.
II. Occurrence of alpha particle emission among the isotope of certain
element of medium mass number.
III. Non-existence of stable isotopes of elements 43 & 61.

 NUCLEAR LIQUID DROP MODEL

The liquid drop model is statistical in nature and was developed by Neil Bohr and J.
Wheeler. It treats the nucleus as a homogeneous entity containing a certain
number of nucleons. Bohr tried to compare properties of nucleus with a drop of
liquid and found many similarities, some of these are as follows-
I. A liquid drop has a large number of molecules just as nucleus has large
number of protons and neutrons.
II. Both the liquid drop and nucleus are homogeneous and incompressible,
the density, charge and other properties are the same throughout the
liquid drop and the nucleus except at the surface boundary.
III. Comparison of a nucleus with a liquid drop implies that the force between
all the nucleons is same.
IV. The evaporation of a liquid drop corresponds to emission from a
radioactive isotope.
V. Surface tension in a liquid arises from the fact that surface molecules in a
drop are not so tightly bound as are the molecules in the interior. There
is evidence to show that in the case of nucleons presents in the nucleus
is the same.
VI. Heat of vaporization of a liquid corresponds to binding energy of the
nucleus.
VII. Intermolecular forces in a liquid are short range forces. The same is in the
case of nucleus.
VIII. A nucleus may form a compound nucleus by capturing a high energy
particle formed outside as does a liquid drop get excited.
IX. The compound nucleus or the liquid drop may get de-excited by
undergoing any of the following changes.
Compound nucleii. Liquid drop

 By emission of radiation. By cooling

 By emission of a nucleon. By evaporation
 By nuclear fission. By breaking up into droplets

X. Just as two liquid drops may undergo fusion to give a bigger drop.
Similarly, two lighter nucleii may undergo fusion to give a bigger nucleus.
  APPLICATION OF LIQUID DROP MODEL

1) Basedom and some other scientists developed an equation for calculating

binding energies of different nucleus. The value obtained are in good
agreement with the experimental data. This favours the liquid drop
model.

2) An important application of the liquid drop model is in connection with

the nuclear fission. The ability to explain nuclear fission favours the liquid
drop model. It is possible to explain why 92U235 can undergo fission
bombarded by slow neutrons energy of about 0.25 eV, while 92U238
requires fast neutrons having energy 1.2eV.

Absorption of low energy neutron by 92U238 results in the formation of an

excited nucleus which undergoes beta ray decay to form plutonium (Pu239) .
This is known as Neutron Capture Reaction.

 POTENTIAL ENERGY BARRIER

When a positively charged particle such as an alpha particle approaches a nucleus

it is repaired by the nucleus, the repulsion forces between the nucleus and
approaching of alpha particle is called Potential Energy Barrier. The potential
energy of repulsion is given by the equation,

V = (Ze)1 (Ze)2/4eEod
= Z1 Z2 e2/4eEod
Where, Z is atomic number

e is unit of protonic charge = 1.602 × 10-19 Coulomb

 d is the distance between the nucleus and the positively charged
particle

 NUCLEAR CROSS SECTION AREA

The probability or efficiency of a nuclear reaction is defined as the number of

particles capable for a defined number of incident particles. Nuclear reaction cross
section is a more general and universally recognised term for interaction
probability. The nuclear cross section define the probability that a bombarding
projectile will interact with the target nucleus.
Nuclear reaction cross section is the effective area of cross section of a nucleus of
a given species for a particular reaction.
Thus when probability is high nuclear cross section area is large and vice versa. The
standard unit for measuring a nuclear cross section (denoted as σ) is the barn,
which is equal to 10−28 m² or 10−24 cm².
σ = Number of given types of events per unit time per nucleus/number of
projectile particles per unit area, unit time.
σ = A / Na. I cm2/nucleus
Where, I = number of incident particle striking target material at a given time
Na = number of target nucleus per centimetre
A = number of nuclei that undergoes interaction
The nuclear reaction cross section depends on nature of interaction which in turn
depends on the energy and the type of incident particle.
There are three types of nuclear reaction processes:-

1. Elastic scattering cross section:

When the projectile is elastically scattered by the target nucleus.

2. Inelastic scattering cross section:

When the projectile is inelastically scattered by the target nucleus.
 3. Reaction cross section:
When a reaction takes place between the target and the projectile.
If all these processes occur then the total cross section σtot is the sum
of various partial cross section.

 NUCLEAR REACTION AND THEIR TYPES

There are two types of reaction: -
1. Nuclear fission reaction
2. Nuclear fusion reaction
 NUCLEAR FISSION REACTION
Nuclear fission reaction of bigger nucleus is broken into two smaller daughter
nuclei, the sum of the masses of daughter nuclei is less than the mass of parent
nucleus due to mass defect a huge amount of energy is released in the form of heat,
light and sound.

In atom bomb, 92U235 is bombarded by slow moving neutrons of energy 0.25eV U235
breaks into two daughter nuclei Ba141 & Kr92 , the sum of the masses of Ba and Kr is
less than the mass of U235 due to mass defect huge amount of energy is released
nearly 100000 degree Celsius temperature is produced in this reaction which
cannot be controlled, hence the reaction is known as an controlled fission reaction.
This reaction will stop when the secondary neutron crosses the nucleus critical size
of U235.

For the explosion of atom bomb, a critical mass is required. Above the critical mass
which is known as supercritical mass, the explosion takes place. Below the critical
mass which is known as subcritical mass, explosion which is not possible.

 CONTROLLED FISSION REACTION

 1. NUCLEAR FUEL - 92U235 or 94Pu239 are used as nuclear fuel.
 U235 present to an extent of 0.71 % by weight in ordinary
uranium, hence this is the only natural material that can
produce nuclear energy directly.
 94Pu239 is an artificial radioactive element which is formed by
neutron capture reaction. Although U238 undergo fission by fast
reaction with energy greater than 1MeV, it is however not
possible to take U238 as fuel.
2. MODERATOR - D2O is used as moderator because it has small cross section
area.
3. CONTROL ROD- Cadmium - Boron alloy is used as control rod because
cadmium can adsorb neutron flux.
4. COOLANT- molten sodium metal is used as coolant . It cools the reactor and
the D2O works as heat exchanger.
5. SHIELDING MATERIAL- (20-25 cm) of lead(Pb) and (3-4 m) concrete wall is
used to shield the reaction.

 NUCLEAR FUSION REACTION

In fusion reaction to smaller nuclei are fused to form a bigger nucleus. the mass of
the bigger nucleus is less than the masses of fused nuclei, due to mass defect
energy comes out.

In hydrogen bomb, deuterium and tritium are fused to form one helium atom and
the mass of the atom is less than the sum of the masses of deuterium and tritium
due to mass defect, energy is produced. for fusion of deuterium and tritium nearly
100000 degree celsius temperature is required which is not possible by any
laboratory method. Fission is the only way by which we can get 100000 degree
celsius temperature. Therefore, fusion is carried out after fission. Without fission,
fusion is not possible. After fusion, 10 times greater energy is produced than fission
which cannot be controlled. Hence it is known as an uncontrolled fusion reaction.

In sun, it is supposed that fusion is taking place according to Hens Bethe. In sun,
four hydrogen atoms are fused to form one helium atom. The mass of helium is less
than the sum of the masses of four hydrogen atoms. Due to mass defect energy is
coming out from Sun.
  APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE
 TRACER TECHNIQUE
1. To solve structural problem
Radioactive tracer can be used to solve structural problems. For example the
structure of thiosulphate ion(S2O32-) was established by this method.
If the sulphur is heated with labelled sulphite, thiosulphate ion may be
produced.

S + *SO3 -------> *S2O3

When thiosulphate containing labelled sulphur atom is broken down in an
acidic solution, the products are sulphur and sulphite ion.
*S2O3 -------> S + *SO3
After decomposition of the thiosulphate, the labelled sulphur atom remain
linked to oxygen of sulphite ion. Thus indicating that the burning of the
labelled sulphur is unaffected in synthesis and decomposition and also seen
that sulphur atom are not equivalent, otherwise, labelled isotope would
have distributed between the products of decomposition. Thus, the
investigated structure of thiosulphate is,

2.Study of the mechanism of reaction involving free radical formation

 Photosynthesis
 The mechanism of photosynthesis in plants has been studied by reacting
carbon dioxide containing O18 (CO218) with H2O. in the process the green
plants take up carbon dioxide and water in presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll to form sugar and starch, giving out oxygen.
Now, the question arises whether the oxygen evolved in this process comes

out from carbon dioxide or water or both?

It is found that by using CO218 that the oxygen evolved does not contain O18
i.e. O18 present in CO218 goes to sugar and water, while that of water is
evolved as free oxygen. Thus, oxygen evolved in the process of
photosynthesis comes from water and not from CO2 . Thus, the reaction
which is written above should be shown as,
6 CO218 + 12 H2O ---------> C6H12O618 + 6 H2O18 + 6O2

3.In ester hydrolysis

The mechanism taking place in Ester hydrolysis has been revealed by tracer
technique. Since, carbon does not having radioisotope sufficiently long-lived
for tracer studies, it was therefore necessary to use O18 isotope as labelled
atom. The hydrolysis by water enriched with heavy oxygen is indicated as-

The fact that labelled oxygen is contained in the acid proofs that the OR`
group has substituted by *OH in the hydrolysis reaction.

 ISOTOPIC DILUTION TECHNIQUE OR ANALYSIS

Isotopic dilution analysis is a method for determining the quality of chemical

substances. In its most simple conception the method of isotopic dilution
comprises the addition of known amounts of isotopically enriched
substances to the analysed sample. Mixing of the isotopic standard with the
sample effectively dilutes the isotopic enrichment of the standard and this
forms the basis for the isotopic dilution method.
 Isotopic dilution technique has been widely used in determining the
solubilities of sparingly soluble salt.
I. To determine the solubility of lead chromate added in unknown quantity
of radioactive isotope of Pb212 to a definite amount of soluble lead salt.
The activity of the resulting mixture was measured so that relationship
was established to the activity of the material for mg of lead. The soluble
mixture of lead ions was precipitated as lead chromate and held to a
constant temperature until the saturated solution of the fairly unstable
material has reached equilibrium. After ascertaining the total volume of
liquid, a definite volume was withdrawn and evaporated to dryness. The
activity of the minute residue was determined. From the activity of the
residue, it was possible to establish what weight of lead was dissolved in
a known quantity of solution.
II. The isotopic dilution method is useful in analytical chemistry. This method
is useful in determining blood volume in an animal or human being. It
involves the following procedure:
a. The tracer is injected in donor subject and allows sufficient time for
incorporation of tracer into the circulating red cells.
b. Tracer used is Fe59 .
c. A sample is withdrawn from donor and its activity is determined
per ml of blood.
d. Then a portion of sample is introduced into the subject after a
proper time, the sample is determined for radioactivity.
e. From the dilution of activity it is possible to calculate the volume of
blood.
III. The isotopic dilution method has also helpful in the determination of
solubility of water in benzene or other hydrocarbons. By adding a definite
quantity of radioactive tritium (1H3) in the form of tritium salt to a given
amount of water and the resulting mixture has an activity that is to be
measured.
IV. Isotopic dilution is important in analytical biochemistry.
  NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS

It is frequently used and this technique is highly efficient in those cases where the
element concerned have high neutron capture cross section. The sample to be
analysed is irradiated with thermal neutron flux from a reactor for sufficiently long
time to produce the measurable activity then by comparing radioactivity of the
unknown. The amount of unknown constituent can be determined.

Principle:
It should be possible to irradiate a mixture of elements show their induced
radioactivities are a different. Therefore it is sometimes possible to detect even
very small amount of an impurity in a sample by subjecting it to irradiation in such
a manner that the impurity is relatively converted into radioisotopes. This
technique has been developed to a point where analysis accurate with 10% can be
carried out for microgram quantity of certain elements. It has used for the analysis
of rare Earth elements and for detection of Gallium in Iron, Copper in Nickel and
Hafnium in Zirconium.
CONTENT

1. Introduction
2. Radioactivity
3. Shell model of atom
4. Nuclear liquid drop model
 Application of liquid drop model
5. Potential energy barrier
6. Nuclear cross section area
7. Nuclear reaction and their types
 Nuclear fission reaction
 Nuclear fusion reaction
8. Application of radioactive isotope
 Tracer technique
9. Isotopic dilution technique
10.Neutron activation analysis
 Acknowledgement

In the accomplishment of this project successfully many

people have best owned upon me their blessings and kind
support.
This time I am utilising to thank all the people who have
been concerned with the project.
I acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude to my teacher
my HOD Dr. D N Thakur and my teacher Manoj Ranjan for
providing me their valuable guidance and constant
cooperation at every step of this project on the topic
Nuclear chemistry.
I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped
in accomplishment of this project in limited time.