ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project is the manifestation of a learning process that began

for me during these last 30 days. During the training I have come across
some wonderful people in form of faculties or teachers, friends or
acquaintances from whom I have learnt immensely. While it is not
possible to name them.

I would also like to thanks our batch incharge Mrs. Mamata Mishra
for her technical inputs. I would also like to thanks to the entire team of
RTTC for giving us the idea of telecom system.

In fact this project would not have been possible without their
direct and indirect support, inspiration and guidance during my efforts.

ESSANI MISHRA
 INTRODUCTION
The internet as we see today is a network of networks, a
virtual world where any computer on internet appears to be
connected to every other computer present on Internet. The
glue that holds the internet together is the IP (Internet
Protocol).
It was designed from beginning with internetworking
in mind. Its job is to provide is to provide best-efforts way
to transport datagrams from source to destination,
without regard to whether these machines are on the
same network or whether there are other networks
in between them. The Internet Protocol also has the task
of routing data packets between networks, and
IP Addresses specify the locations of the source and
destination nodes in the topology of the routing system.
 The above window is used to manually configure the IP
Address of any PC running Microsoft Windows. In this the first
half is used to configure IP Address and the second half is used
to configure the DNS server.
When the Obtain an IP address automatically is checked
the computer itself finds a DHCP server in the network and
obtains an IP address dynamically from it.
When the Use the following IP address is checked we can
manually assign an IP address to the current Network Interface.
It has 3 entries:
IP address: The IP address to be assigned to current Network
Interface.
Subnet Mask: This entry is done automatically by the computer
seeing the IP address assigned. It can also be assigned
manually.
Default Gateway: This entry is the IP address of the Gateway
through which the computer can connect to other networks.
 IP ADDRESS
An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical identification
and logical address that is assigned to devices participating in a
computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for
communication between its nodes. Although IP addresses are
stored as binary numbers, they are usually displayed in human-
readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166(for IPv4), and
2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6).

The designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit number

and this system, now named Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in
use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the
resulting depletion of the address space, a new addressing system
(IPv6) using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995 and last
standardized in 1998.

Every host and router on the internet has an IP address, which

encodes its network number and host number. The combination is
unique: in principle, no two machines on the internet have the same IP
address. An IP address does not actually refer to a host, it really refers
to network interface, so if a host is on two network, it must have two IP
addresses.
IP versions
The Internet Protocol (IP) has two versions currently in use, the IPv4and
the IPv6. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address
typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4.

IP version 4 addresses
IPv4 uses 32-bit (4-byte) addresses, which limits the address
space to 4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique addresses. IPv4 reserves
some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~18
million addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). This
reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated to end users
and, as the number of addresses available is consumed, IPv4 address
exhaustion is inevitable. This foreseeable shortage was the primary
motivation for developing IPv6, which is in various deployment stages
around the world and is the only strategy for IPv4 replacement and
continued Internet expansion.

IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation (four

numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots,
e.g.208.77.188.166). Each part represents 8 bits of the address, and is
therefore called an octet.

IPv4 Header:
IPv4 networks
In the early stages of development of the Internet protocol network
administrators interpreted an IP address as a structure of network
number and host number. The highest order octet (most significant eight
bits) was designated the network number and the rest of the bits were
called the host identifier and were used for host numbering within a
network. This method soon proved inadequate as additional networks
developed that were independent from the existing networks already
designated by a network number. The Internet addressing specification
was revised with the introduction of Class full Network Architecture.

IP Address Classes
Class full network design allowed for a larger number of individual network
assignments. The first four bits of the most significant octet of an IP address was defined as
the class of the address. Three classes, A, B, and C were defined for universal unicast
addressing and Class D Was defined for multicast and Class E was reserved for future use.
Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary
segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the
network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (B
and C). The following table gives an overview of this system.

Table:
Class A: Class A addresses are specified to networks with large number of total hosts.
Class A allows for 126 networks by using the first octet for the network ID. The first bit in this
octet, is always set and fixed to zero. And next seven bits in the octet is all set to one, which
then complete network ID. The 24 bits in the remaining octets represent the hosts ID,
allowing 126 networks and approximately 17 million hosts per network. Class A network
number values begin at 1 and end at 127.

Class B: Class B addresses are specified to medium to large sized of networks. Class B
allows for 16,384 networks by using the first two octets for the network ID. The two bits in the
first octet are always se and fixed to 1 0. The remaining 6 bits, together with the next octet,
complete network ID. The 16 bits in the third and fourth octet represent host ID, allowing for
approximately 65,000 hosts per network. Class B network number values begin at 128 and
end at 191.

Class C: Class C addresses are used in small local area networks (LANs). Class C allows
for approximately 2 million networks by using the first three octets for the network ID. In
class C address three bits are always set and fixed to 1 1 0. And in the first three octets 21
bits complete the total network ID. The 8 bits of the last octet represent the host ID allowing
for 254 hosts per one network. Class C network number values begin at 192 and end at 223.

Class D and E: Classes D and E are not allocated to hosts. Class D addresses are used for
multicasting, and class E addresses are not available for general use: they are reserved for
future purposes.
 Subnet Mask
The subnet mask is used by the TCP/IP protocol to determine whether a host
is on the local subnet or on a remote network.

In TCP/IP, the parts of the IP address that are used as the network and host
addresses are not fixed, so the network and host addresses above cannot be
determined unless you have more information. This information is supplied in
another 32-bit number called a subnet mask.

Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network

and node parts of the address. The network bits are represented by the1s in the
mask, and the node bits are represented by the0s.Performing a bitwise logical AND
operation between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the Network
Address or Number. The router uses the Boolean AND operation with an incoming
IP address to ‘lose’ the host portion of the IP addresses i.e. the bits that are '0', and
match the network portion with its routing table. From this, the router can determine
out of which interface to send the datagram. This means that the 'Don't care bits' are
represented by binary 0's whilst the 'Do care bits' are represented by binary 1's.

For example, using our test IP address and the default Class B subnet mask,
we get:

10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 140.179.240.200 Class B IP Address

11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000255.255.000.000 Default Class B Subnet

Mask

__________________________________________________________

10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 140.179.000.000 Network Address

Default subnet masks:

Class A- 255.0.0.0-11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

Class B- 255.255.0.0-11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

Class C- 255.255.255.0-11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

The same mask is applied throughout the physical networks that share the
same subnet part of the IP address. All devices connected to the networks that
compose the subnet must have the same mask.
 Subnets
All hosts on a network must have the same network number. This property of IP
addressing can cause problems as networks grow. The problem is the rule that a
single class A, B or C address refers to one network not a collection of LANs. Thus
when many computers are connected the broadcast requests and other network
traffic lead to network blockages. To avoid this situation we have two options:

 Acquire a new network address for each network

 Divide the current network into more sub-networks.

Getting a new network address for each sub-network may not be economical
and the IP addresses of the current network get wasted.

The solution is to allow a network to be split into several parts for internal use
but still act like a single network to the outside world. The parts of the networks are
called Subnets.

Sub-netting breaks a network into smaller realms that may use existing address
space more efficiently, and, when physically separated, may prevent excessive rates
of Ethernet packet collision in a larger network.

The technique of sub-netting can operate in both IPv4 and IPv6networks. The IP
address is divided into two parts: the network address and the host identifier.
 Variable Length Subnet Mask
Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) is used by the ISPs to reduce Wastage
of IP Addresses. A Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) is a means of allocating IP
addressing resources to subnets according to their individual need rather than some
general network-wide rule. For Example: We require 6 different sub-networks having
different number of computers. Since we require maximum 30 computers in any
network we can take 3 MSBs of Host ID into network ID. The following comparison
shows the wastage of IP Addresses in Sub netting and VLSM technique:

The VLSM was introduced as a technique to delay the IPv4 Exhaustion. It was
based not on the number of sub-networks required but on the number of hosts in any
particular network. This technique considerably reduced IP wastage but lead to
another problem of routing. VLSM was not supported by many older routers and
switches and hence implementing them required some hardware up-gradation which
was not economical.

The comparison between IP Network IDs for Subnetting and VLSM

 Private IP Addresses
In the Internet addressing architecture, a Private Network is a network that uses
private IP address space, following the standards set by RFC1918 and RFC 4193. These
addresses are commonly used for home, office, and enterprise local area networks (LANs),
when globally routable addresses are not mandatory, or are not available for the intended
network applications. Private IP address spaces were originally defined in an effort to delay
IPv4 address exhaustion, but they are also a feature of the next generation Internet Protocol,
IPv6.

These addresses are characterized as private because they are not globally
delegated, meaning they are not allocated to any specific organization, and IP packets
addressed by them cannot be transmitted onto the public Internet. Anyone may use these
addresses without approval from a regional Internet registry (RIR). If such a private network
needs to connect to the Internet, it must use either a network address translator (NAT)
gateway, or a proxy server.

The most common use of these addresses is in residential networks, since most
Internet service providers (ISPs) only allocate a single routable IP address to each
residential customer, but many homes have more than one networked device, for example,
several computers and a video game console. In this situation, a NAT gateway is usually
used to enable Internet connectivity to multiple hosts. Private addresses are also commonly
used in corporate networks, which for security reasons, are not connected directly to the
Internet. In both cases, private addresses are often seen as enhancing security for the
internal network, since it is difficult for an Internet host to connect directly to an internal
system.

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has directed the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA) to reserve the following IPv4address ranges for private networks,
as published in RFC 1918:
 Public IP Addresses
The IP Addresses provided by the Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are
called Public IP Addresses. These addresses are recognizable on the
internet and any machine connecting to internet must have a Public IP
Address. These addresses are provided by the Regional Internet
Registries to the ISPs.

The machines which are assigned Private IP Address must go on

the Internet via NAT server having Public IP Address.

The IP Address Ranges not included in the Private IP Address

Ranges are Public IP Ranges.

Broadcast Address

Broadcast address refers to the ability to address a message that is broadcast to all
stations or hosts on a network. Ethernet networks are shared-media networks in which
computers transmit signals on a cable that all other computers attached to the cable can
receive. Thus, all the computers are part of the same "broadcast domain."

A broadcast address is an IP address that allows you to target all systems on a

specific subnet instead of single hosts. The broadcast address of any IP address can be
calculated by taking the bit compliment of the subnet mask, sometimes referred to as the
reverse mask, and then applying it with a bitwise OR calculation to the IP address in
question.
 Drawbacks of IPv4
On today’s Internet, IPv4 has the following disadvantages:

 Limited address space. The most visible and urgent problem with using IPv4
on the modern Internet is the rapid depletion of public addresses. Due to the
initial address class allocation practices of the early Internet, public IPv4
addresses are becoming scarce.
 Flat routing infrastructure, i.e. the IP address ranges are not allocated
according to any meaningful hierarchy. In the early Internet, address prefixes
were not allocated to create a summarizable, hierarchical routing
infrastructure. Instead, individual address prefixes were assigned and each
address prefix became a new route in the routing tables of the Internet
backbone routers. Today’s Internet is a mixture of flat and hierarchical routing,
but there are still more than 85,000 routes in the routing tables of Internet
backbone routers. Thus to reach a router from one country to another the
packet might need to go to a backbone router in a third country thereby
increasing cost and delay.
 Security for IPv4 is specified by the use of Internet Protocol security (IP Sec).
However, IP Sec is optional for IPv4implementations. Because an application
cannot rely on IP Sec being present to secure traffic, an application might
resort to other security standards or a proprietary security scheme. The need
for built-in security is even more important today, when we face an
increasingly hostile environment on the Internet.
 Another drawback was the 32 bit header which had much of the values which
were generally never used and which only increased the bandwidth usage.
 A final challenge has been the real-time delivery of multimedia content and
the necessary bandwidth allocation that goes along with it. A bandwidth
allocation method called Quality of Service (QoS) has been used with IPv4.
While QoS does work, there are a number of different interpretations of the
IPv4 QoS standards. This means that not all QoS-compliant devices are
compatible with one another.
 Internet Protocol Version 6

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the next-generation Internet Protocol version

designated as the successor to IPv4, the first implementation used in the Internet that is still
in dominant use currently. It is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworks.
The main driving force for the redesign of Internet Protocol is the foreseeable IPv4 address
exhaustion.

The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space, despite conservation techniques,

prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force(IETF) to explore new technologies to expand
the Internet's addressing capability. The permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of
the Internet Protocol itself. This next generation of the Internet Protocol, aimed to replace
IPv4 on the Internet, was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995.IPv6
has a vastly larger address space thanIPv4. This results from the use of a 128-bit address,
whereas IPv4 uses only 32 bits. The new address space thus supports 2128(about 3.4×1038)
addresses.

This expansion provides flexibility in allocating addresses and routing traffic and
eliminates the primary need for network address translation (NAT), which gained widespread
deployment as an effort to alleviate IPv4 address exhaustion.

The new design is not based on the goal to provide a sufficient quantity of addresses
alone, but rather to allow efficient aggregation of subnet routing prefixes to occur at routing
nodes. As a result, routing table sizes are smaller, and the smallest possible individual
allocation is a subnet for 264 hosts, which is the size of the square of the size of the entire
IPv4Internet. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire
networks should the global connectivity or the routing policy change without requiring
internal redesign or renumbering.
 Benefits of IPv6
Hierarchical routing infrastructure
The Internet is hierarchical in nature, and the IPv6 protocol is designed with
this in mind. Think about it. The computer you're using right now doesn't have a
direct connection to an Internet backbone. Instead, you're probably behind a NAT
firewall, which is connected to an ISP. That ISP may be connected to another ISP or
to a backbone router. Either way, a packet must make quite a few hops to go from
an Internet backbone router to you.

The IPv6 protocol is designed so that Internet backbone routers will have
much smaller routing tables than they have now. Instead of knowing every possible
route, the routing tables will include routes to only those routers connected directly to
them. The IPv6 protocol will contain the rest of the information necessary for a
packet to reach its destination.

IPv6 addresses that are reachable on the IPv6 portion of the Internet, known
as global addresses, have enough address space for the hierarchy of Internet
service providers (ISPs) that typically exist between an organization or home and the
backbone of the Internet. Global addresses are designed to be summarizable and
hierarchical, resulting in relatively few routing entries in the routing tables of Internet
backbone routers.
Network security
Network security is integrated into the design of the IPv6architecture. Internet
Protocol Security (IP Sec) was originally developed for IPv6, but found widespread
optional deployment first in IPv4 (into which it was back-engineered). The IPv6
specifications mandate IP Sec implementation as a fundamental interoperability
requirement.

The IPv6 protocol has a newly designed IP header. It's designed to make the
protocol more efficient by keeping overhead to a minimum. An IP packet header is
made up of required components and optional components; in IPv6, the required
components are moved to the front of the header. Optional components are moved
to an extension header. This means that if optional components aren't used, the
extension headers aren't necessary, reducing the packet size.

The downside to the new header is that it isn't compatible with IPv4. If a router
is to handle both IPv4 and IPv6, it must be configured to recognize both protocols.
You can't just set up a router to recognize IPv6and expect it to be backward-
compatible with IPv4.

New configuration options

One of the coolest things about IPv6 is the way it's configured. While you can
still manually configure IPv6, or lease an address from a DHCP server, there is a
new automatic configuration option available. If an un-configured PC tries to connect
to a network that doesn't offer a DHCP server, the PC can look at either the
network's router or the other PCs on the network and determine an address that
would be appropriate for it to use. This technique is referred to as link local
addressing.

Standardized QoS support

IPv6 also includes standardized support for QoS. The QoS implementation is
set up so that routers can identify packets belonging to an individual QoS flow. This
allows those routers to allocate the necessary amount of bandwidth to those
packets. Furthermore, QoS instructions are included in the IPv6 packet header. This
means that the packet body can be encrypted, but QoS will still function because the
header portion containing the QoS instructions is not encrypted. This will make it
possible to send streaming audio and video over the Internet with IP Sec encryption,
but in a manner that guarantees adequate bandwidth for real-time playback.