Chemistry

S I X T H E D I T I O N

Raymond Chang
Williams College

WCB
McGraw-Hill
Boston, Massachusetts Burr Ridge, Illinois Dubuque, Iowa
Madison, Wisconsin New York, New York San Francisco, California St. Louis, Missouri
 Contents

PREFACE XXV

CHAPTER 1 CHEMISTRY: THE STUDY OF CHANGE

1.1 Chemistry: A Science for the Twenty-First Century 4

1.2 The Study of Chemistry 7
1.3 The Scientific Method 8
1.4 Classifications of Matter 10
Substances and Mixtures /Elements and Compounds
1.5 The Three States of Matter 12
1.6 Physical a n d Chemical Properties of Matter 13
1.7 Measurement 14
SI Units/Mass and Weigbt/ Volume/Density/ Temperature Scales
1.8 Handling Numbers 19
Scientific Notation / Signißcant Figures
1.9 The Factor-Label Method of Solving Problems 25

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Primordial Helium and the Big Bang Theory 28

Summary of Key Equations 29 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 30 /

Key Words 30 / Questions and Problems 30

CHAPTER 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS 36

2.1 The Atomic Theory 38

2.2 The Structure of the Atom 39
The Electron /Radioactivity / The Proton and the Nucleus / The Neutron
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, a n d Isotopes 45
2.4 T h e Periodic Table 46
2.5 Molecules a n d Ions 47
Molecules / Ions
2.6 Chemical Formulas 50
Molecular Formulas /Empirical Formulas

VII
CONTENTS

2.7 Naming Compounds 53

Ionic Compounds /Molecular Compounds /Acids and Bases /'Hydrates /
Familiär Inorganic Compounds

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Distribution of Elements on Earth and in

Living Systems 62

Summary of Facts and Concepts 61 / Key Words 63 /

Questions and Problems 63

CHAPTER 3 MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 68

Atomic Mass 70
Average Atomic Mass
Molar Mass of an Element a n d Avogadro's N u m b e r 71
Molecular Mass 74
The Mass Spectrometer 76
Percent Composition of C o m p o u n d s 77

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Gold Fingerprinting by Mass

Spectrometry 78

3.6 Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas 82

Determination of Molecular Formulas
3.7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 84
Writing Chemical Equations /Balancing Chemical Equations
3.8 Amounts of Reactants a n d Products 89
3.9 Limiting Reagents 92
3.10 Reaction Yield 94

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Chemical Fertilizers 96

Summary of Key Equations 97 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 97 /

Key Words 98 / Questions and Problems 98

CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • Determining Avogadro's N u m b e r

f r o m the Structure of a Solid 106

CHAPTER 4 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION 108

4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 110

Electrolytic Properties
4.2 Precipitation Reactions 112
Solubility /Molecular Equations and Ionic Equations
 CONTENTS ix

4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 115

General Properties of Acids and Bases / Bmnsted Acids and Bases/
Acid-Base Neutralization

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: A n Undesirable Precipitation Reaction 116

4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 120

Oxidation Number/Types of Redox Reaction
4.5 Concentration of Solutions 131
Dilation of Solutions

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Breath Analyzer 132

4.6 Gravimetrie Analysis 136

4.7 Acid-Base Titrations 138
4.8 Redox Titrations 140

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Metal f r o m the Sea 143

Summary of Key Equations 142 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 142 /

Key Words 144 / Questions and Problems 144

CHEMICAL MYSTERY • W h o K i l l e d N a p o l e o n ? 152

CHAPTER 5 GASES 154

5.1 Substances That Exist as Gases 156

5-2 Pressure of a Gas 156
SL Units of Pressure / Atmospheric Pressure
5.3 The Gas Laws löO
The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle's Law/ The Temperature-Volume
Relationship: Charles' and Gay-Lussac's Law/The Volume-Amount
Relationship: Avogadro's Law
5.4 T h e Ideal Gas Equation 166
Density Calculations / The Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance
5.5 Gas Stoichiometry 172
5.6 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures 174

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Scuba Diving a n d the Gas Laws 179

5.7 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 178

Application to the Gas Laws / Distribution of Molecular Speeds /
Root Mean Square Speed/ Gas Diffusion

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Super Cold Atoms 186

CONTENTS

5.8 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 185

Summary of Key Equations 190 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 190 /
Key Words 191 / Questions and Problems 191
U CHEMICAL MYSTERY • Out of Oxygen 200

CHAPTER 6 THERMOCHEMISTRY 202

6.1 The Nature of Energy a n d Types of Energy 204

6.2 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 205
6.3 Enthalpy 206
Thermochemical Equations
6.4 Calorimetry 209
Specific Heat and Heat Capacity/Constant-Volume Calorimetry/
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Fuel Values of Foods and Other Substances 215

6.5 Standard Enthalpy of Formation a n d Reaction 214

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: How a Bombardier Beetle Defends Itself 221

6.6 Heat of Solution a n d Dilution 220

Heat of Solution / Heat of Dilution
6.7 Introduction to Thermodynamics 223
The First Law of Thermodynamics/ Work and Heat/
Enthalpy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Making Snow and Inflating a Bicycle Tire 231

Summary of Key Equations 230 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 232 /

Key Words 232 / Questions and Problems 232

CHEMICAL MYSTERY • The Exploding Tire 240

CHAPTER 7 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF

ATOMS 242

7.1 From Classical Physics to Q u a n t u m Theory 244

Properties of Waves /Electromagnetic Radiation /'Planck 's Quantum Theory
7.2 The Photoelectric Effect 248
7-3 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 250
Emission Spectra /Emission Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom

',
 CONTENTS xi

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Element from the Sun 255

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Laser—The Splendid Light 256

7.4 The Dual Nature of the Electron 254

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Electron Microscopy 259

7.5 Q u a n t u m Mechanics 258

The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom
7.6 Q u a n t u m Numbers 261
The Principal Quantum Number (n)/The Angular Momentum
Quantum Number (l)/The Magnetic Quantum Number (ntj)/
The Electron Spin Quantum Number (m^
7.7 Atomic Orbitals 263
s Orbitals/p Orbitals/ d Orbitals and Other Higher-Energy Orbitals/
The Energies of Orbitals
7.8 Electron Configuration 267
The Pauli Exclusion Principle / Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism /
The Shielding Effect in Many-Electron Atoms /Hund's Rule/ General Rules
for Assigning Electrons to Atomic Orbitals
7.9 The Building-up Principle 274

Summary of Key Equations 277 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 278 /

Key Words 279 / Questions and Problems 279

CHAPTER 8 PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS A M O N G THE ELEMENTS 286

8.1 D e v e l o p m e n t of the Periodic Table 288

8.2 Periodic Classification of the Elements 290
Representing Free Elements in Chemical Equations /
Electron Conßgurations of Cations and Anions
8.3 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties 294
Effective Nuclear Charge /Atomic Radius / Ionic Radius / Variation
of Physical Properties Across a Period and Within a Group

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Third Liquid Element? 302

8.4 Ionization Energy 301

8.5 Electron Affinity 305
8.6 Variation in Chemical Properties of the Representative Elements 308
General Trends in Chemical Properties / Comparison of Groups 1A
and 1B Elements /Properties of Oxides Across a Period
xii CONTENTS

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Discovery of the Noble Gases 319

Summary of Facts and Concepts 320 / Key Words 321 /

Questions and Problems 321

CHAPTER 9 CHEMICAL BONDING I: BASIC CONCEPTS 328

9.1 Lewis Dot Symbols 330

9.2 The Ionic Bond 330
9.3 Lattice Energy of Ionic C o m p o u n d s 332
The Born-Haber Cycle for Determining Lattice Energies/
Lattice Energy and the Formulas ofLonic Compounds

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Sodium Chloride—A Common and Important

Ionic Compound 337

9.4 The Covalent Bond 337

Comparison of the Properties of Covalent and Lonic Compounds
9.5 Electronegativity 340
Electronegativity and Oxidation Number
9.6 Writing Lewis Structures 343
9.7 Formal Charge a n d Lewis Structure 346
9-8 The Concept of Resonance 348
9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 350
The Lncomplete Octet / Odd-Electron Molecules / The Expanded Octet

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Just Say NO 352

9.10 Bond Dissociation Energy 354

Use of Bond Energies in Thermochemistry
Summary of Key Equations 358 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 359 /
Key Words 359 / Questions and Problems 359
 CONTENTS XÜi

CHAPTER 10 CHEMICAL BONDING II: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND

HYBRIDIZATION OF ATOMIC ORBITALS 366

10.1 Molecular Geometry 368

Molecules in Which the Central Atom Has No Lerne Pairs /'Molecules
in Which the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pairs/
Geometry of Molecules with More than One Central Atom/
Guidelines for Applying the VSEPR Model
10.2 Dipole Moments 377
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: M i c r o w a v e Ovens —Dipole Moments at
Work 382
10.3 Valence Bond Theory 381
10.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 384
sp3 Hybridization / sp Hybridization / sp2 Hybridization / Procedure for
Hybridizing Atomic Orbitals/Hybridization ofs, p, and d Orbitals
10.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing D o u b l e a n d Triple
Bonds 393
10.6 Molecular Orbital Theory 396
Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals
10.7 Molecular Orbital Configurations 398
Rules Governing Molecular Electron Configurations and Stability /
Hydrogen and Helium Molecules /Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of
Second-Period Elements / The Lithium Molecule (Li^)/
The Carbon Molecule (C2) / The Oxygen Molecule (O2)
10.8 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals 405
The Benzene Molecule / The Carbonate Ion
Summary of Key Equations 407 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 407 /
Key Words 408 / Questions and Problems 408

CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • Buckyball and Other Large

Ätiotropes of Carbon 414

CHAPTER 11 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 416

11.1 T h e Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids a n d Solids 418

11.2 Intermolecular Forces 418
Dipole-Dipole Forces/Ion-Dipole Forces/Dispersion Forces/
The Hydrogen Bond
11.3 Properties of Liquids 424
Surface Tension / Viscosity / The Structure and Properties of Water
CONTENTS

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Why Do Lakes Freeze From the Top Down? 429

11.4 Crystal Structure 428

Packing Spheres / Closest Packing
11.5 X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals 435
11.6 Types of Crystals 437
lonic Crystals / Covalent Crystals /Molecular Crystals /Metallic Crystals

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: High-Temperature Superconductors 443

11.7 Amorphous Solids 441

11.8 Phase Changes 442
Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium/Heat of Vaporization and Boiling Point/
Liquid-Solid Equilibrium/Solid-Vapor Equilibrium
11.9 Phase Diagrams 453
Water/ Carbon Dioxide

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Hard-Boiling an Egg on a Mountaintop,

Pressure Cookers, and Ice Skating 455

Summary of Key Equations 454 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 454 /

Key Words 456 / Questions and Problems 457

CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • A Crystal of Gigantic

Proportions 464

CHAPTER 12 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 466

12.1 Types of Solutions 468

12.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process 469
12.3 Concentration Units 471
Types of Concentration Units / Comparison of Concentration Units
12.4 The Effect of Temperature o n Solubility 475
Solid Solubility and Temperature/ Gas Solubility and Temperature
12.5 T h e Effect of Pressure o n the Solubility of Gases 477

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Killer Lake 480

12.6 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions 479

Vapor-Pressure Lowering / Boiling-Point Elevation / Freezing-Point
Depression / Osmotic Pressure / Using Colligative Properties to
Determine Molar Mass
12.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 490
 CONTENTS XV

12.8 Colloids 492

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Desalination 493

Summary of Key Equations 496 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 496 /

Key Words 497 / Questions and Problems 497

CHEMICAL MYSTERY • The Wrong Knife 504

CHAPTER 13 CHEMICAL KINETICS 506

13.1 The Rate of a Reaction 508

Reaction of Molecular Bromine and Formic Acid / Decomposition of Hydrogen
Peroxide/Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry
13.2 The Rate Law 514
13.3 The Relation Between Reactant Concentration and Time 517
First-Order Reactions / Second-Order Reactions

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Determining the Age of the Shroud of Turin 527

13.4 Activation Energy a n d Temperature D e p e n d e n c e of Rate Constants 526

The Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics / The Arrhenius Equation
13.5 Reaction Mechanisms 533
Rate Lauts and Elementary Steps /Experimental Support for Reaction
Mechanisms
13.6 Catalysis 538
Heterogeneous Catalysis / Homogeneous Catalysis / Enzyme Catalysis
Summary of Key Equations 546 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 546 /
Key Words 546 / Questions and Problems 547

CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • The Molecular Basis of Smell

and Taste 556

CHAPTER 14 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 558

14.1 The Concept of Equilibrium a n d the Equilibrium Constant 560

The Equilibrium Constant
14.2 Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions 562
Homogeneous Equilibria /Heterogeneous Equilibria /Multiple Equilibria/
The Form of K and the Equilibrium Equation / Summary of the Rulesfor
Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions
14.3 The Relationship Between Chemical Kinetics a n d Chemical
Equilibrium 572
XVI CONTENTS

14.4 What D o e s the Equilibrium Constant Teil Us? 574

Predicting the Direction of a Reaction / Calculating Equilibrium
Concentrations
14.5 Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium 579
Le Chatelier's Principle / Changes in Concentration / Changes in
Volume and Pressure / Changes in Temperature / The Effect of a Catalyst/
Summary of Factors That May Affect the Equilibrium Position

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Haber Process 585

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Life at High Altitudes and Hemoglobin

Production 586

Summary of Key Equations 587 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 587 /

Key Words 588 / Questions and Problems 588

CHAPTER 15 ACIDS AND BASES 596

Bronsted Acids and Bases 598

The Acid-Base Properties of Water 599
The Ion Product of Water
p H — A Measure of Acidity 601
Strength of Acids a n d Bases 603
Weak Acids and Acid lonization Constants 606
Weak Bases a n d Base lonization Constants 613
The Relationship Between the lonization Constants of Acids
and Their Conjugate Bases 615
Diprotic a n d Polyprotic Acids 6l6
Molecular Structure and the Strength of Acids 620
Acid-Base Properties of Saks 622
Salts That Produce Neutral Solutions / Salts That Produce Acidic
Solutions / Salts in Which Both the Cation and the Anion Hydrolyze
15.11 Acid-Base Properties of Oxides a n d Hydroxides 628
Basic and Amphoteric Hydroxides
15-12 Lewis Acids a n d Bases 631

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Antacids and the pH Balance in Your

Stomach 633

Summary of Key Equations 634 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 635 /

Key Words 635 / Questions and Problems 635

CHEMICAL MYSTERY • Acid-Damaged Papers 642

 CONTENTS XVÜ

CHAPTER 16 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA AND SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA 644

16.1 H o m o g e n e o u s versus Heterogeneous Solution Equilibria 646

16.2 The C o m m o n Ion Effect 646
16.3 Buffer Solutions 649
Preparing a Solution with a Specific pH
16.4 Acid-Base Titrations 653
Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations/ Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations/
Strong Acid-Weak Base Titrations
16.5 Acid-Base Indicators 660

CHEMiSTRY IN ACTION: Maintaining the pH of Blood 663

16.6 Solubility Equilibria 664

Solubility Product/Molar Solubility and Solubility/
Predicting Precipitation Reactions
16.7 Separation of Ions by Fractional Precipitation 670
16.8 The C o m m o n Ion Effect a n d Solubility 672
16.9 p H and Solubility 673
16.10 Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility 676
16.11 Application of the Solubility Product Principle to Qualitative
Analysis

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: How an Eggshell Is Made 683

Summary of Key Equations 683 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 683 /

Key Words 684 / Questions and Problems 684

CHEMICAL MYSTERY • A Hard-Boiled Snack 690

XVÜI CONTENTS

CHAPTER 17 CHEMISTRY IN THE ATMOSPHERE 692

17.1 Earth's Atmosphere 694

17.2 P h e n o m e n a in the Outer Layers of the Atmosphere 696
Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis / The Mystery Glow of Space Shuttles
17.3 Depletion of O z o n e in the Stratosphere 700
Polar Ozone Holes
17.4 Volcanoes 704
17.5 The Greenhouse Effect 705
17.6 Acid Rain 711
17.7 Photochemical Smog 714
17.8 Indoor Pollution 716
The Riskfrom Radon / Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide/
Formaldehyde
Summary of Facts and Concepts 719 / Key Words 720 /
Questions and Problems 720

CHAPTER 18 ENTROPY, FREE ENERGY, AND EQUILIBRIUM 724

18.1 The Three Laws of Thermodynamics 726

18.2 Spontaneous Processes a n d Entropy 726
Entropy
18.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 731
Entropy Changes in the System/Entropy Changes in the Surroundings/
The Third Law of Thermodynamics and Absolute Entropy

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Efficiency of Heat Engines 736

18.4 Gibbs Free Energy 735

Standard Free-Energy Changes /Applications of Equation (18.7)
18.5 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium 743
18.6 Thermodynamics in Living Systems 747

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Thermodynamics of a Rubber Band 748

Summary of Key Equations 749 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 749 /

Key Words 750 / Questions and Problems 750

CHAPTER 19 ELECTROCHEMISTRY 756

19.1 Redox Reactions 758

Balancing Redox Equations
19.2 Electrochemical Cells 761
 CONTENTS xix

19.3 Standard Electrode Potentials 763

19-4 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions 768
19.5 Effect of Concentration o n Cell emf 771
The Nernst Equation / Concentration Cells
19.6 Batteries 775
The Dry Cell Battery/ The Mercury Battery / The Lead Storage Battery /
Solid-State Lithium Battery /Fuel Cells
19-7 Corrosion 780
19-8 Electrolysis 784
Electrolysis of Motten Sodium Chloride / Electrolysis of Water / Electrolysis
of an Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solution / Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Dental Filling Discomfort 785

Summary of Key Equations 791 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 791 /

Key Words 791 / Questions and Problems 792

CHEMICAL MYSTERY • Tainted Water 800

CHAPTER 2 0 METALLURGY AND THE CHEMISTRY OF METALS 802

20.1 Occurrence of Metals 804

H I V ? JvBkm

mm
20.2 Metallurgical Processes 804
Preparation ofthe Ore / Production of Metals / The Metallurgy of
Iron / Steelmaking / Purification of Metals
20.3 Band Theory of Conductivity 812
Conductors / Semiconductors

iL. m 20.4
20.5
20.6
Periodic Trends in Metallic Properties
The Alkali Metals
The Alkaline-Earth Metals
815
816
820
Magnesium / Calcium

WHB$$ 20.7 Aluminum

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Recycling Aluminum

822

825

Summary of Facts and Concepts 826 / Key Words 826 /

Questions and Problems 826

CHAPTER 21 NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS 830

21.1 General Properties of Nonmetallic Elements 832

21.2 Hydrogen 832
XX CONTENTS

Binary Hydrides / Isotopes of Hydrogen /Hydrogenation / The Hydrogen

Economy
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Metallic Hydrogen 838

21.3 Carbon 837

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Synthetic Gas from Coal 841

21.4 Nitrogen and Phosphorus 842

Nitrogen /Phosphorus

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Ammonium Nitrate—The Explosive Fertilizer 849

21.5 Oxygen and Sulfur 850

Oxygen /Sulfur
21.6 The Halogens 857
Preparation and General Properties qfthe Halogens / Compounds
of the Halogens / Uses of the Halogens
Summary of Facts and Concepts 864 / Key Words 865 /
Questions and Problems 865

CHAPTER 2 2 TRANSITION METAL CHEMISTRY AND COORDINATION

COMPOUNDS 870

22.1 Properties of the Transition Metals 872

General Physical Properties / Electron Configurations / Oxidation States
22.2 Chemistry of Iron and Copper 875
Iron / Copper
22.3 Coordination C o m p o u n d s 876
Oxidation Numbers of Metals in Coordination Compounds / Nantes of
Coordination Compounds
22.4 Structure of Coordination C o m p o u n d s 881
Geometrie Isomers / Optical Isomers
22.5 Bonding in Coordination C o m p o u n d s : Crystal Field Theory 883
Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes /
Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes
22.6 Reactions of Coordination C o m p o u n d s 890
22.7 Applications of Coordination C o m p o u n d s 891
Metallurgy / Chemical Analysis / Detergents

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Coordination Compounds in Living Systems 892

Summary of Key Equation 894 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 894 /

Key Words 895 / Questions and Problems 895

CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • Anticancer Coordination

Compounds 898
 CONTENTS XXI

CHEMICAL MYSTERY • Dating Paintings with Prussian Blue 900

CHAPTER 2 3 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 902

23.1 The Nature of Nuclear Reactions 904

Balancing Nuclear Equations
23.2 Nuclear Stability 906
Nuclear Binding Energy
23.3 Natural Radioactivity 911
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay / Dating Based on Radioactive Decay
23.4 Nuclear Transmutation 914
The Transuranium Elements
23-5 Nuclear Fission 916
The Atomic Bomb/Nuclear Reactors

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Nature's Own Fission Reactor 922

23.6 Nuclear Fusion 923

Fusion Reactors / The Hydrogen Bomb
23.7 Uses of Isotopes 926
Structural Determination / Study of Photosynthesis / Isotopes in Medicine
23.8 Biological Effects of Radiation 928

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Food Irradiation 930

Summary of Key Equation 929 / Summary of Facts and Concepts 930 /

Key Words 931 / Questions and Problems 931

CHEMICAL MYSTERY • The Art Forgery of the Century 936

;
! -

CHAPTER 24 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 938

24.1 Classes of Organic C o m p o u n d s 940

24.2 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 940
Alkanes/ Alkenes /Alkynes

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Ice That Bums 952

24.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 953

24.4 Chemistry of the Functional Groups 956
Alcohols /Ethers /Aldehydes and Ketones / Carboxylic
Acids /Esters / Amines / Summary of Functional Groups

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Petroleum Industry 962

Summary of Facts and Concepts 965 / Key Words 965 /

Questions and Problems 965
CHAPTER 25 SYNTHETIC AND NATURAL ORGANIC POLYMERS 970

25.1 Properties of Polymers 972

25.2 Synthetic Organic Polymers 972
Addition Reactions / Condensation Reactions
25.3 Proteins 976

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Sickle-Cell Anemia—A Molecular Disease 985

25.4 Nucleic Acids 986

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: DNA Fingerprinting 989

Summary of Facts and Concepts 990 / Key Words 991 /

Questions and Problems 991

CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • Cis-Trans Isomerization in the

Vision Process 992

Appendix 1 The Elements and the Derivation of Their Names and

Symbols A-0

Appendix 2 Units for the Gas Constant A-7

Appendix 3 Selected Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C A-8

Appendix 4 Mathematical Operations A-14

Glossary A-16

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems A-26

Index 1-1

Photo Credits C-l