Samuel Caesar F.

Talidro
BSEE-4

1. Shockley Diode

a.) Construction and Symbol

c.) Schematic

d.) Operation

The Shockley diode is a two terminal and four layer semiconductor switching diode. Where four layers are P-N-P-N
and two terminals are anode and cathode. The function of the Shockley diode is similar to a normal diode without
any initiate i/ps. When the diode is in the forward, the current flows through the diode, whereas in reverse bias, there
is no flow of current.

The construction of this diode is done by connecting the four layers to form PNPN junction. The basic circuit of this
diode using two transistors is shown in above. In the above circuit, the collector terminal of the T1 transistor is
connected to the base terminal of the T1 transistor.

The J1 junction is designed at the EB junction of T1 transistor, J2 is at common connected BC junction between T1
& T2 transistors, and the J3 is at BE junction of T2 transistor. So, as the BE junctions, J1& J3 must be forward
biased & as a CB junction, J2 must be reverse biased for linear operation.
e.) Characteristic Curve

2. Shottky Barrier Diode

a.) Construction

b.) Symbol

c.) Schematic
d.) Operation

A Schottky diode is also known as a hot carrier diode; it is a semiconductor diode with a very fast switching action,
but a low forward voltage drop. When a current flows through the diode there is a small voltage drop across the
diode terminals. In a normal diode, the voltage drop is between 0.6 to 1.7 volts, while in a Schottky diode the
voltage drop normally ranges between 0.15 and 0.45volts. This lower voltage drop provides higher switching speed
and better system efficiency. In Schottky diode, a semiconductor–metal junction is formed between a semiconductor
and a metal, thus creating a Schottky barrier. The N-type semiconductor acts as a cathode and the metal side acts as
the anode of the diode.

e.) Characteristic Curve

3.Varactor Diode

a.) Construction

b.) Symbol
c.) Schematic

d.) Operation

Varactor diode is a one kind of semiconductor microwave solid-state device and the applications of this diode
mainly involve in where variable capacitance is preferred which can be accomplished by controlling voltage. These
diodes are also named as varicap diodes. Even though the outcome of the variable capacitance can be showed by the
normal P-N junction diodes, but these diodes are chosen for giving the desired capacitance changes as they are
special types of diodes. Varactor diodes are specifically fabricated and optimized such that they permits a high range
of changes in capacitance. We know that, the capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the region of the
terminals, as the region of the terminals increases the capacitance of the capacitor increases. When the diode is in the
reverse biased mode, where the two regions of P-type and N-type are able to conduct and thus can be treated as two
terminals. The depletion area between the P-type & N-type regions can be considered as insulating dielectric.
Therefore, it is similar to the capacitor shown above. The volume of the depletion region of the diode varies with
change in reverse bias. If the reverse voltage of the diode is increased, then the size of the depletion region increases.
Likewise, if the reverse voltage of the Varactor diode is decreased, then the size of the depletion region decreases.
Hence, by changing the reverse bias of the diode the capacitance can be changed.

e.) Characteristic Curve

a.) Construction and Symbol

b.)Schematic

c.) Operation

Forward Bias Condition- Under the forward bias condition, as voltage increases, then current decreases and thus
become increasingly misaligned, known as negative resistance. An increase in voltage will lead to operate as a
normal diode where the conduction of electrons travels across the P-N junction diode. The negative resistance region
is the most important operating region for a Tunnel diode. The Tunnel diode and normal P-N junction diode
characteristics are different from each other.
Reverse Bias Condition- Under the reverse condition, the tunnel diode acts as a back diode or backward diode.
With zero offset voltage it can act as a fast rectifier. In reverse bias condition, the empty states on the n-side aligned
with the filled states on the p-side. In the reverse direction, the electrons will tunnel through a potential barrier.
Because of its high doping concentrations, tunnel diode acts as an excellent conductor.
d.) Characteristic Curve

5.) Photodiode

a.) Construction

b.) Symbol
c.) Schematic

d.) Operation

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the diode, it makes a couple of an
electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion
region junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.
Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent
will be generated. The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the photocurrent. So
the absent current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

Modes of Operation

The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely Photovoltaic mode, Photoconductive mode and

avalanche diode mode

Photovoltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero bias mode, in which a voltage is produced by the lightened

photodiode. It gives a very small dynamic range & non-linear necessity of the voltage formed.

Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is more usually reverse biased. The

reverse voltage application will increase the depletion layer’s width, which in turn decreases the response time & the

junction capacitance. This mode is too fast and displays electronic noise

Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias condition, which permits multiplication of

an avalanche breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole pair. This outcome in an internal gain in the

photodiode, which slowly increases the device response.

e.) Characteristic Curve

a.) Construction and /Symbol

b.) Schematic

c.) Operation

Light activated SCR (LASCR) or a Photo SCR is just an ordinary SCR except that it can also be light
triggered. Most LASCRs also have a gate terminal for being triggered by an electrical pulse just as a conventional
SCR. The basic construction of an LASCR is shown in figure. The schematic symbols most commonly used for the
LASCR are shown in figure. Some LASCRs have clear windows in their cases so that light sources from other
devices can be coupled to them. Many have the light source encapsulated in the same package so that a relay is
formed. When the light falling on depletion layers is strong enough, valence electrons are dislodged from their orbits
and become free electrons. When these free electrons flow out of the collector of one, transistor into the base of the
other. The positive feedback starts and the LASCR turns on just like a normal SCR, the LASCR will continue to
conduct even if the light source is removed. For maximum sensitivity to light, the gate is left open, as shown in
figure. Trigger adjust can be included if an adjustable trip point is desired as shown in figure. The gate resistor
diverts some of the light produced electrons and alters the sensitivity of the circuit to the incoming light. The devices
are for low power applications.

d.) Characteristic Curve

6. IGBT

a.) Construction

b.) Symbol

c.) Schematic and Characteristic Curve

d.) Operation
We can see that the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a three terminal, transconductance device that combines an
insulated gate N-channel MOSFET input with a PNP bipolar transistor output connected in a type of Darlington
configuration.
As a result the terminals are labelled as: Collector, Emitter and Gate. Two of its terminals (C-E) are associated
with the conductance path which passes current, while its third terminal (G) controls the device.
The amount of amplification achieved by the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a ratio between its output signal
and its input signal. For a conventional bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) the amount of gain is approximately equal
to the ratio of the output current to the input current, called Beta.
For a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET, there is no input current as the gate is isolated
from the main current carrying channel. Therefore, an FET’s gain is equal to the ratio of output current change to
input voltage change, making it a transconductance device and this is also true of the IGBT. Then we can treat the
IGBT as a power BJT whose base current is provided by a MOSFET.
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor can be used in small signal amplifier circuits in much the same way as the
BJT or MOSFET type transistors. But as the IGBT combines the low conduction loss of a BJT with the high
switching speed of a power MOSFET an optimal solid state switch exists which is ideal for use in power electronics
applications.
Also, the IGBT has a much lower “on-state” resistance, RON than an equivalent MOSFET. This means that
the I2R drop across the bipolar output structure for a given switching current is much lower. The forward blocking
operation of the IGBT transistor is identical to a power MOSFET.
When used as static controlled switch, the insulated gate bipolar transistor has voltage and current ratings similar to
that of the bipolar transistor. However, the presence of an isolated gate in an IGBT makes it a lot simpler to drive
than the BJT as much less drive power is needed.
An insulated gate bipolar transistor is simply turned “ON” or “OFF” by activating and deactivating its Gate
terminal. Applying a positive input voltage signal across the Gate and the Emitter will keep the device in its “ON”
state, while making the input gate signal zero or slightly negative will cause it to turn “OFF” in much the same way
as a bipolar transistor or eMOSFET. Another advantage of the IGBT is that it has a much lower on-state channel
resistance than a standard MOSFET.