Dgca

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CPL
EARTH. It is an oblate spheroid whose major axis AB is 12748 km and minor axis CD is 12705km ie
a difference of 43 km. Compression Ratio = diff of two axis/larger axis
C
CR = 43/12748 ~ 1/299 or 1/300 approx, Polar axis is
Shorter by 1/300 times the equator. For all practical purposes
Earth is considered as a Sphere.
A B
B
D
Great Circle. It’s a circle which when drawn across the earth cuts the earth into two equal hemispheres.
Properties.
(a) It’s the shortest path between two poles.

(b) On earth sphere it appears as a straight line.
(c) Only one GC can be drawn between two points unless they are diagrammatically opposite
each other, in that case infinite number can be drawn.
(d) Radio signal follow Great Circle Path.
Latitude. The angle subtended by the shorter arc of the meridian at the centre of the earth from the
Equator to the point to be identified is termed as latitude of that point. It is denoted as N or S depending
on whether the point lies North or South of the Equator also known as Geocentric Latitude, whereas,
Geodetic Latitude is the angle between the normal to the observers horizontal plane and the equatorial
plane.
Longitude. The angle subtended by shorter arc of equator at the centre of the earth from prime
meridian to the point to be identified is termed as longitude and is denoted East or West depending on
whether the point lies East or West of the prime meridian.
Nautical Mile. It is the arc length subtended by 1 minute angle at the surface of the earth. The angle is
measured from the Geocentric Latitude. Length of Nm is more at poles when measured from geographic
centre.
1 Nm = 6017 feet at Poles- geographical centre

1 Nm =6045 feet at Equator – geocentric
1 Nm = 6080 feet subtended at 45 deg Latitude.
1 Deg = 60 Nm hence distance covered around the globe =360 x 60 = 21600 Nm (Great Circle path)
Kilometre : It is 1/10,000 th part of the distance from pole to the equator. 1 km =3280 ft.
1 Nm =6080/3280 = 1.854 km and 1 km = 3280/6080 = 0.54 Nm
Statute Mile. By statute it is 5280 ft.

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Rhumb Line : A line which cuts all meridians at equal angles. It spirals to the poles at angles less than
90°. ATS routes are rhumb line tracks. Equator is a RL as well as GC. Parallels of Lat are RL tracks.
Meridians are GC track (Flying a constant direction).
Direction. It is measured with respect to the North, clockwise. All meridians point to North.
True Direction. A direction which is measured with respect to True North the symbol is and is
annotated as 005 T or 005 (T).The geographical north is not aligned with the magnetic earth since the
earth behaves as a bar magnet with its axis slightly aligned from the geographical axis. The exact
position of North an South pole with respect to the bar magnet is defined and known, however the
position of magnetic north depends on where the observation is taken from vis a vis the position of True
North.
Magnetic North. It is the direction which points to the magnetic north. The angular difference between
the True North and Magnetic North is known as Variation and is denoted as E or W depending on
whether the Magnetic North lies east or west of true North. Simply, if Magnetic North lies East of True
North the Variation is East and if Mag N lies W of True North Var is West. Thumb Rule - Var E Mag
Least, Var W Mag Best. It is applicable in any hemisphere.
The symbol for Magnetic north is and is denoted by 045 M or 045 (M).
Isogonal : Lines joining places of equal Variation. Agonal : Lines joining places of zero Variation.
Compass North. The direction measured wrt to Compass North is called Compass direction.
The symbol for Compass North is and is denoted as 005 (C) or 005 C.
Deviation. It is the angular difference between Magnetic North and Compass North and is termed as
Easterly if Compass North lies East of Magnetic North and Westerly if Compass North lies West of
Magnetic North. Deviation is obtained from Compass Card and it varies from aircraft to aircraft due to
inherent magnetic fields present in the ac and is different for different headings. Thumb Rule - Dev E
Com Least, Dev W Comp Best. It is applicable in any hemisphere.
Any line drawn on a map represents a True Track.

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True North
Magnetic North Compass
North
Variation W
Deviation E
Fig: Deviation and Variation
POBLEMS ON DIRECTION (Black-Given, Red-Determined) (East is +, W is -ive)
C D M V T
1 269 5E 274 4W 270
2 027 3W 024 4E 020
3 051 +3 054 4W 050
4 300 -7 293 10E 303
5 045 -4 041 +6 047
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SCALE FACTOR AND DEPARTURE
Departure (Nm) = dlong x 60 x Cos Lat based on this formula distance in Nm along any latitude can
be determined. As latitude increase for same dlong distance reduces. Therefore distance is maximum at
the equator and zero at poles, also this is a Cosine function. If the Longitudinal change is known
distance traveled along a particular latitude can be determined. It is applicable to both the hemispheres.
While flying on Easterly hdg and crossing the ante meridian the value of longitude will change to
westerly and vice versa. Hence to determine the longitude the following can be resorted to (360-
{longitude at origin + change in longitude}) in case we cross the ante meridian. Don’t forget to change
the Easterly or Westerly Longitude depending whether the aircraft is traveling from East to West or vice
versa. For eg an ac flying from 172 E on an easterly heading changes longitude by 12 degrees (dlong)
then the position of the aircraft is (360-{172+12}) = 360 – 184 =176 degrees W.
Problems on Departure
1. At what latitude a distance of 100 nm will involve a dlong of 30 degrees?
A. Dep =100 nm, dlong =100nm, Lat=?, Dep=dlong x 60 x Cos Lat

or 900=30 x 60 x Cos Lat or Cos Lat = 0.5 or Lat = Cos inv 0.5 = 60 Deg
2. How long will it take to go around the earth at 60 deg lat at G/S of 600 Kts?
A. Dep =? Lat = 60 deg, dlong =360, G/S = 600 K, Dep=360 x 60 x Cos 60 = 10800
Hence time taken =10800/600 =18 hrs, whereas, the time taken to go round the equator is 36 h.
3. A is 60N 168E, B is 545 nm due East of A, what is its longitude. (See figure below)
A. Dep = 545 nm, Lat = 60 deg, dlong = ? Substituting in Dep=dlong x 60 x CosLat

545= dlong x 60 x 0.5 or dlong = 545/30 = 18 deg 10 min =17350W
4. Find dep between 32 30 N, 20 42 E and 32 30 N, 89 26 E. 173°50W 180° 168°E

6°10’ 12°
A. dlong = 68° 44´ x 60 x Cos 52° 50´ =3478 Nm
5. Find RL distance between 42° 42’ N, 32° 42’ E & 42° 42’ N 69° 42’ W.
A. 102° 24’ x 60 x Cos 42° 42’ = 4515.3 Nm
6. Aircraft takes off from A 60° 29’ N 177° 23’ E and flies a RL track of 090° for 600 nm. Find lat &
long of destination.
A. 600 ÷ 60 =10 ÷ Cos 60° 29’ = 20° 18’, 177° 23’ + 20° 18’ = 197 41’, 360° - 197 41’ =162° 19’ W
7. Aircraft takes off from A 40° 40’ N 176° 30’ W and flies a RL track of 270° for 600 nm. Find lat &
long of destination.
A. 600 (60 x Cos 40° 40’ = 13° 11’ + 176° 30’ = 189° 41’, 360° - 189° 41’ =179° 19’ E
8. An aircraft flying for 360 nm undergoes long change of 7° 23’. Find lat.
A. 360 ÷ (60 x 7° 23’) = 0.8126, Cos inv 0.8126 = 35° 30’ N/S.
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Scale. It is defined as the ratio of Map Distance (MD) to Earth Distance (ED).
Scale = MD/ED. Scale is large (1/!00) or small (1/1000). Large scale map on a unit area smaller
distance is shown, whereas in small scale map on a unit area large earth distance is shown.
On a map Scale is represented by three methods:-
(a) Representative Fraction, a fraction whose numerator is always 1, e.g. 1:10000.
(b) Statement in words, e.g. 1cm = 100 nm.
(c) Graduated Scale Km or Nm
Scale at Lat (SAL) = Scale at Equator (SAE) x Secant Lat or SAL = SAE/Cos Lat (Applicable for
Mercator Chart Only)
Conversion Table
1 Nm = 6080 ft 1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 ft = 12 in; 1 in = 2.54 cms

1 Km = 3280 ft
1 SM = 5280 ft
Problems on Scale
1. Given MD = 20 cm; ED = 100 nm; Find Scale.

A. Scale = MD/ED = 20/(100 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54) (1 Nm =6080 ft, 1 in =2.54 cms) or Scale = 1: 926592
2. Given MD = 20.5 in; ED = 600 km; Find Scale.

A. Scale = MD/ED = 20.5 x 2.54 cm/600 x 1000 x 100 cm = 1:1152295
3. Given MD = 5 in; Scale = 1:2,000,000; Find ED

A. 1/2,000,00 = 5/ED or ED = 5 x 2,000,000 in = 10,000,000/12 x 6080 Nm = 137 Nm.
4. An ac at a G/S of 300K covers map distance of 15 cms in 24 mins. Find Scale.

A. Distance covered = 300/(24/60) = 80 Nm. Hence Scale = 15/(80 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54) = 1:988365
5. An ac covers a distance of 5 in on a chart (scale of 1: 1,000,000) in 20 min. Find G/S.
1/1,000,000 = 5/ED or ED = 5,000,000 in = 5000000/(6080 x 12) = 68.5 Nm in 20 mins. Hence Speed =

(68.5 x 60)/20 =205.5 K
6. On a chart SAL 62°N = 1/1000000, Find (a) SAE (b) Scale at 40° N.
A. (a) SAE = SAL x 1/Cos Lat or 1/1000000/Cos 62 = 1/ 2130054 (b) SAL = SAE x 1/Cos 40° =
1/2130054 x 1/Cos 40 = 1/1631716
Note : For Mercators Chart SAL= SAE x Sec Lat or SAE x 1/Cos Lat.
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Thumb Rule. For conversion of SAE to SAL, multiply denominator by Cos Lat and for SAL to
SAE divide denominator by Cos Lat.
7. On a mercator chart SAE = 1: 1450000, at what Lat scale will be 1: 1000000.
A. SAL = SAE x 1/Cos Lat or 1/1000000 = 1/1450000 x 1/Cos Lat or 1450000 x Cos Lat = 1000000 or
Cos Lat = 1000000/1450000 = 0.689, Hence Cos inv 0.689 = 46° 24’ N/S.
8. On a chart SAE = 1:1000000. On this chart two points A & B are 10° apart at 54° N. Find difference
in longitude.
A. SAL 54° N = 1000000 x Cos 54 = 1: 587785. MD/ED = 1/587785 or 10/ED = 1/587785 or ED =

5877850 in = 80.56 nm. Dep = 80.56 = dlong x 60 x Cos 54° = 80.56/ (60 x Cos 54) = 2° 17’
9. Distance between two points at 45° N is 10 cm and ED is 100km. Find SAE.

A. SAL at 45° N is MD/ED =10/ 100 x 100 x 100= 1: 1000000. SAE =1:1000000/Cos 45= 1:1414213
10. A & B are located at 50° N and are 1° 42’ long apart. Distance between them is 8 cm. Find SAE
and SAL at 50° S.
A. Dep = dlong x 60 x Cos 50 = 65.56 nm. Scale at 50° = MD/ED = 8 CM /65.56 X 6080 X 12 X 2.54
= 1: 1518684. SAE = SAL/ Cos Lat = 1: 1518684/Cos 50 = 1/2362653
11. The scale at 60°N is 1/2000000 on a Mercator Chart. At what latitude will you find the scale
1/1000000.
A. SAE = 20000000/Cos60 =4000000, SAL = 1000000, SAE = 4000000 Hence Cos Lat =.25 or 75°31’
12. If the scale at 57°20’N is 1:1091000 what is the meridian spacing in cm between one deg longitude.
A. Dep =1 x 60 x Cos57°20’ = 32.385 Nm = 5997709 cm (1Nm = 1.852Km)
13. You are flying east along a parallel 60°N and cover 10 inches distance on the chart every hour. The
scale at 25°S is 1:1000000. Find GS.
A. SAE = 1000000/Cos 25 = 1:1103378, SAL = 1103378 x Cos 60 =551688.95. So 10” = 5516889” on

chart which corresponds to 5516889/(6080 x 12) = 75Nm Hence speed is 75 K.
14. The distance between A & B both at 40°N is 10 cm on a Mercator chart and 90 km on earth. Find
scale at equator.
A.Scale at 40°N = MD/ED = 10cm/90,000,00 cm (90km)= 1:9000000. SAE = 9000000/Cos40=1174866
15. On a Mercator Chart if scale is 1:1M at 56°N. Find the Chart length from 2845N 11330W to 2845N
9815W.
A. Dep = 15°15’ x 60 =915 Nm, 915 x 6080 x 2 = 66758400”/1000000 corresponding to 66.75” .

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MAPS & CHARTS (PROJECTIONS)
Map. It contains all geographical features like roads, rivers, mountains etc depending on the scale of the
map. It depends on the scale of the map.
Chart. It contains limited information for which the chart has been made e.g. enroute chart, approach
chart etc.
Large Scale Map. On a unit area of the map smaller earth distance is shown e.g. 1: 100 scale map is a
bigger fraction than 1: 1000 wherein the details are more but the area depicted is smaller.
Small Scale Map. On a unit area of the map large earth distance are shown e.g. 1:1000 meaning greater
details are available for the same size of the map sheet as compared to a large scale map.
Types of Map. There are two methods to construct a map, they are (a) Perspective and (b) Non
Perspective (These are drawn mathematically).
Construction. The perspective method of constructing a map involves projection of the graticule of
the earth on a sheet of paper with the help of a light source placed at the appropriate place. The non
perspective method involves mathematical reduction of spherical globe on a plain sheet of paper.
Types of Projection. These are three types (a) Cylindrical (b) Conical and (d) Azimuthal or Zenithal.
Cylindrical Projection
____ Rhumb Line ____ Great Circle
Construction. Light source is at the centre and point of tangency of the cylinder superimposed on the
global sphere is at the centre (equator).
Properties. The following properties emerge as a result of placing a cylinder on the global sphere with
point of tangency at the Equator:-
1. Meridians are straight lines equidistant from each other.
2. Parallels of latitude are also straight lines but not equidistant from each other. Distance between
them progressively increases from equator to poles.
3. Convergence (n=0) is zero. A straight line on this map is a Rhumb Line. A Great Circle is a
curved line concave to the equator and convex to the poles. Convergency on earth is angle of inclination
between 2 meridians at a given latitude and is = dlong x Sin Lat.
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4. It is not an orthomorphic projection (Orthomorphism is the property of a projection in which

bearings are correct in all directions within vicinity of the point).
Note: For a projection to be orthomorphic the following conditions are to be satisfied:-
(a) Meridians and Parallels of Latitude should cut each other at right angles (90°).
(b) Scale should be constant within the vicinity of a point.
MERCATOR PROJECTION
1. Mathematical modifications/corrections are carried out to make a Cylindrical Projection

orthomorphic in that scale in E-W direction is varied at the same rate of scale expansion in the N-S
direction, with increase in Latitude.
2. The scale varies as the Secant of the Latitude and is represented by the formulae
Scale is correct only along the equator.
Scale at any Lat (SAL) = Scale at Equator(SAE) x Secant of Lat or SAE/Cos Lat
3. Appearance & Properties are similar to Cylindrical Projection which are:-
(a) Rhumb Line(RL) is a straight line. (b) Great Circle (GC) curved concave to the RL.
(c) Meridians cut parallels of Lat at 90°. Chart convergence is equal to earth convergence only at
Equator, otherwise it is zero.
Limitations. The limitations are:-
(a) This projection cannot be used for Polar Regions.
(b) It can only be used effectively upto 70-75° N/S beyond which scale expansion is very large.
(c) Adjacent sheets fit together in E-W direction not N-S.
Usage. These charts are used for flying on Rhumb line tracks and are also used for Met Charts.
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CONICAL PROJECTION
Lat of Origin is
midway between
two Std Parallels
Construction. The point of tangency is a particular latitude which can be selected by changing the
Cone angle or Apex angle.
Properties/Appearance. The following properties emerge for this type of a perspective projection:-
1. Meridians are straight lines converging to the nearest pole.
2. Parallels of Latitude arc of concentric circle not equidistant from each other. Distance between
them increases away from Lat of origin on either side.
3. Rhumb line is a curved line concave to the nearest pole or great circle and convex to the equator.
4. A Great Circle is a straight line.
5. Convergence, which is angle of inclination between two meridians on a projection and is denoted by
the symbol n = c/dlong, where c =convergency and dlong = difference in longitude, is less than 1.
(Convergence is ratio of convergency to dlong on that map)
6. It is not an orthomorphic projection.

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Lamberts Conical Orthomorphic (Conformal) between two Standard Parallels
Construction. It is a conical projection between two std parallels. Base is perspective but
mathematically modified to make it orthomorphic.
Properties.
1. Its an orthomorphic only between two std parallels.
2. Rhumb line is a curved line concave to the lat of origin/great circle/nearest pole and convex to the
equator.
3. Great Circle is a curved line concave to the lat of origin, but for practical purposes it is nearly a
straight line, as indicated below.
Scale. It is almost constant within the two std parallels. Away from lat of origin scale expansion takes
place, but this scale expansion is negligible within the std parallels and is approx 1%. Outside the std
parallels scale expansion is very large.
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Scale Expansion
Q. On Lamberts Conical Projection scale is almost correct between Std Parallel and convergence is
correct at Lat of Origin.
Q. While measuring track on LC Projection protractor is placed at (a) Lat of Dep (b) Lat of arr/dest (c)
Mid way Lat (d) any of the Latitudes. A. (c)
Usage. All Jeppesen charts are Lambert Conical Projection.
ZENITHAL OR AZIMUTHAL PROJECTION
Properties
1. Meridians are straight lines converging at poles.
2. Parallels of Lat are concentric circles not equidistant from each other, the distance between them
increases from poles to the equator.
3. Rhumb Line is a curved line concave to the Great circle/nearest pole.
4. Great Circle is a straight line.
5. Its not an orthomorphic projection.

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POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Properties. The point of tangency is at poles and light source is placed at the opposite pole, appearance
is similar to Zenithal projection. Scale expands at the rate of Sec2 Lat.
CONVERGENCY
Convergency. It’s the inclination between two meridians or angular difference between two meridians.
At equator the angle is Zero and at poles it is 1° (dlong). Therefore it varies as a function of Sin.
Convergence at equator = 0, Conversion at poles = dlong and Conv at any Lat =dlong Sin Lat or Conv
at Lat = dlong x Sin mean Lat.
Q. GC Brg of A from B = 045°, CA = 5°. What is RL Brg of B from A in Northern hemisphere.
A. RL Brg of A from B = GC Brg of A from B + CA = 045° + 5° = 050° 045°

RL Brg of B from A = 050° + 180° = 230° B A
GC Brg of B from A = 230° + 5° = 235°
Q. RL Brg of X fom Y is 060°, CA = 6°, NH. Find GC Brg of X from Y, Y from X and RL Brg of Y
from X.
A. RL Brg of X from Y = 060° Therefore GC Brg of X from Y = 060-CA =060-6 =054°

RL Brg of X from Y = 060 + 180 = 240° & GC Brg of Y from X = 240 + 6 = 246°
Q. GC Brg of X from Y is 300°. CA = 7°, NH. Find GC Brg of X from Y, of Y from X & RL Brg of Y
from X.
A. GC Brg of X from Y = 300°, Hence RL Brg of X from Y = 300° - 7° = 293°, RL Brg of Y from X =
293 -180 = 113°, GC Brg of Y from X = 113-7 = 106°
Q. RL Brg of A from B is 220°, GC Brg of A from B is 216° Find CA, Hemisphere, GCB of B from A.
A. Difference of RLB & GCB = CA = 220-216 = 4°, RLB of B from A = 220-180 = 040°, Hence GCB
of B from A = 040 + 4 = 044° in SH
216°
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Q. GCB of A from B is 340°. RLB of A from B is 345°. Find, CA, Hemisphere & GCB of B from A.
A. CA = 345-340 =5°, RLB of B from A = 345-180 = 165°, GCB of B from A = 165 + 5 = 170°, SH.
Q. GCB of B from A is 070°.RL Brg of A from B is 256°. Find CA, Hemisphere & GCB of B from A.
A. RLB of B from A = 256 -180 = 076°. CA = 076 – 070 = 6°, NH, GCB of B from A= 256 + 6 = 252°
Q. GCB of A from B is 234°. GCB of B from A is 066°. Find, CA, Hemisphere & RLB of B from A.
A. In these problems add both the GCBs and if difference is more than 180° then location is in
NH, if difference less than 180° then in SH. Next, the value obtained after subtracting the GCB is
to be subtracted from 180, Divide the absolute value by 2 to get CA.
GCB of A from B = 234°. GCB of B from A = 066°, 234 -066 = 168° < 180 so in SH, 180 -168 =12,
12/2 = 6° = CA. RLB of B from A = 066-6 = 060°.
Q. GCB of P from Q is 130°. GCB of Q from P is 318°. Find, CA, Hemisphere & RLB of Q from P.
A. 318-130 = 188, Hence NH, 188 – 180 = 8°, CA = 8/2 = 4°, RLB of Q from P = 318-4= 314°.
Q. A & B are on parallel of 30° N. GCB of B from A is 087°. Longitude of A is 8°W. Find long of B.
A. RLB of B from A = 090° (since on same parallel of Lat), hence CA = 090-087 =3°. Also
Convergence = 2 CA = dlong Sin Lat or CA = ½ dlong Sin 30° or dlong = 2 CA ÷ Sin 30 = (2 x 3) ÷ 0.5
= 12. Hence B lies 12° apart ie 12-8 = 4°E
Q. A & B are on parallel of 30° N. GCB of A from B is 266°. Longitude of A is 10°W. Find long of B.
A RLB of A from B = 270° (since on same parallel of Lat), hence CA = 270-266 =4°. Also
Convergence = 2 CA = dlong Sin Lat or CA = ½ dlong Sin 30° or dlong = 2 CA ÷ Sin 30 = (2 x 4) ÷ 0.5
= 16. Longitude of B = 16-10 = 6° E
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WIND TRIANGLE
HDG & TAS

W/V
DRIFT
(p)
TRK & G/S
When Trk is left of Hdg it is Port Drift and vice versa
Drift. It is the angular difference between the Heading and the Track. When Track is right of heading it
is called Starboard Drift and when Track is left of heading it is called Port Drift.
TMG. Track Made Good is the physical path followed on the ground and may differ from Track
required due to inadequate drift correction. The angle between the Track Required and TMG is called
Track error. When TMG is right of Tr reqd then it is called Stbd TE and when MG is Port of Track
required it is called Port TE. Tr Reqd
TMG TMG
Port Stbd
Hdg/TAS
Hdg/TAS W/V
W/V
Trk/GS
Trk/GS
Winds 90° to Trk (GS < TAS) Winds 90° to Hdg (GS > TAS)
Problems on Wind Triangle.
TRK TE TMG HDG DRIFT

(a) 101 8P 093 090 3S
(b) 180 5S 185 183 2S
(c) 276 6P 270 275 5P
(d) 045 10 S 055 059 4P
(e) 234 15 P 219 225 4P
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Mean Winds. To calculate mean winds in a multiple leg, it is imperative to determine the GS and time
for each leg. Alongside calculate the Wind Effect by multiplying Time on respective leg with
corresponding wind velocity on that leg. Calculate total time by adding time taken on each leg, sum up
the wind effect and divide by the sum of time taken on each leg. This is illustrated in the example
below. Similarly to calculate TAS, multiply TAS of respective legs with corresponding wind velocity,
total for all the legs and divide by the total time flown. This would give Mean TAS. Thereafter Mean
GS = Mean TAS ± Mean Wind.
Leg TAS DIST W/V GS TIME WIND EFFECT (TIME x W/V)

A-B 300 700 +30 330 2:07 +63.5 Nm (30 x 2:07)
B-C 200 280 -10 190 1:28 -14.7 Nm (-10 x 1:28)
C-D 350 300 +40 390 0:46 +30.7 Nm (+40 x 0:46)
5:26 + 79.5 Nm
Total Time = 2:07 + 1:28 + 0:46 = 4:21, Total Wind Effect = +63.5 -14.7 + 30.7 = 79.5
Hence Mean Winds experienced from A to D = 79.5 ÷ 4:21 = + 18.27. Similarly Mean TAS is
calculated :-
Mean TAS (A-B) = 300 x 2:07 =635, (B-C) = 200 x 1:28 = 293.33 & (C-D) = 350 x 0:46 = 268.33
Total = 635 + 293.3 + 268.3 = 1196.6, this divided by total time 4:21 (1196.6 ÷ 4:21) =275 Kts is Mean
TAS.
Mean TAS + Mean Wind ( 275 + 18.27) = 293.3 Kts = Mean GS
Q. Find the Mean GS from the data given below in black:-
Leg TAS DIST W/V GS TIME WIND EFFECT (TIME x W/V)

A-B 160 600 +30 190 3:09 +94.5 Nm (30 x 3:09)
B-C 290 500 -15 275 1:47 -26.75 Nm (-15 x 1:47)
C-D 380 200 +45 425 0:28 +21 Nm (+45 x 0:28)
* Data Calculated
Mean Winds = 88.25/5:26 = +16.24; Mean TAS = (160 x3:09) + (290 x 1:49) + (380 x 0:47) = 1212.
This divided by Time (5:26) = 222.38, Hence Mean GS = 222.38 + 16.24 = 239 Kts
RELATIVE MOTION
Thumb Rule. While solving problems on relative motion, the following must be kept in mind:-
1. When aircraft are flying in same direction first calculate the relative speed (Difference in the two
also called overtake speed) then divide by distance to obtain time taken to overtake.. For example
Overtake = 40 Kts, Distance = 80 Nm, then time taken to overtake = 80/40 = 2h. Similarly when 4 nm
behind, time taken =76/40 = 1:54 h and time taken when 4 nm ahead after overtaking = 84/40 =2:06 h
2. Time of Crossing = Relative Distance ÷ Relative speed (Add speeds when aircraft approaching each
other and subtract when flying one behind the other.
Q. At 0900 h Aircraft X is behind Y by 80 Nm while flying on same track. GS of X= 240 K and that of
Y= 200K. Find when will X overtake Y and when will X be 4nm short & ahead of Y.
A. Example worked out above, time will be 1100 h, 1054 h and 1106h respectively
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Q. At 0700 h, while flying on same track aircraft A is behind B by 120 Nm. GS of A = 300K;
B=250K. Both are flying to point P which is 1200 Nm from present position of aircraft. Find when
will (a) A overtakes B, (b)A is 5nm short of B, (c) 5nm ahead of B. (d) At what distance from P, A will
overtake B.
A. (d) 300 x 2:24 = 720 Nm, hence distance from P =1200-720 = 480 Nm.
Q. At 0900, Flying on same track aircraft P is behind Q by 50 nm. GS of P = 200K, Q=160K, Find (a) P
will overtake Q, (b)P will be 6nm short of Q, (c) 6nm ahead of B.
A. Overtake = 40 K, Distance = 50 Nm, (a) Time taken to overtake = 50/40 = 1:15, i.e. 1015 h. (b)
44/40 = 1:06 h = 1006 (c) 54/40 = 1:21 = 1021 h.
Q. At 500nm from destination aircraft is asked to delay ETA by 8 min. At what time and distance
should aircraft reduce speed to 150 K if it was flying at 180 K. Present time is 1200h.
A. In this problem we need to determine:-
(a) Original ETA

(b) Revised ETA
(c) New distance covered with revised speed
(d) Time to drop speed
(e) Distance to drop speed.
Original Speed = 180 K, Revised Speed = 150 K, Original ETA = 500/180 =02:47 = 1447h, Revised
ETA = 02:46 + 0:08 =02:54 = 1455h. New distance with revised speed = 150 x 2:54 = 435 nm.
If aircraft was at 435 nm from destination, it would have reached destination at correct ETA, the balance
65 Nm (500-435 = 65Nm) can be construed as if one aircraft behind the other at higher speed at 500 nm
and overtakes at 435 Nm with an overtake of 180 -150 = 30 Kts. Now distance = 65, Overtake = 30,
time taken = 65/30 = 2:10 h, (a) 1410h (b) Distance to drop speed = 2:10 x 180 = 390 Nm
Q. At 800nm from destination aircraft is asked to delay ETA by 15 min. At what time and distance
should aircraft reduce speed to 360 K if it was flying at 420 K. Present time is 1200h.
A. Original ETA = 800/420 =1:54, Revised ETA = 1:54 + 0:15 = 2:09, New Distance with revised
Speed = 360 x 2:09 =774 Nm, Distance = 800 -774 = 26 Nm, Overtake = 60, Time = 26/60 = 0:26 (time
to drop speed) i.e 1226h. Distance to drop speed = 0:26 x 420 = 182 Nm. Hence 800- 182 = 618 Nm
Q. At 600 nm from destination an aircraft is asked to reach early by 10 mins. At what time and distance
it should increase its speed to 240 K from 160 K. Present time is 1200h.
A. Original ETA =600/160 = 3:45, Revised ETA = 3:45 -0:10 = 3:35, New Distance with revised speed
= 3:35 x 240 = 860 nm. This can be compared to an aircraft with overtake of 80 kts behind by 260 Nm
260 Nm 600 Nm Time taken to cover 260 Nm at 80 K = 260/80 = 3:15
At time =1200 + 03:15 = 1515 (Time to increase speed); Distance to increase speed = 3:15 x 160 = 520
18
The One-in-Sixty Rule
1. The one-in-sixty rule is based upon the fact that one nautical mile subtends an angle of one degree at
distance of 60 nautical miles, i.e. 5 miles subtend 5 degrees etc.
One-in-Sixty Rule.
2. In applying the rule, the triangle relevant to the navigational problems is identified, and the ratio of
the length of the long side to 60 is established. This ratio may then be applied to the angle to reveal the
length of the side opposite to its or conversely, to the opposite side to reveal the angle it subtends.
Track error = 60 x 3 = 9°
20
Heading correction at B, (a) to destination.
< EBD
= < BAD + < BDA
= 60 x 3 + 60 x 3
20 60
= 9° + 3°
= 12°
(b) To return to track.

= 2x BAD
= 2 x 9°
= 18° (Heading altered ‘back a’ C)
19
Examples on 1:60 rule
θ = S/R x 60 (to be used when θ is < 20°)
1. After flying for 240 nm an aircraft is 12 nm right of track. What is the drift.
θ = S/R x 60
Dist =240 nm =(12/240) x 60 = 3°
Drift = 3° S
12 nm off track
2. After flying for 480 nm aircraft is 20 nm port of track. If remaining distance to destination is 300
nm, what is approx heading to reach destination if ac was flying a heading of 045°
A.
480 Nm 300 Nm
3° 4°
20 Nm off track
3°
045° Heading to Alter = 045° + 3° + 4° = 052°
3. After 2 hours at GS 180 K, aircraft is 12 nm left of track. If remaining distance is one hr at same GS,
Find drift if ac was flying a course of 200°
A. Distance covered = 360 nm, 12 nm port of track hence drift = (12/360) x 60 = 2°

20
SOLAR SYSTEM : TIME
1. The Solar System consists of the Sun, nine major planets of which the Earth is one, and about 2,000
minor planets or asteroids. All members of the solar system are controlled by the Sun which is distinguished by its
immense size and its radiation of light and heat ; for all practical purposes, it may be considered as the
stationary centre round which all the planets revolve.
2. Unlike the Sun, the planets and their satellites are not self-luminous, but reveal their presence by
reflecting the Sun’s light. The planets revolve about the Sun in elliptical orbits, each one takes a period
of time about the job: Mercury takes 88 days, for example, while Pluto which is rather a long way from
the parent body, is thought to take about 248 years. The planetary satellites in the meantime are
revolving about their own parents.
3. Certain laws relating to the motion of planets in their orbits were evolved by the astronomer Kepler,
who died in abject poverty as a reward.
(a) Each planet moves in an ellipse, with the Sun at one end of its foci.
(b) The radius vector of any planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
These are the important laws for our purpose in studying the Earth’s motion, as we shall see.
4. The Earth rotates on its axis in a West to East direction, resulting in day and night. It revolves round
the Sun along a path or orbit which is inclined to the Earth’s axis at about 66 ½°, resulting in the seasons
of the year. When the Earth is inclined towards the sun, we get the Summer Solistice (about June 21);
when the axis is away from the Sun, we get the Winter Solistice (about Dec 22). When the Earth’s axis
is at right angle to the Sun, day and nights are equal the Spring and
Fig 1
Autumn Equinox (March 21 and Sept 23). The point where the planet is nearest to the Sun is called
perihelion, and where farthest aphelion; it is worth noting that in obeying Kepler’s second law, the speed
of the Earth at perihelion is faster along its orbit than at aphelion.
5. Orbital velocity of the earth is not constant during its orbit, velocity is more when earth is closer to
the sun and minimum when it is the farthest.
21
6. Earth rotates around its axis and revolves around the sun. Rotation gives us day and night, revolution
gives us the year and inclination of the earths axis in its plane of rotation gives the seasons.
7. Inclination of the earth from its axis 23½° and 66½° from the plane of rotation.
8. Position of sun varies from 23½° N to 23½° S. This is called Declination (latitude of any heavenly
body with respect to an observer). The northern most point corresponds to Tropic of Cancer and
southernmost Tropic of Capricorn.
Q. Sun will appear at the same latitude (a) once a year (b) twice a tear (c) every day (d) none of the
above. A. (b)
9. The position when the earth is nearest to sun is called Perihelion and furthermost is called Aphelion.
10. The position when the earth is equidistant from the sun is called Equinox.
Q. At what position of the sun you will have equal Day and Night?
A. At Equinox, 21 Mar & 23 Sep.
11. Year. There are two types of Year, Sidereal and Tropical. Sidereal Year is the time interval
elapsed between two successive conjunctions of earth, sun and a fixed point in space. Tropical Year is
time interval elapsed between two successive conjunction of earth, sun and a fixed point in Aries. This
is also known as Calendar Year.
12. Calendar Year. It takes 365 days 5hours 48 min 42 sec for the earth to go around the sun. Thus
every 4 years adds to one day extra which is compensated by the leap year. Every 100 year is not a leap
year. To compensate for 11 min 18 sec every 400 year is a leap year.
13. Sideral Day. It’s the time interval elapsed between two successive transits of a fixed point in space
over an observer meridian or its time interval elapsed between two successive transits of a fixed point in
Aries over an observer meridian. It is 23h 56 min since taken with reference to a star wherein the
revolution and rotation of the earth does not matter.
14. Apparent Solar Day. It is the time interval elapsed between two successive conjunction of true
Sun in space over an observer meridian.
15. Mean Solar Day. It is with respect to an imaginary Sun which goes around the earth nover equator
at a constant velocity of 15°/hr.
S Sidereal it is not wrt Sun 23:56

A Apparent not fixed due to orbit and revolution of earth around the sun 23:44 to 24:14
M Mean At a constant velocity of 15°/hr.
Twilight
16. When the Sun is below the horizon, an observer will still receive light which has been reflected and
scattered by the atmosphere. It is divided into three stages; Astronomical (Sun 12° to 18° below
Horizon. It is completely dark with no natural light at 18°) ; Nautical (6° - 12° below the Horizon,
and has to do with the sea horizon being indistinct, and artificial light is still required) and Civil
Twilight when the Sun’s centre is actually between 1 and 6 below the horizon, when work is
possible without artificial light, and the stars are nor clearly visible. This last is the one we are concerned
with.
22
TIME
There are of four types namely, LMT, UTC, Zone Time and Standard Time.
Local Mean Time (LMT) It’s the time kept with respect to position of the sun at anti-meridian of an
observer. At places east of any observer the LMT will be ahead and west of observer LMT will be
behind due to earth’s rotation.
Q. LMT at 35°E is 1300h. Find LMT at (a) 102°E (b) 40°W
A. (a) dlong/15 = (102-35)/15 = 4h 28 m, hence LMT at 102E = 1300 + 4:28 = 1728 (b) dlong =
(75/15) =5h, hence LMT = 1300- 5 = 0800h
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) It is the LMT prevailing at prime meridian or time kept with
respect to antemeridian of Prime Meridian (observer is sitting at Prime Meridian).
Q. LMT at 000E is 1200h on 28 Feb 04. What will be the UTC at 180W?
A. UTC WILL NOT CHANGE AT ANY LONGITUDE IT REMAINS THE SAME.
Q. LMT at 40N 60E is 1100 h. Find (a) UTC (b) LMT at 60S 120E (c) 60S 30W.
A. (a) UTC at 60E = LMT - dlong/15 = 1100 -60/15 = 0700h, (b) UTC = LMT 120E – dlong/15 or
LMT 120E = UTC +120/15 =0700 + 8h = 1500 h (c) UTC = LMT 30W + dlong/15 or LMT 30W =
UTC – 30/15 = 0700 – 2 = 0500 h
Q. An ac takes from place X (30N 170W) for Y (50S 160E). Total flight time is 08 Hrs. Time of
departure is 2200h on 06 Jun (LMT). Find ETA at destination in LMT.
A. UTC = LMT + 170/15 = 2200 + 11h20m = 0920 (07 Jun), After 8 hrs of flying UTC is 0920+8
=1720 (07 Jun), Now LMT (160W) =UTC + C = 1720 (07) + 160/15 =1720 +10:40 = 0400 (08 Jun)
Q. LMT at 45N 100E on 17 May is 0512. Find UTC & LMT at 60N 120W.
A. UTC = LMT (100E) – dlong/15 = 0512 – 6:40 = 22:32 (16 May), UTC = LMT (120W) + dlong/15 =
LMT+8 or LMT = 22:32 - 8h = 14:32 (16 May)
ZONE TIME
The earth is divided into 24 hr zones, alphabetically assigned, beginning from “A” to “Z” except “I” &
“O” The longitudes on earth measuring 360° are divided into 24 zones, each of 15° corresponding to 1
hour of time. The zones east of prime meridian are assigned negative signs while zones lying west of
Prime meridians are assigned positive sign. Each zone of 15° is further divided into 7½° either side of
the prime meridian which corresponds to 30 mins of time. For example India lies at 82° 30´ which
when divided by 15 gives us 5h30m and that is the time we are ahead of UTC.
23
Zone Number. It is a number which is to be added algebraically in zone to get UTC. For example if at
82E the zone time is 1200, then UTC = ZoneTime ± Zone Number = 1200 -82/5 (5)=0700. Thumb Rule
is divide the longitude by 15 if remainder is ≤ 7.5 use lower zone else use higher zone.
Q. Find the zone number of (a) 120W (b) 127.5W (c) 130E
A. (a) 120/15 = +8 (since West) (b) 127.5/15 = +8 Remainder 7.5 (hence same zone) (c) 130/15 = -8
Remainder 10, Hence higher Zone i.e -9
Q. At 160E difference between LMT and Zone Time is (a) LMT will be ahead by 40 min than zone
time (b) LMT will be behind by 40 min (c) LMT will be ahead by 20 min (d) LMT will be behind
by 20 min.
A. Zone Number = 160/15 = -10 + Rem 10 hence = -11. LMT at 160E =160/15 = 10h 40m. Zone Time
=1100 hrs LMT = 10h40m hence 20 minutes behind time (d) is the correct choice.
Standard Time Time maintained with respect to a specific meridian or longitude is called Standard
Time. IST is maintained with respect to 82° 30´ longitude.
Q. Find LMT, UTC, Zone Time, IST at 8250N 8345E.
A. UTC = LMT –C or LMT =UTC + 83° 45´/15 =UTC + 5h 35m or 0535 h (since UTC =0000) Zone
Time =0600, IST =0530h UTC = 0000
GMT International Date Line (IDL). When traveling Westward from Greenwich, an observer
would eventually arrive at longitude 17959W, where the LMT is about to become 12 hours
less than UTC. An observer traveling Eastward from Greenwich would eventually arrive at 17959E
where the LMT is about to become 12 hours more than UTC. Thus there is a full day of 24 hours
difference between the two travelers, although they are both about to cross the same meridian. When the
ante-meridian of Greenwich is crossed, one day is gained or lost, depending on the direction of travel:
the Dateline is the actual line where the change is made, and is mainly the 180 meridian, with some
slight divergences to accommodate certain groups of South Sea Islands and regions of Eastern Siberia.
The problem readily resolves itself in flying - your watch is always on UTC: the place who’s Standard
Time you want is listed in the Air Almanac: apply the correction to , and the date will take care of itself.
Going on dateline from,

East to West – gain a day subtract a date
West to East – lose a day add a date
24
Prime Meridian
0600 UTC Dec 10
Q. While crossing IDL from East to West

(a) LMT will be ahead, date will be ahead.
(b) LMT will be behind, date will be ahead.
(c) LMT will be behind, date will be behind
(d) LMT will be ahead, date will be behind
A. (d)
Twilight Period. It is the period before sunrise and after sunset when diffused light of Sun is available..
Sensible Horizon. Horizon which is visible to the naked eye.
Visible Horizon. A horizon which is not visible is called visible horizon. It is belo the sensible
horizon.
Note. When a body rises above the visible horizon it is said to be visible and it is said to be set when it
is below the visible horizon.
Twilight period in Air almanac is with respect to Civil Twilight.
Q. Sunrise and moonrise table on Air Almanac are given in (a) UTC (b) Zone time (c) LMT. A. (c).
25
RADIAL INTERCEPT
Procedure to adopt for intercepting a final track radial is:-
(a) Angle should be either 30/60/90° with respect to the final track/radial.
(b) NO DRIFT IS TO BE APPLIED DURING INTERCEPT.
(c) To determine the angle of intercept, find how many degrees the ac has to turn to intercept the
radial. Double the number of degrees to turn and the figure closest to 30/60/90 will be the
intercept angle e.g. if the number of degrees to turn is 25° then 25 x 2 = 50 which is closer to
60° intercept.
Q1. Aircraft is approaching Station on a radial 180°is asked to approach on radial 155°. Find out (a)
Intercept Angle (b) Hdg to Roll out (c) Degrees to turn (d) RBI reading.
(a) Difference = 25° x 2 = 50° Hence 60°
(b) On radial 155° Hdg to Station is 335° + 60° = 035°
(c) Aircraft on Hdg 000°, hence degree to turn = 35°
360° 355° (d) RBI will read 60° to left i.e. 300°
Q2. Aircraft is approaching Station on a radial 150°is asked to approach on radial 360°. Find out (a)
Intercept Angle (b) Hdg to Roll out (c) Degrees to turn (d) RBI reading.
A. (a) 60° (b) 300° (c) 30° (d) 060°
Q3. Aircraft is homing on to a Station on a radial 010°is asked to approach on radial 330°. Find out (a)
Intercept Angle (b) Hdg to Roll out (c) Degrees to turn (d) RBI reading
A. (a) 90° (b) 240° (c) 50° (d) 270°
Q4. Aircraft on outbound radial 090 Aircraft is asked to track out on a radial 120°. Find out (a)
Intercept Angle (b) Hdg to Roll out (c) Degrees to turn (d) RBI reading (e) Which side to turn.
A. (a) 60° (b) 180° (c) 90° (d) 120° (e) Right
Q5. Aircraft is approaching Station on a radial 090° with 10° S drift is asked to approach on radial
110°. Find out (a) Intercept Angle (b) Hdg to Roll out (c) Degrees to turn (d) RBI reading.
A. (a) 60° (b) 230° (c) 30° (d) 060°
Q6. Aircraft is approaching Station on Hdg 270° with 10° P drift is asked to approach on radial 075°.
Find out (a) Intercept Angle (b) Hdg to Roll out (c) Degrees to turn (d) RBI reading.
A. (a) 30° (b) 285° (c) 15° (d) 330°

26
PAYLOAD
Payload. It is the load which can be carried in the form of passengers and cargo.
AICRAFT AUW BREAKDOWN
FOB (FLT FUEL +RESERVE) TAKE OFF WT (TOW)

ZERO FUEL WT (ZFW)
PAYLOAD (PAX + CARGO
NEWS PAPER + CATERING DRY OPERATING WT
CREW + BAGGAGE BASIC WT OR APS WT
AIRFRAME + ENGINE + AVIONICS MANUFACTURERS WT

ENGINE + AVIONICS
MTOW. It is the Take Off weight given by the manufacturer which cannot be exceeded in any
circumstances. This caters for the best operating conditions i.e. runway length, elevation, density
altitude, runway gradient, runway condition and winds etc. It is also known as Max Gross take off wt.
RTOW. (Restricted/regulated/rated) This is the take off weight restricted due to prevailing conditions
at the places of departure.
FOB TOW
TOW = BASIC WT + PAYLOAD + FUEL ON BOARD (FOB)
Payload
PAY LOAD = TOW – (BASIC WT + FOB) Basic Wt
MZFW = PAYLOAD + BASIC WT
MLW (Max Landing Wt) It is the maximum weight at which a landing can be made at a destination
without imposing any structural damage to the aircraft.
MZFW (Max Zero Fuel Wt). When wing tanks are empty there is a maximum permissible weight of
an aircraft including all its contents. Exceeding this weight causes unacceptable load to the structure of
the aircraft. Above this weight, if any load is taken onboard it can be fuel only.
Numericals on Payload. To solving any problem on Payload the following procedure is adopted:-
Step 1. Make a table as given below and enter relevant information as given in the problem:-
MTOW RTOW MLW MZFW

+FF (Flight Fuel) +FOB
= TOW =TOW
27
Choose the lowest value obtained out of MTOW/RTOW/MLW OR MZFW. Then calculate
Payload by substituting this value of TOW in Payload = MTOW – (BASIC WT + FOB)
Q. MTOW = 83000 lbs, MLW = 66000 lbs, Basic Wt = 52000, FF = 20000 lbs, Reserve = 2800 lbs.
Find Payload.
A. MTOW RTOW MLW MZFW

83000* 66000 +17200 + FOB
83200 =TOW
* LOWEST VALUE
PAYLOAD = TOW – (BASIC WT + FOB) = 83000 - (52000 + 20000) = 11000 lbs
Q. MTOW = 82000 lbs, MLW = 64500 lbs, Basic Wt = 50000, FOB = 20000 lbs, Reserve = 3000 lbs.
Find Payload.

82000 64500 +16000 + FOB
=80500* =TOW
* LOWEST VALUE
PAYLOAD = TOW – (BASIC WT + FOB) = 80500-(50000 + 19000) = 11500 lbs
Q. In the above question can you carry additional fuel without affecting payload?
A. Yes, (82500-80500=1500) but the fuel carried has to be consumed (burn off/dump) prior to landing,
Q. MTOW = 120000 lbs, MLW = 90000 lbs, MZFW = 85000, Basic Wt = 76400, Trip Fuel = 15000,
Reserve = 2000 lbs. Find Payload.

120000 90000 +15000 85000 + 17000
=104000 =102000*
* LOWEST VALUE
Q. In the above question find payload if Flight Fuel is reduced by 1000 lbs and increased by same
amount?
A. Payload in both cases will remain the same since value of MZFW has been applied.
Q. MTOW = 20000 lbs, MLW = 18000 lbs, MZFW = 17000, Basic Wt = 14000, Trip Fuel = 3000,
Reserve = 1600 lbs Find (a) Payload (b) Payload if aircraft consumed 700 lbs reserve before landing
(c) Find Payload if FOB is reduced by 700 lbs.

20000* 18000 + 3000 17000 + 4600
=21000 =21600
* LOWEST VALUE
(a) 1400 lbs (b) Will remain same (c) Payload can be increased by 700 lbs (1400+700) =2100
28
Q. Fuel Consumption = 120 lbs/hr; MTOW = 7150 lbs, MLW = 6900 lbs, MZFW = 6150 lbs, Basic Wt
= 5000 lbs, Reserve = 160 lbs. Dist =960 Nm, TAS=180k, Head Winds of 20 Kts. Find payload in NIL
wind conditions.
A. Dist = 960 nm; TAS = 180 Kts, Time = 5.33 x (FF = 120 lbs/hr) = 640 lbs.
MTOW RTOW MLW MZFW
7150 6900 + 640 6150 + 800
=7540 =6950*
* LOWEST VALUE
PAYLOAD = MTOW – (BASIC WT + FOB) = 6950 - (5000 + 800) = 1150 lbs
Q. A flight is to be made from M to N and return to M carrying max payload in each direction. Fuel is
not available at N. Distance M to N =80 Nm, Mean GS M to N = 70 kts, Mean GS N to M = 110 Kts,
Mean Fuel consumption = 410 Kg/hr, MTOW at M = 6180 kg, MLW at M = 5740 kg MTOW at N =
5800 kg, MLW at M = 5460 kg, MZFW = 5180, Basic Wt = 4400 kgs, Res Fuel = 250 kgs. Calculate
(a) Max payload which can be carried from M to N and from N to M.
A. Total Fuel = Fuel reqd from M to N + Fuel reqd from N to M + Reserve

Fuel reqd: M to N = 80/70 = 1.42 x 410 = 468, Fuel reqd: N to M = 80/110 = 0 .727 x 410 = 298,
FF = 468 + 298 = 766 kgs, Reserve = 250 kgs, Total Fuel = 1016 Kgs.
Payload from M to N:
MTOW RTOW MLW MZFW

6180* 5740 + 468 5100 + 1016
=6208 =6196
* LOWEST VALUE
PAYLOAD = MTOW – (BASIC WT + FOB) = 6180 - (4400 + 1016) = 764 kgs
Payload from N to M:
MTOW RTOW MLW MZFW

5800* 5460 + 298 5180 + 548
=5758 =5728
* LOWEST VALUE
PAYLOAD = MTOW – (BASIC WT + FOB) = 5728 - (4400 + 548) = 780 kgs
Q. Given MTOW = 34,500 kgs, MZFW = 28,000, MLW = 31,000, Empty Wt = 17,500 kgs, TAS = 350
Kts, Fuel Consumption = 1450 Kg/hr. Reserve Fuel 1200 kgs for all flghts (assume not used) Fuel Tank
Capacity = 10, 500 kgs. Find (a) Max Payload (b) In NIL wind condition distance upto which above
payload can be carried. (c) Max distance you can fly in NIL winds. (d) What payload you can carry in
part (c).
A. Max payload = MZFW – Basic Wt = 28000-17500 = 10500 kgs. TOW =10500 + 17500 +FOB or
34500=28500 + FOB or FOB = 6500. Hence FF = 6500-1200 = 5300 kgs. Fuel Flow = 1450 kg/hr,
TAS = 350 hence max distance = 5300/1450 x 350 = 1279 Nm. Tank capacity = 10500 kgs. Hence
10500 – 6500 = 4000 kgs of fuel can be carried in lieu of payload. So total fuel available = 5300 + 4000
= 9300 kgs. Hence max distance = 9300/1450 x 350 = 2245 Nm and pay load would reduce by 4000
kgs in lieu of fuel. Payload = 10500-4000 = 6500 kgs.
29
CONVERSION OF UNITS
1. Litre (l) x Specific Gravity (SG) = Kg
2. Imperial Gallon (UK Gal or IG) x SG x 10 = Pounds (lbs)
3. Kg x 2.2046 = lbs
4. IG x 1.2 = US Gal (USG)
5. 100 l = 22 IG = 26.4 USG.
Problems
Q. Convert 100 USG to (a) litres (b) Kgs (c) lbs (d) IG. Given SG = 0.78
A. (a) 1 USG = 100/26.4 L = 3.785, 100 USG = 378.7 l Litres

(b) Kgs = l x SG also 100 USG = 378.71 litre Therefore 100 USG = 378.5 x 0.78 = 295 Kgs
(c) 100 USG = 295 kgs or 295 x 2.2046 = 650 lbs
(d) 100 USG = 100/1.2 = 83.3 IG
Q. In the following table find the most fuel efficient figure when winds = -20 and SG = 0.8
TAS Fuel Cons (Gals/Hr) GS/FC

(a) 200 250 180/250 = 0.72
(b) 220 265 200/265 = 0.75
(c) 240 280 220/280 = 0.78
(d) 260 295 240/295 = 0.81
(e) 285 315 265/315 = 0.84 (Most Efficient)
A. GS/FC = Nm/Hr ÷ Gals/Hr = Nm/ Gals ie Nm per gallons, the highest figure will be most
efficient. Winds are 20 kts Head Wind, GS will be TAS – 20 in Kts. Working is on the above tale in red.
Q. In the following table find the most fuel efficient figure when SG = 0.8
TAS Fuel Cons FC (IG/hr)

(a) 180 1.25 USG/Nm 1.25 x 180 =225 USG/Hr = 225/1.2 = 187.5 IG/hr
(b) 240 4.1 IG/min 4.1 IG/min x 60 = 246 IG/hr
(c) 220 815 Kg/hr 815/0.8 = 1018.75 l/hr = 1018.72 x 0.22 = 224.125 IG/hr
(d) 160 12.7 L/min 12.7 x 60 = 762 l/hr x 0.22 =167.64 IG/hr(Most Efficient)
(e) 190 1.13 IG/min 1.13 x 190 = 214.7 IG/hr
(f) 200 13.41 Kg/m 13.41 x 60 =804.6 Kg/hr /0.8 =1005.75 l/h = 221.6 IG/hr
A. In this problem convert all Fuel Consumption figures to IG/hr then compare which is the lowest as
worked out in red in the table above.
30
Q. In the following table find the most fuel efficient figure when SG = 0.8
TAS Fuel Cons (IG/hr) FC (IG/Nm)

(a) 180 187.5 187.5/180 = 1.0416
(b) 240 246 246/240 = 1.025
(c) 220 224.125 224.125/220 = 1.018 (Most Efficient)
(d) 160 167.64 167/160 = 1.0477
(e) 190 214.7 214.7/190 = 1.1263
(f) 200 221.65 221.65/200 = 1.108
A. Convert all figures into IG/Nm, the least figure will give the most fuel efficient figure as worked in
in red in the table above.
Q. Fuel efficiency is 10.13 kgs/nm, TAS = 310 kts, Winds = +45, SG = 0.81. Find Flow in IG/hr.
A. 10.13 Kg/Nm = 10.13/.81 = 12.506 l/Nm = 12.506 x 355 (GS) = 4439.63 l/hr = 4439.63 x 0.22 =
976.5 IG/hr
31
CRITICAL POINT (CP)
Critical Point. It is a point in between two places from where it takes same time to reach either of the
point or it is a point enroute from which it takes equal time to either come back or go the destination. It
is calculated with one engine failed or switched off. It is also called Equitime Point.
1200 Nm
Mid Point
A CP B W/V 090/20
Increased GS Home (TAS + WV) Reduced GS Out bound (TAS – WV)
If distance D between two points A & B, TAS (with one engine failed) and W/V are known, GS out
(O) and GS Home (H) can be calculated and the figure of PNR can be arrived at by substituting these
values in the equation:-
Distance to CP = DH/(O +H) where D = Total Distance, O = GS outbound with one engine failed
and H = GS Home with one engine failed.
Thumb Rule:When you find Dist to CP, always calculate GS Out and GS Home with reduced TAS
Time to CP = Distance to CP/ GS out with all engines running unless specified.
Example. Distance A to B = 1200 nm; Tr = 090, W/V = 090/20, TAS (4/3 engines) = 180/150* Kts,
Find Distance & Time to CP.
Always draw a rough diagram and a table as indicated below before attempting any problem:-
Refer figure above
TR TAS W/V GS
H CP to A 270 150* 090/20 170
O CP to B 090 150* 090/20 130
G A to CP 090 180 090/20 160
To solve the problem (a) Calculate the GS from Nav Computer and enter the figures obtained.
(b) Substitute these values in the Distance to CP and Time to CP formula (use bracket function in
the calculator it is that much faster and easier to obtain the correct final figure)
Distance to CP = DH/(O +H) = (1200 x 170)/(130 + 170) = 680 Nm
Time to CP = Distance to CP/ GS out = 680/160 = 04h:15m

32
Q1. D = 2000 nm, Tr = 270, W/V = 090/25, TAS (4/3) = 330/270 Kts. Find Distance & Time to CP.
A. 090/25
B CP A
TR TAS W/V GS
H CP to A 090 270* 090/25 245
O CP to B 270 270* 090/25 295
G A to CP 270 330 090/25 355
Distance to CP = DH/(O +H) = (2000 x 245)/(295 + 245) = 907 Nm
POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR)
Point of No Return (PNR). It is a point at maximum distance removed from base upto which an
aircraft can fly and still be able to return within safe endurance of the aircraft. It is calculated primarily
to cater for non-availability of destination. This is purely a function of endurance which is given by the
equation Endurance = (FOB – Reserve)/ Fuel consumption. The distance to PNR is calculated by the
formula :-
Distance to PNR = EOH/(O + H), where E = Endurance, O = GS outbound (with all engines
operating) and H = GS Home (with all engines operating) unless specified.
PNR
GS Out
A GS Home B W/V
Example
Q2. D = 2000 nm, Tr = 270, W/V = 090/25, TAS (4/3) = 330/270 Kts. Fuel on board = 1000 kgs,
Reserve = 200 kgs, Fuel Consumption (4/3) = 180/150 kg/hr Find Distance & Time to PNR.
A.
TR TAS W/V GS
O A to PNR 270 330 090/25 355
H PNR to A 090 330 090/25 305
To calculate Distance to PNR insert values of TAS with all 4 engines running in the table shown
above. Next calculate the Endurance by determining Flight Fuel = (FOB – Reserve), divided by
Fuel Consumption (all engines operating), then calculate the GS and enter values in Dist to PNR
formula.
33
(a) Endurance = (1000 -200)/180 = 4h:26m (b) Dist to PNR = (4:26 x 355 x 305)/(355+305)=729 Nm
(c) Time to PNR = 729/355 = 2h: 03m.
STILL AIR RANGE (SAR)
SAR. It is the maximum distance upto which an ac can fly out in NIL wind conditions consuming total
fuel onboard. This is a theoretical figure to cross check whether Flight Plan is executable.
SAR = (FOB x TAS)/ FUEL CONSUMPTION
Q3. Find the SAR in the above question.

FOB = 800, TAS = 330, FC = 180 kg/hr Hence SAR = (800 x 330)/ 180 = 1833 Nm.
Practice on Nav Computer (Given TRK, TAS and W/V, Find GS, Hdg and Drift)
TRK TAS W/V GS HDG DRIFT

270 190 330/10 185 273 3 P*
350 200 270/25 186 344 6S
135 240 050/37 234 126 9S
293 137 330/17 123 297 4P
* TRK less than HDG Drift is Port and vice versa
Q4. Dist = 1400 Nm, Tr =090, W/V = 330/18 Kts, TAS (4/3) = (210/180), FC (4/3) = 100/80 Kg/hr
FOB = 1600 kg, Reserve = 150 Kg. Find (a) Dist & Time to CP (b) Dist & Time to PNR (c) SAR.
Assume one engine failed at PNR and ac returns on 3 engines.
A. TR TAS W/V GS
H CP to A 270 180* 330/18 188
O CP to B 090 180* 330/18 170
G A to CP 090 210 330/18 218
(a) Distance to CP = DH/(O +H) = (1400 x 170)/(170 + 188) = 665 Nm
(b) TR TAS W/V GS

O A to PNR 090 210 330/18 218
H PNR to A 090 210 330/18 200
Endurance = (1600 -150)/100 = 14h:30m (b) Dist to PNR = (14:30 x 218 x 200)/(418)=1512 Nm (c)
Time to PNR = 1512/218 = 6h: 56m.
(c) SAR = (FOB xTAS)/FC = (1600 x 210)/100 = 3360 Nm

34
(d) Since one engine has failed we need to know how far we can go with 4 engines and come back with
three engines operating. If X is the fuel consumed till PNR with 4 engines and Y with three engines,
then total fuel consumed = X + Y
Cruise 4 Engines
PNR
A B
Cruise 3 Engines
TR TAS W/V GS Dist FTime FC F Used

A to PNR 090 210 330/18 218 1400 6:25 100 642
PNR to A 270 180 330/18 170 1400 8:14 80 659
Total Fuel Used = 642 + 659 = 1301 (Adopt Unitary method)
If flight fuel is 1301 then distance to PNR is 1400

If flight fuel is 1 then distance to PNR is 1400/1301
If flight fuel is 1450 then distance to PNR is (1400 x 1450)/1301 = 1560 Nm
Hence Dist to PNR = 1560 Nm and time taken = 1560/218 = 7h:09m
Q5. Dist = 2000 Nm, Tr =330, W/V = 160/37 Kts, TAS (4/3) = (300/250), FC (4/3) = 200/180 Kg/hr
FOB = 2400 kg, Reserve = 500 Kg. Find (a) Dist & Time to CP (b) Dist & Time to PNR (c) SAR.
Assume one engine failed at PNR and ac returns on 3 engines.
A. TR TAS W/V GS
H CP to A 150 250* 160/37 213
O CP to B 330 250* 160/37 286
G A to CP 330 300 160/37 336

0n 4 Engine
A 940 Nm CP 1060 Nm B
(b) TR TAS W/V GS DIST TIME FC F USED

O A to PNR 330 300 160/37 336 1400 4:10 200 1190
H PNR to A 150 250* 160/37 213 1690

If fuel is 2880 PNR is 2000, for fuel 1900 PNR = 2000/2880 x 1900 = 1320 Nm/3:55m
35
Endurance = (1600 -150)/100 = 14h:30m (b) Dist to PNR = (14:30 x 218 x 200)/(418)=1512 Nm (c)
Time to PNR = 1512/218 = 6h: 56m.
(c) SAR = (FOB x TAS)/FC = (1600 x 210)/100 = 3360 Nm
Q6. Dist = 1350 Nm, TR =270 W/V 270/25 upto CP, thereafter 350/38. TAS (4/3) = 200/180, FC
(4/3) = 110/90, FOB =1800, Res = 200. Find DCP, TCP, DPNR, TPNR & SAR (assume one engine
failed at PNR)
A. TR TAS W/V GS
H CP to A 090 180* 270/25 205
O CP to B 270 180* 350/38 170
G A to CP 270 200 270/25 175

O A to CP 270 200 270/25 175 740 04:14 110 465
H CP to A 090 180 270/25 205 740 03:37 90 325

Total Fuel Used : 790; Bal = 810
PNR
TR TAS W/V GS DIST TIME FC F USED
CP to B (4 Eng) 270 200 350/38 190 610 03:13 110 353
B to CP (3 Eng) 270 180 350/38 183 610 03:10 80 300
Total Fuel Used : 653

DPNR = 740 + 757 = 1497 Nm, TPNR = 4:14 + 3:59 = 8h:13m
(c) SAR = (FOB x TAS)/FC = (1800 x 200)/200 = 3273 Nm
Q7. Dist = 1250 Nm, TR =090 W/V 280/20 upto CP, thereafter 330/20. TAS (4/3) = 180/150, FC
(4/3) = 110/90, FOB =1800, Res = 700. Find DCP, TCP, DPNR &, TPNR (assume one engine failed
at PNR)
A. TR TAS W/V GS
H CP to A 270 150* 280/20 130
36
O CP to B 090 150* 330/20 159
G A to CP 090 180 280/20 200

O A to CP 090 180 280/20 200 562 02:49 110 309
H CP to A 270 150 280/20 130 562 04:19 90 389

Total Fuel Used : 698; Bal = 402
PNR
TR TAS W/V GS DIST TIME FC F USED
CP to B (4 Eng) 090 180 330/20 189 688 03:38 110 400
B to CP (3 Eng) 270 150 330/20 139 688 04:56 90 445
Total Fuel Used : 845

DPNR = 562 + 327 = 889 Nm, TPNR = 2:49 + 1:44 = 4h:33m
Q8. TR=250, W/V 270/30, TAS = 210, FOB = 1200, PNR =785 Nm. Find (a) FC (b) If CP is
reached 45 minutes before PNR, find excess fuel carried.
PNR TR TAS W/V GS TIME

O A to PNR 250 210 270/30 181 4:19
H PNR to A 070 210 270/30 238 3:18

TOTAL 7:37
Time to CP = Time to PNR – 0:45 = 7:37 – 0:45 = 6:52, Distance traveled in 0:45 = 181 x 0:45 =136
Nm, Hence distance to CP = 785-136 = 649; CP = DH/(O+H) or 649 = D x 238 /419 or D =1143. Time
taken to cover 1143 Nm at 181 K = 1143/181 = 6h 19 m
PNR = EOH/(O+ H) or 785= (E x 181 x 238)/ 419 or E = (785 x 419)/ (181x 238) = 7h 38m
E = FOB/FC or FC = 1200/7:38 =157gph. Fuel Consumed for Flight of 6h 19 m = 6:19 x 157 = 991
gals. Fuel Carried = 1200, Excess Fuel = 1200-991 = 209
Q9. TR=155, W/V 240/30, TAS = 220, FC = 150 GPH, PNR =1080 Nm. Find (a) FOB (b) If CP is
reached 1:15 minutes before PNR, find excess fuel carried.
PNR TR TAS W/V GS

O A to PNR 155 220 240/30 215
37
H PNR to A 335 220 240/30 221
Time to CP = Time to PNR – 1:15, Distance traveled in 1:15 = 215 x 1:15 =269 Nm, Hence distance to
CP = 1080-268 = 811; CP = DH/(O+H) or 811 = D x 221 /436 or D =1599. Time taken to cover 1599
Nm at 215 K = 1599/215 = 7h 26 m
PNR = EOH/(O+ H) or 1080= (E x 215 x 221)/ 436 or E = (785 x 419)/ (181x 238) = 9h 55m
E = FOB/FC or FOB = 9:55 x 150 =1486 lbs. Fuel Consumed for Flight of 7h 26 m = 7:26 x 150 =
1115 gals. Fuel Carried = 1486, Excess Fuel = 1486-1115 = 371 lbs
Q10. Dist = 1450 Nm, TR =132 W/V 260/40 upto CP, thereafter 350/60. TAS (4/3) = 190/160,
Find (a) DCP, TCP, (b) DPNR if Fuel Consumption is increased by 8% (assume one engine failed
at PNR)
A. TR TAS W/V GS
H CP to A 312 160* 260/40 132
O CP to B 132 160* 350/60 203
G A to CP 132 190 260/40 212
Time to CP = Distance to CP/ GS out = 571/212 = 02h:42m.
Since fuel is not given, CP & PNR are collocated. Now with 8% increase in fuel consumption there will
be a 8% reduction in distance to PNR. Hence 8% of 571 = 46 Nm, so DPNR = 571-46 =525Nm and
Time to PNR = 525/212 = 2h:26m.
Q11. Dist = 1200 Nm, TR =270 W/V 330/20, TAS (4/3) = 180/150, FOB = 900, RES = 300; FC
=110 Gal/hr. FC = 110 gals/hr. Find (a) DCP, TCP, (b) DPNR & TPNR (c) Is fuel sufficient for
the flight, if not, how much less (d) If flight fuel is 981 gals calculate DPNR.
A.
TR TAS W/V GS
H CP to A 090 150* 330/20 159
O CP to B 270 150* 330/20 139
G A to CP 270 180 330/40 169
Time to CP = Distance to CP/ GS out = 640/169 = 03h:47m.

38
(b) DPNR &TPNR
TR TAS W/V GS
O A to PNR 270 180 330/20 169
H PNR to A 090 180 330/20 189
Endurance = 600/110 = 5:27, DPNR = 5:27 x 189 x 169/358 =486, TPNR = 486/169 = 2:53
(c)
Time to cover 1200 Nm = 1200/169 = 7h:06m, Fuel required = FC x 7:06 = 781 gals, FOB =600 gals,
hence Fuel Less by 781-600 = 181 gals.
(d)
FOB = 781 + 300 (reserve) =1081, Endurance =781/110 = 7.1 hr, DPNR = 7.1x 169 x 189/358 = 634
Q12. Dist = 1600 Nm, TR =090 W/V 270/30 for first 1000 Nm for remaining distance 030/17, TAS
(4/3) = 220/150, FC (4/3) = 100/80, FOB =1400, Res = 200. Find (a) DCP, TCP, (b) DPNR & TPNR
(assume one engine failure at PNR)
A.
A 1000 nm X 600 nm B
W/V 270/30 030/17
TR TAS W/V GS DIST TIME(min)
A-X (3) 090 190 270/30 220 1000 273
X-B (3) 090 190 030/17 181 600 199 (273 +199) = 472
B-X (3) 270 190 030/17 198 600 182
X-A (3) 270 190 270/30 160 1000 375 (375 + 182) = 557
000 375 557

A X B
Subtract 472 1 98 000
-472 +177 +577
CP lies in this Leg
Time taken for an aircraft to reach from A to B is 472 mins with existing winds. Time taken to return
form B to A is 577 mins. At (A, X & B) we can calculate the residual time. The CP will lie in the leg
where values are between negative and positive.
DCP = Distance of leg in which CP lies x 472 /(472 +177) =1000 x 472/649 = 727 Nm
TCP = 727/250 =2h:54m (GS out 4 Eng = 220 +30 K tail wind)
Similar calculations can now be made for PNR with Fuel considerations.
39
PNR
TR TAS W/V GS DIST TIME FC F USED BAL
A-X (4) 090 220 270/30 250 1000 4:00 100 400
X-A (3) 270 190 270/30 160 1000 6:15 80 500 300 (1200 –(500+400))
900
X-B (4) 090 220 030/17 211 600 2:50 100 284
B-X (3) 270 190 030/17 198 600 3:01 80 241 675 (1200 –(284+241))
525
A X B
PNR lies in this Leg
PNR lies between X & B since Balance of fuel is 300 gals after catering for return from X.
Hence, if Flight Fuel is 525 then PNR is 600 Nm from X
If Flight Fuel is 1 then PNR is 600/525 Nm from X
If Flight Fuel is 300 then PNR is (600 x 300)/525 Nm from X = 343 Nm from X = 1343 Nm from A
Time to cover 343 Nm @ GS =211 =343/211 = 1:37. Hence TPNR = 4:00 + 1:37 = 5:37
Q13. Dist = 2000 Nm, TR =270 W/V 280/22 for first 900 Nm for remaining distance 330/20, TAS
(4/3) = 180/150, FC (4/3) = 100/80, FOB =1700, Res = 200. Find (a) DCP, TCP, (b) DPNR & TPNR
(assume one engine failure at PNR)
A.
A 900 nm X 1100 nm B
W/V 280/22 330/20
A-X (3) 270 150 280/22 128 900 422
X-B (3) 270 150 330/20 139 1100 475 (422 +475) = 897
B-X (3) 090 150 330/20 159 1100 415
X-A (3) 090 150 280/22 172 900 314 (415 + 314) = 729
A-X (4) 270 180 280/22 & 330/20 = 158/169
0 314 729
A X B
Subtract 897 475 000
-897 -161 +729
CP lies in this Leg
40
DCP = Distance of leg in which CP lies x 161 /(729 +161) =(1100 x 161)/890 = 199 + 900 =1099 Nm
TCP = 199/169 + 900/ 158 =1:11 + 5:42 = 6h:53m (GS out 4 Eng = 158 from A-X & 169 from X-B)
PNR
A-X (4) 270 180 280/22 158 900 5:42 100 570
X-A (3) 090 150 280/22 172 900 5:14 80 419 511 (1700 –(570+419))
989
X-B (4) 270 180 330/20 169 1100 6:31 100 651
B-X (3) 090 150 330/20 159 1100 6:55 80 553 496 (1700 –(651+553))
1204
A X B
PNR lies between X & B since Balance of fuel is 511 gals after catering for return from X.
Hence, if Flight Fuel is 1204 then PNR is 1100 Nm from X
If Flight Fuel is 1 then PNR is 1100/1204 Nm from X
If Flight Fuel is 511 then PNR is (1100 x 511)/1204 Nm from X = 467 Nm from X = 1367 Nm from A
Time to cover 467 Nm @ GS =169 =467/169 = 2:46. Hence TPNR = 5:42 + 2:46 = 8:28
Q14. An aircraft flies from A-B on Tr = 090 for 600 Nm (W/V 030/20) and then proceeds to
destination C on Tr = 120, D = 900 Nm (W/V 150/35) . TAS (4/3) = 240/210, FC (4/3) = 150/120,
FOB =1600, Res = 200. Find (a) DCP, TCP, (b) DPNR & TPNR (assume one engine failure at
PNR)
A.
A 600 nm B 900 nm
W/V 030/20 150/35 C

A-B (3) 090 210 030/20 199 600 181
B-C (3) 120 210 150/35 179 900 302 (181 +302) = 483
C-B (3) 300 210 150/35 240 900 225
B-A (3) 270 210 030/20 219 600 164 (225 + 164) = 389
A-B (4) 090 240 030/20 & 150/35 = 229/209
41
0 164 389
A B C
Subtract 483 302 000
-483 -138 +389
CP lies in this Leg
DCP = Distance of leg in which CP lies x 138 /(389 +138) =(900 x 138)/536 = 236 + 600 =836 Nm
TCP = 236/209 + 600/ 229 =1:07 + 2:37 = 3h:45m (GS out 4 Eng = 158 from A-X & 169 from X-B)
PNR
A-B(4) 090 240 030/20 229 600 2:37 150 393
B-A(3) 270 210 030/20 219 600 2:44 120 329 678
722
B-C (4) 120 240 150/35 209 900 4:18 150 646
C-B (3) 300 210 150/35 240 900 6:55 120 450
1096
A B C
PNR lies between B & C since Balance of fuel is 722 gals after catering for return from B
Hence, if Flight Fuel is 1096 then PNR is 600 Nm from B
If Flight Fuel is 1 then PNR is 600/1096 Nm from B
If Flight Fuel is 678 then PNR is (600 x 678)/1096 Nm from B = 558 Nm from B = 1158 Nm from A
Time to cover 558 Nm @ GS of 209 K =558/209 = 2:40. Hence TPNR = 2:37 + 2:40 = 5:17
Q15. On a flight from A to C via B. TAS on 4 engines is 360 K & in case of 3 engines it is 300 K. The
route details are:-
Stage Track Wind Vel Distance

A–B 180° 330°/ 35 K 900 Nm
B–C 210° 150°/28 K 1400 Nm
(a) Find distance and time to CP (the aircraft is required to return to B or C in case of engine failure).
(b) If FOB is 2200 Kg, Reserve is 200 Kg, fuel consumption 250 Kg/hr (4Engine) and 220 Kg/hr (3
Engine), find Distance & Time to PNR (After take off A is not available and aircraft is to land at B,
assume engine failure at PNR and return is on three engines)
42
A.
A 330°/ 35 K B 150°/28 K
180°/900 Nm C
210°/1400 NM
Between B – C
TR TAS W/V GS
H CP to B 030 300* 150/28 313
O CP to C 210 300* 150/28 285
G B to CP 210 360 150/28 345
A – B (4) 180 360 330/35 390
(a) Distance to CP (B-C) = DH/(O +H) = (1400 x 313)/(285 + 313) = 732 Nm
Distance to CP = 732 + 900 = 1632
Time to CP (A-B) = Distance to CP/ GS out = 900/390 = 02h:18m
(B-C) = Distance to CP/ GS out =732/345 = 2:07
Time to CP = 2:18 + 2:07 = 4h:25m
PNR
A-B(4) 180 360 330/35 390 900 2:18 250 577 1423 (2000-577)
B-C(4) 210 360 150/28 345 1400 4:03 250 1014
C-B (3) 300 210 150/28 313 1400 4:28 220 984
1998
A B C
PNR lies between B & C since Balance of fuel is 1423 kgs after catering for return from B
Hence, if Flight Fuel is 1998 then PNR is 1400 Nm from B
If Flight Fuel is 1 then PNR is 1400/1998 Nm from B
If Flight Fuel is 1423 then PNR is (1400 x 1423)/1998 from B = 997 Nm from B = 1897 Nm from A
Time to cover 997 Nm @ GS of 390 K =997/390 = 2:53. Hence TPNR = 2:18 + 2:53 = 5h:11m
Q16. An aircraft is to fly from P to R via Q and return to Y via Q in case of engine failure, since P
is not available. TAS on 4 engines is 500 K & in case of 3 engines it is 420 K. The route details are:-
43
Stage TAS Wind Vel Distance
P–Q 420 -25 965 Nm
Q–R 420 -45 900 Nm
R–Q 420 +45 900 Nm
Q–Y 420 +30 240 Nm
(a) Find distance and time to CP(the aircraft is required to return to Y via Q in case of engine failure).
(b) If FOB is 38000 Kg, Reserve is 6500 Kg, fuel consumption 6300 Kg/hr (4Engine) and 5600 Kg/hr
(3 Engine), find Distance & Time to PNR (After take off P is not available and aircraft is to land at Y,
assume engine failure at PNR and return is on three engines)
0 32 (Time to Y) 148
P 965 Q 900 R
290 144 (Time to R) 0
-290 240 -112 148
Y CP lies in this Leg
CP
Stage TAS Wind Vel GS Distance Flt Time (min)
P–Q 420 -25 395 965 Nm 146
Q–R 420 -45 375 900 Nm 144
290
R–Q 420 +45 465 900 Nm 116
Q–Y 420 +30 450 240 Nm32
148
DCP (Q-R) = DH/(O +H) = 900 x 112/ (148 + 112) = 388 Nm from Q
DCP = 965 + 388 = 1353
P – Q (4) 500 -25 475 965 Nm 2:02

Q – CP (4) 500 -45 455 388 Nm 0:51
TCP = 2:02 + 0:51 = 2h:53m
PNR
Stage TAS Wind Vel GS Distance Time FC F Used Bal
P–Q 500 -25 475 965 Nm 2:02 6300 12810
(31500-15797)
Q–Y 420 +30 450 240 Nm 0:32 5600 2987 15703
15797
Q–R 500 -45 455 900 Nm 1:59 6300 12461
R–Q 420 +45 465 900 Nm 1:56 5600 10839
23300
If Flight fuel is 23300 then DPNR is 900 Nm
If Flight fuel is 15703 then DPNR is (900 x 15703)/23300 = 607 Nm from Q
DPNR = 965 + 607 = 1572 Nm Time to cover 607 Nm @ GS 455 K = 607/455 = 1:20
TPNR = 2:02 + 1:20 = 3h:22m
44
CRITICAL POINT (CP)
1. CP is always half way when GS (Home = GS (Out) i.e. O = H, this happens during (a) Nil Winds and
(b) Beam winds.
2. In case of HW, CP will always be more than half way i.e. into wind and in case of tail winds CP will
be less than half way.
3. If HW component increases distance to CP will increase or it will move towards destination or it will
move away from departure point.
4. In case tail wind component increases distance to CP will decrease or it will move closer to place of
departure or away from departure point..
CP ALWAYS MOVES INTO WIND
5. For same HW component if TAS is reduced, distance to CP will increase and vice versa.
6. In case of HW, CP will be more than half way, if HW changes to tail wind, distance to CP will be
less than half way by the corresponding distance if wind component remains same.
Q. With 50K of HW, distance to CP is 1200 Nm. During actual flight wind component was found o be
50 K of tail winds. If total distance is 2000 Nm, new distance to CP will be (a) 1000 (b) 1200 (c) 800
(d) insufficient data cannot be calculated
A (c)
Q. If beam wind component doubles, distance to CP will be …..and time to CP will ….(a) same, same
(b) same, decrease (c) decrease, same (d) same, increase. A. (d)
Q. If fuel onboard or Flight Fuel increases distance to CP will remain the same.
PNR
Q. Distance to PNR will be maximum in (a) HW during outbound (b) Tail Wind during outbound (c)
Tail wind during inbound (d) Nil Winds
A. (d) Note. ANY KIND OF WINDS WILL CAUSE PNR TO REDUCE.
Q. With a fuel of 10000 lbs, PNR calculated is 880 Nm, other factors remaining constant, if fuel is
increased to 11000 lb, the distance to PNR will be (a) 928 (b) 968 (c) 950 (d) 920.
A. (b) 10% increase
3. If fuel consumption is changed by certain percentage, distance to PNR will also change by
corresponding percentage.
Q. With 200 lbs/hr fuel consumption, PNR is 1000 Nm, if actual fuel consumption is found to be 220
lbs/hr , distance to PNR will be (a) 1100 Nm (b) 990 Nm (c) 900 Nm (d) 800 Nm A. (c) 10% Change
45
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
1. It is a DR Navigation System which gives Great Circle Tracks/ Distances and True Direction.
It consists of two accelerometers which measure aircraft accelerations in N-S and E-W direction.
2. It has a Gyro Stabilised Platform, horizontally stabilised, to ensure accelerations are measured
in the horizontal plane only. Three torque motors, two accelerometers and three rate gyros
sensitive in each axis are mounted on the horizontally stabilized platform. The Zero position
denotes the present position of the aircraft from which the georef coordinates are taken to
initialize the system. A total of 9 way points can be fed into the system.
3. Control and Display Unit (CDU).
24°15’07’’ N 78°23’36’’ W
23 D
W
P 4 I ALERT BATT WARN
TK
T M
CHG
WPT
POS DIST/TIME 1 2 3
XTK/TKE WIND
HDG/GA DSR TK/STS
4 5 6
TK/GS TEST INSERT
7 8 9
HOLD 0 CLEAR
Fig 1 – Control and Display Unit
4. TK/GS(Track and Groundspeed). The INS computed track, usually referenced to magnetic
north, is displayed to the nearest tenth of a degree in the left display and the groundspeed in knots in the
right display. For example, a current track of 135 M and a groundspeed of 467 knots would appear as
135.0 and 0467.
5. HDG/DA(Heading and Drift Angle). The heading obtained from the angle between the platform
frame and north reference is displayed to the nearest tenth of a degree in the left display. The angular
difference between heading and track (drift angle) is displayed to the nearest tenth of a degree in the
right display, preceded by the letter R or L to indicate whether drift is right or left. Thus, a heading of
137 M on a track of 135° M would be presented as 137.0 and L 02.0.
46
6. XTK/TKE (Cross Track Distance and Track Error Angle). Cross track distance is the distance by
which the aircraft is displaced right or left of the desired great circle track and is displayed in the left
display to the nearest tenth of a nautical mile. The track error angle is the angular difference, right or
left, between the desired great circle track and the actual track being made, to the nearest tenth of a
degree. If the aircraft were displaced 1½ nm to the left of the desired track of 135°M, the left display
would read L 01.5. If the track being made good happened to be 130°M, the right display would read L
005.0.
7. POS (Present Position). The aircraft’s current latitude and longitude are shown in terms of
Longitude and Latitude in the left and right displays, respectively. For example, 24°15’07’’N and
78°23’36’’W,
8. WPT (Waypoint Positions). The position of each inserted waypoint is shown as latitude in the
left display and longitude in the right display by selecting WPT on the rotary selector switch and
scrolling through the waypoint numbers with the waypoint selector wheel.
9. DIST/TIME (Distance and Time to the Next Waypoint). The distance in nautical miles from the
present position to the next waypoint is shown in the left display and the time at present groundspeed to
the nearest tenth of a minute in the right display.
10. WIND (Wind Speed). The INS is able to compute wind direction and speed and these are
displayed in the left and right windows, respectively, to the nearest degree of arc and knot.
11. DSR TK/STS (Desired Track and Status). The Great Circle track from one waypoint to the next
changes as the aircraft progresses between the two and INS computes the present desired magnetic track
based upon distance from the waypoints, magnetic variation and the assumption that the aircraft is on
track. This will appear in the left display to the nearest tenth of a degree and the right display will be
blank. The status function is for use only whilst the INS is in ALIGN mode and it shows a numerical
display in the right window that indicates the status of the alignment procedure. The display typically
shows 99 at the start of alignment and counts down to 0, when alignment is completed and READY
NAV is illuminated.
Q. Way Point(WP) 4 is 60°N 90°W, WP3 is 60°N 70°W. Find distance shown at WP3 for WP4 (a)
605 Nm, (b) 600 Nm (c) 594 Nm (d) None.
A. Dep = dlong x 60 x Cos 60 = 20 x 60 x 0.5 = 600 Nm (Rhumb Line Distance), remember GC
distance is slightly lesser than Rhumb Line distance, Hence 594 Nm is the correct answer.
Q. What is the track shown by INS on leaving WP3 in the above question (a) 270° (b) 279° (c) 261°
(d) 099°.
A. Conversion Angle = ½ dlong x Sin Mean Lat = ½ x 20 x Sin 60 = 9°. RL Track =270 + 9° = 279°
which is the GC track.
Q. What is the track shown before arrival at WP4 in the above question? 270°
A. It will be 9° less than 270 = 261° and curving left 261°
Q At 80°W INS indicates 0 XTKE, what is the latitude shown by INS?

A. Distance off from rhumb line can be calculated by taking half the CA i.e 4.5° and applying 1 in
60 rule. Distance at 80°W=300Nm =R, θ = 4.5° hence s = 22.5 Nm = 22.5’ (1’ = 1 Nm). Lat = 60°30’N
47
Q. WP7 is 52°27’S, 017°45’W, WP8 is 52°S27’S, 004°15’E. Find on leaving WP7,(a) DSR/TRK (b)
Distance (i) 804 nm (ii) little less than 804 (iii) 494 Nm (iv) little less than 494 Nm (c) Initial true Hdg
on leaving was 080 assuming constant drift find true hdg on reaching WP8.
A. (a) CA =½ dlong x Sin Mean Lat = ½ x 22 x Sin 52° 27’ = 9°. RL Track =090 + 9° = 099° which
is the GC track. (b) Dep = dlong x 60 x Cos 52° 27’ = 22 x 60 x 0.6 = 800 Nm (Rhumb Line
Distance), remember GC distance is slightly lesser than Rhumb Line distance, (ii) is correct. (c)
Initial Track was 099 but ac is flying 080 hence stb drift of 19°. At WP 8 Track would be 090 -9 -
19 =062°
INS Error. Distance from final ramp position to final INS position divided by time is termed as
INS error
Q. After 6h24m flight when at parking bay position 52°18.5’N, 4°45.9’E the ins shows a position of
52°20.7’N 4°40.3’e. Find INS Error
52° 20.7’N Dep = dlong x Cos Lat = 5.6 x Cos 52°18.5’ =3.42 Nm,
04° 40.3E Similarly Dist covered in Northerly Hdg = 2.2 Nm,
Tan(2.2/3.42) = Tan (.643) or = 33° Hypotenuse distance
2.2Nm 33° 52° 18.5’N = 4.066 Nm hence error =4/6:24 = 0.64 Nm/hr in 303°
3.42 Nm 04° 45.9’E
48
EXTENDED RANGE TWIN OPERATION (ETOPS)
IT IS APPLICABLE TO TWIN ENGINE OPERATIONS ONLY
Threshold Distance. The Maximum distance you can fly with one engine inoperative in 60 minutes
(threshold time TT) for Class A aircraft and 120 min for Class B&C aircraft in nil wind condition is
termed as threshold distance. It is calculated by TT x TAS, the TAS will vary between turbo-prop and
jet ac, also the FL will vary. It is FL 80 for prop ac and FL 170 for turbo jet ac. The TAS would depend
on the performance of the ac with single engine.
Rule Time. The maximum diversion time that any point on the route of an ETOPS approved aircraft
may be from a suitable aerodrome is referred to as the Rule time. The first clearance for ETOPS is 120
minutes, after safe operations for six months it may be extended to 138 minutes and after 12 months of
safe operations further extended by 180 minutes.
Rule Distance. The maximum distance an operator may plan any route from a suitable aerodrome is
that which would be covered at the normal one-engine inoperative cruising speed, in still air, in the rule
time
Adequate Aerodrome. An aerodrome that is available at the anticipated time of use and is equipped
with necessary ancillary services i.e. ATC, lighting, communications, weather reporting, nav aids and
safety cover and having at least one let down aid available for an instrument runway.
Suitable Aerodrome. A suitable aerodrome is an adequate aerodrome that is used as an en-route

alternate or diversion aerodrome. It would normally be used only in the event of an engine failure or the
loss of primary airframe systems. For an aerodrome to be considered suitable, weather probability
should be more than 40% for the forecast if probability is less than 40% the aerodrome may be
ignored for planning purposes.
49
GPS
It utilises the range obtained from a constellation of satellites to fix position of an aircraft in the air or on
ground. It is a satellite based navigational aid.
Basic Data.
Total number of Satellites : 21+ 3 (stand by) =24.

Number of Orbital Paths : 06.
Inclination of Orbital Path : 55° to the Equator
Distance : 20, 200 kms above the surface of the earth.
Time taken for each orbit : 12 hours.
Number of satellites required for 2D fix : 3
Number of satellites required for 3D fix : 4 (also for initialisation of the system)
Number of satellites required for RAIM (Remote Autonomous Integrity Monitoring) : 5
(This is similar to Built in Test Equipment BITE)
Frequency : L1 -1575 MHz and L2 -1228 MHz in UHF Band.
Principle. GPS transmits a PRN (Pseudo Random Noise) of 1 milli sec duration in UHF band. Each
satellite has its own unique code. The information contained in PRN code is
(a) Position of satellite (azimuth and angle)
(b) Clock Time
(c) Clock Error
(d) Information on ionospheric condition
(e) Supplementary information
Two codes are transmitted, CA (Coarse Acquisition) and P (Precision) Code. Two services are provided
by GPS. These are
(a) Standard Position Service (SPS) using CA code which is available for civil use.
(b) Precise Position Services (PPS) using CA & P Code.
Pseudo Range. The receiver has an accurate crystal oscillator to provide time, however, the accuracy
does not compare with that of the satellite clock. The receiver clock is deliberately kept in error by a
small factor to ensure that correction process takes place in one way only. The initial calculated range is
called Pseudo Range. For example if the receiver clock is 1 milli second fast the receiver will
overestimate the range by 162 Nm. Therefore when the receiver sets about calculating the correct range
it knows that it must reduce Pseudo Range.
Errors of GPS
Ephemeris Error. This error is due to the disturbed position of the satellite. Any deviation from its
orbital path will induce this error. This is caused due to various reasons e.g. debris or gravitational
effect of Sun, Moon and other planets. To obviate this error satellite position is checked every 12 hours
and when necessary it is updated. The max permissible error is 2.5 m.
Satellite Clock Error. The clock is also checked atleast every 12 hours. The max permissible error
is 1.5 m.
50
Ionospheric Propagation Error. This is the most significant error in the system. The state of
ionosphere is continuously checked at monitoring stations and the model is updated every 12 hours.
The max permissible error is 5 m.
Tropospheric Propagation Error. This is caused due to variation in pressure /temperature/density and
humidity effects on EM waves. The max permissible error is 0.5 m.
Receiver Noise Error. All radio receivers generate internal noise. In GPS receiver it can cause error in
measurement of time. The max permissible error is 0.3 m.
System Accuracy. The ICAO specifications require an accuracy of the SPS to be 30 m with a
probability of 50% i.e. 30 m – 50% of the time.
Multi-path Reception. Reflections from ground and parts of aircraft result in multi-path reception.
GDOP. Geometric Dilution of Precision is caused due to poor cut between position lines. This is
caused when the satellites are relatively closer to each other.
Differential GPS. It is a means of improving the accuracy of the GPS by monitoring the integrity of the
satellite data and warning the user of any error which may occur during flight. There are three kinds of
DGPS in use. Accuracy is 3 m.
(a) GBAS (Ground Based Augmentation System). This is Local Area Augmentation System
(LAAS).
(b) ABAS (Air Based Augmentation System).
(c) SBAS (Space Based Augmentation System). This is Wide Area Augmentation System
(WAAS).

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What are the different types of lines that can be drawn on the earth?

What are the different types of lines that can be drawn on the earth?

What are the different types of directions that can be measured?

What are the different types of directions that can be measured?

1

(a) It’s the shortest path between two poles.

1 Nm = 6017 feet at Poles- geographical centre

Statute Mile. By statute it is 5280 ft.

Any line drawn on a map represents a True Track.

Fig: Deviation and Variation

POBLEMS ON DIRECTION (Black-Given, Red-Determined) (East is +, W is -ive)

1. At what latitude a distance of 100 nm will involve a dlong of 30 degrees?

A. Dep =100 nm, dlong =100nm, Lat=?, Dep=dlong x 60 x Cos Lat

A. Dep = 545 nm, Lat = 60 deg, dlong = ? Substituting in Dep=dlong x 60 x CosLat

4. Find dep between 32 30 N, 20 42 E and 32 30 N, 89 26 E. 173°50W 180° 168°E

A. 102° 24’ x 60 x Cos 42° 42’ = 4515.3 Nm

On a map Scale is represented by three methods:-

(a) Representative Fraction, a fraction whose numerator is always 1, e.g. 1:10000.

(b) Statement in words, e.g. 1cm = 100 nm.

(c) Graduated Scale Km or Nm

1 Nm = 6080 ft 1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 ft = 12 in; 1 in = 2.54 cms

1. Given MD = 20 cm; ED = 100 nm; Find Scale.

2. Given MD = 20.5 in; ED = 600 km; Find Scale.

3. Given MD = 5 in; Scale = 1:2,000,000; Find ED

4. An ac at a G/S of 300K covers map distance of 15 cms in 24 mins. Find Scale.

5. An ac covers a distance of 5 in on a chart (scale of 1: 1,000,000) in 20 min. Find G/S.

1/1,000,000 = 5/ED or ED = 5,000,000 in = 5000000/(6080 x 12) = 68.5 Nm in 20 mins. Hence Speed =

7. On a mercator chart SAE = 1: 1450000, at what Lat scale will be 1: 1000000.

A. SAL 54° N = 1000000 x Cos 54 = 1: 587785. MD/ED = 1/587785 or 10/ED = 1/587785 or ED =

9. Distance between two points at 45° N is 10 cm and ED is 100km. Find SAE.

A. Dep =1 x 60 x Cos57°20’ = 32.385 Nm = 5997709 cm (1Nm = 1.852Km)

A. SAE = 1000000/Cos 25 = 1:1103378, SAL = 1103378 x Cos 60 =551688.95. So 10” = 5516889” on

A. Dep = 15°15’ x 60 =915 Nm, 915 x 6080 x 2 = 66758400”/1000000 corresponding to 66.75” .

____ Rhumb Line ____ Great Circle

1. Meridians are straight lines equidistant from each other.

4. It is not an orthomorphic projection (Orthomorphism is the property of a projection in which

Note: For a projection to be orthomorphic the following conditions are to be satisfied:-

(b) Scale should be constant within the vicinity of a point.

1. Mathematical modifications/corrections are carried out to make a Cylindrical Projection

3. Appearance & Properties are similar to Cylindrical Projection which are:-

Limitations. The limitations are:-

(a) This projection cannot be used for Polar Regions.

(c) Adjacent sheets fit together in E-W direction not N-S.

1. Meridians are straight lines converging to the nearest pole.

4. A Great Circle is a straight line.

6. It is not an orthomorphic projection.

1. Its an orthomorphic only between two std parallels.

Usage. All Jeppesen charts are Lambert Conical Projection.

ZENITHAL OR AZIMUTHAL PROJECTION

1. Meridians are straight lines converging at poles.

3. Rhumb Line is a curved line concave to the Great circle/nearest pole.

4. Great Circle is a straight line.

5. Its not an orthomorphic projection.

Q. GC Brg of A from B = 045°, CA = 5°. What is RL Brg of B from A in Northern hemisphere.

A. RL Brg of A from B = GC Brg of A from B + CA = 045° + 5° = 050° 045°

A. RL Brg of X from Y = 060° Therefore GC Brg of X from Y = 060-CA =060-6 =054°

HDG & TAS

TRK & G/S

Rhumb Line Great Circle