GALVEZ, HERSHEY P.

BSMA 1-9

POLITICS
The activities of the government, members of law-making organizations, or people who try to
influence the way a country is governed.
Politics is the science of government. As a science, it is a systematic body of knowledge (for the
most part, practical) that deals with the government and regulation, maintenance and
development, and defense and augmentation of the state. It also deals with the protection of
the rights of its citizens, safeguarding and enhancement of morals, and harmony and peace of
human relations.

POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political science is the study of politics and power from domestic, international, and
comparative perspectives. It entails understanding political ideas, ideologies, institutions,
policies, processes, and behavior, as well as groups, classes, government, diplomacy, law,
strategy, and war.
A social science dealing with political institutions and with the principles and conduct of
government.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
The implementation of government policies.
Determining the policies and programs of governments. Specifically, it is the planning,
organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling of government operations.
Public administration is the field of service that maintains a civil society and provides for the
needs of the public.
Marx defines administration as - Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of a
conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources
aimed at making those happen which one wants to happen.

GOVERNANCE
Establishment of policies, and continuous monitoring of their proper implementation, by the
members of the governing body of an organization. It includes the mechanisms required to
balance the powers of the members (with the associated accountability), and their primary duty
of enhancing the prosperity and viability of the organization.
Governance refers to the manner of steering or governing, or of directing and controlling, a
group of people or a state.
Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political leaders for
the well-being of their country’s citizens or subjects.

LEADERSHIP
Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal.
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.
 Anarchy - Anarchism refers to the absence of government, a condition in which a nation or
state operates without a central governing body. This denotes an absence of public utilities or
services, a lack of regulatory control, limited diplomatic relations with other nation-states, and
in most instances, a society divided into different, locally-ruled settlements (or fiefdoms).
Aristocracy - Aristocracy refers to a form of government in which wealthy nobles are given
power over those in lower socioeconomic strata. Positions of leadership are reserved for those
of an elite ruling class, a status which is typically hereditary. The privileged ruling class is viewed,
in this system, as possessing the education, upbringing, and genetic traits required for rulership.
Aristocracy promotes an inherent class system that connects wealth and ethnicity with both the
ability and right to rule.
Bureaucracy - Bureaucracy refers to a form of government in which non-elected government
officials carry out public responsibilities as dictated by administrative policy-making groups. In a
bureaucracy, rules, regulations, procedures, and outcomes are formulated to maintain order,
achieve efficiency, and prevent favoritism within the system. Bureaucracies rarely serve as forms
of government on their own but are instead often used as mechanisms to underlie and
strengthen overarching forms of government. Indeed, bureaucratic streamlining of policy
implementation can take place under the rule of a dictator or a democracy.
Capitalism - Capitalism refers to a form of economy in which production is driven by private
ownership. Capitalism promotes the idea of open competition and extends from the belief that
a free market economy — one with limited regulatory control — is the most efficient form of
economic organization. Its advocates argue that capitalism promotes economic growth,
improved standards of living, higher productivity, and broader prosperity, whereas critics argue
that capitalism inherently promotes inequality, exploitation of the labor class, and unsustainable
use of resources and land.
Colonialism - Colonialism is a form of governance in which a nation will seek to extend its
sovereignty over other territories. In practical terms, colonialism involves the expansion of a
nation’s rule beyond its borders. This often entails occupation of indigenous populations and
exploitation of resources to the benefit of the ruling nation. The colonizer will also often impose
its own economy, culture, religious order, and form of government on an occupied people to
strengthen its own authority.
Communism - In its purest form, Communism refers to the idea of common, public ownership
of the economy, including infrastructure, utilities, and means of production. Communism, as
idealized by thinkers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, denotes an absence of class divisions,
which inherently requires the subversion of the ruling class by the working class. As such,
communism often incorporates the idea of revolutionary action against unequal rule.
Communism often positions itself as a counterpoint to the economic stratification underlying
capitalism. This resistance to stratification sometimes also takes the form of a single-state
authority, one in which political opposition or dissidence may be restricted. This may manifest in
some communist states as a more authoritarian form of governance, as typified by the Soviet
brand of communism that swept the globe during the mid-20th century.
Democracy - Democracy refers to a form of government in which the people are given a direct
role in choosing their leadership. Its primary goal is governance through fair representation, a
system in which no single force or entity can exercise unchecked control or authority. The result
is a system which requires discourse, debate, and compromise to satisfy the broadest possible
number of public interests. Democracy is typified by fair and free elections, civic participation,
protection of human rights, and the rule of law.
Federalism - Federalism is a form of government that both combines and divides powers
between a centralized federal authority and an array of regional and local authorities. This is
typically a system in which a set of states, territories, or provinces are both self-governing and
beholden to the authority of a broad, unifying government structure. This is considered a
balance in approach that provides roughly equal status of authority to two distinct levels of
government.
Feudalism - Feudalism is a social structure revolving around land ownership, nobility, and
military obligation. Though not a formal way of governing, feudalism refers to a way of life in
which sharp, hierarchical divisions separate noble classes, clergy, and peasantry. Opportunities
for movement between these hierarchies is largely impossible. In this system, peasants typically
provided labor and military service in exchange for occupancy of land and protection from
outside forces under the authority of a noble lord. In turn, lordships, or fiefdoms, often engaged
one another politically, economically, and militarily. Feudalism was a highly decentralized and
agrarian way of life supplanted when the European monarchies created the infrastructure to
impose central rule over their various dominions.
Kleptocracy - Kleptocracy is a form of government in which the ruling party has either come to
power, retained power, or both, through means of corruption and theft. This is not a form of
government that a ruling class would ever self-apply but a pejorative term used to describe a
group whose power rests on a foundation of embezzlement, misappropriation of funds, and the
transfer of massive amounts of wealth from public to private interests. These private interests
will typically overlap the ruling party’s own economic interests.
Meritocracy - Meritocracy refers to a system in which authority is vested in those who have
demonstrated the merits deemed pertinent to governing or public administration. Often, these
merits are conferred through testing and academic credentials and are meant to create an order
in which talents, abilities, and intellect determine who should hold positions of leadership and
economic stewardship. The result is a social hierarchy based on achievement.
Military Dictatorship - A dictatorship is a nation ruled with absolute power, in the absence of a
democratic process, and typically under the thumb of a single authority figure. In a military
dictatorship, this authority usually heads the nation’s armed forces. A military dictatorship often
comes to power by subverting the existing seat of government — sometimes though claims of
corruption, weakness, or ineffectiveness — and which subsequently uses the military to
establish its own brand of law and order. Military dictatorships will frequently prioritize law and
order over due process, civil liberties, or political freedoms. Dissent or political opposition can
be dangerous or even deadly for those living under a military dictatorship.

Monarchy - Monarchy refers to a form of rule in which absolute power and authority are held
by a single member of a royal bloodline. In a monarchy, the individual in the seat of power is
often believed to have been placed there by “divine right,” or the will of God. In a monarchical
society, power is inherited within a line of succession that relates to one’s bloodline and birth-
order within the ruling royal family. Though the monarchy has historically indicated absolute
power, the concept has become increasingly diluted with the evolution of democratic principles.
Today, some monarchies exist but are merely symbolic, whereas others coexist within
constitutional structures. However, until the 19th century, monarchy was the most common
form of government in the world.
Oligarchy - Oligarchy refers to a form of government in which a smattering of individuals rule
over a nation. In many ways, oligarchy is a catch-all for any number of other forms of
governance in which a specific set of qualities — wealth, heredity, race — are used to vest
power in a small group of individuals. So, forms of government regarded as aristocratic,
plutocratic, or totalitarian, for instance, can be referred to as oligarchic. Oligarchies are often
characterized by tyrannical or authoritarian rule and an absence of democratic practices or
individual rights.
Plutocracy - Plutocracy refers to a system of rule in which power is determined as a direct
function of wealth. Plutocracy mirrors the economic hierarchy of aristocratic systems but lacks
the philosophical imperatives used to justify the latter. Whereas aristocratic forms of
governance justified economic hierarchy by presuming an equivalence between wealth,
heredity, and the qualification to lead, plutocracy refers in simpler terms to the ascendance of
the wealthy to positions of power. Think of it as the difference between “old money” and “new
money.” As with the phrase “new money” itself, plutocracy is rarely a term that a ruling class
will self-apply. Rather, it is often used as a derogatory term meant to highlight the inequality
inherent in capitalist societies.
Republicanism - Republicanism, the form of government — not to be conflated with the
Republican political party specific to U.S. politics — refers to a system in which power is vested
in the citizenry. In technical definition, a republic is a nation in which the people hold popular
sovereignty through the electoral and legislative processes as well as through participation in
public and civic life. In its earliest form, the republic was perceived as a counterbalance to
monarchy, an approach which merged monarchy and aristocracy with some trappings of
democracy.
Socialism - Socialism refers to a form of government in which the people own the primary
means of production. A counterpoint to the competitive nature and unequal proclivities of
capitalism, socialism has existed in many forms and to widely variant degrees of strictness
throughout history and around the world. From small communal societies to state-level
governments that provide encompassing public services such as universal healthcare, the
concept of socialism permeates governments the world over. By contrast to the less
compromising and often more authoritarian nature of communism, socialism tends to be a
malleable concept. Some adherents view socialism as referring to a strict policy of shared
ownership and equal distribution of resources, while others believe free market capitalism can
coexist with socialist forms of public administration. To wit, the Social Security system of the
declaratively capitalist United States is inherently socialist in nature.
Theocracy - Theocracy refers to a form of government in which a specific religious ideology
informs the leadership, laws, and customs of a nation. In many instances, there will be little to
no distinction between scriptural laws and legal codes. Likewise, religious clergy will typically
occupy roles of leadership, and in some instances, the highest office in the nation. Because
religious law usually extends from writings and traditions that are many centuries old, and
therefore impose practices that may not conform with present-day standards of ethical justice
or constitutional law, theocracies frequently run afoul of organizations and agencies advocating
for global human rights.
Totalitarianism - Totalitarianism is an authoritarian form of government in which the ruling
party recognizes no limitations whatsoever on its power, either in the public life or private rights
of its citizens. Power is often vested in the hands of a single figure, an authority around whom
significant propaganda is built as a way of extending and retaining uncontested authority.
Totalitarian states often employ widespread surveillance, control over mass media, intimidating
demonstrations of paramilitary or police power, and suppression — usually violent — of protest,
activism, or political opposition.
Tribalism - Tribalism refers to a form of governance in which there is an absence of central
authority and where, instead, various regional tribes lay claim to different territories, resources,
or domains. In this system, trade, commerce, and war may occur between different tribes
without the involvement or oversight of a unifying structure. This was a particularly common
way of life in the premodern world, where different families and clans would establish a set of
common rules and rituals specific to their community. While many tribes have forms of internal
leadership — from councils and chiefdoms to warlords and patriarchs — tribes are also distinct
for having relatively limited role differentiation or role stratification within. In some regards, this
can make the customs internal to some tribes particularly egalitarian. That said, tribalism as a
way of life has been threatened, and in many parts of the world extinguished, by modernity,
development, and the imposition of outside authority.

PRINCIPLES
A.) Law and Order
A situation characterized by respect for and obedience to the rules of a society.
In politics, law and order refers to demands for a strict criminal justice system, especially in
relation to violent and property crime, through stricter criminal penalties. These penalties may
include longer terms of imprisonment, mandatory sentencing, three-strikes laws, and in some
countries, capital punishment
Supporters of "law and order", generally from the right-wing, argue that incarceration is the
most effective means of crime prevention. Opponents of law and order, typically left-wing,
argue that a system of harsh criminal punishment is ultimately ineffective because it does not
address underlying or systemic causes of crime.

B.) Law and Logic

There are three fundamental laws of logic:
B.1) The law of identity: P is P.
B.2) The law of noncontradiction: P is not non-P.
B.3) The law of the excluded middle: Either P or non-P.

The law of identity says that if a statement such as “It is raining” is true, then the statement is
true. More generally, it says that the statement P is the same thing as itself and its different
from everyhting else. Applied to all realty, the law of identity says that everything is itself and
not something else.
The law of noncontradiction says that a statement such as “It is raining” cannot be both true
and false in the same sense. Of course it could be raining in Missouri and not raining in Arizona,
but the principle says that it cannot be raining and not raining at the same time in the same
place.
The law of the excluded middle says that a statement such as “It is raining” is either true or
false. There is no other alternative.

C. Politics and Administration Dichotomy

The Politics-administration dichotomy is a theory that constructs the boundaries of public
administration and asserts the normative relationship between elected officials and
administrators in a democratic society.[1] The phrase politics-administration dichotomy itself
does not appear to have a known inventor, even after exhaustive research, the combination of
words that make up the phrase was first found in public administration literature from the
1940s with no clear originator.
From the beginning, we need to understand its definition. Wilson, who is known as the
originator of administrative science, clearly pointed out that politics and administration are two
different fields of study. He agrees with Bluntschli’s view that administration is not within the
scope of politics. The issue of administrative management is not a political issue. Although the
task of administrative management is determined by politics, politics does not have to ask for
trouble to directly direct the administrative agency. “Politics is a major and universal matter.” In
terms of national activities, administration is the activity of the state in individual and subtle
matters. “Politics is the special activity of politicians and administrative management is the
matter of technical staff.” It is based on this understanding that Wilson distinguishes politics
from politics.

D. E-Governance
E-governance, expands to electronic governance, is the integration of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in all the processes, with the aim of enhancing government
ability to address the needs of the general public. The basic purpose of e-governance is to
simplify processes for all.

E. Separation of Power
Separation of powers is a doctrine of constitutional law under which the three branches of
government (executive, legislative, and judicial) are kept separate. his is also known as the
system of checks and balances, because each branch is given certain powers so as to check and
balance the other branches. Each branch has separate powers, and generally each branch is not
allowed to exercise the powers of the other branches.
The system of separation of powers divides the tasks of the state into three branches:
legislative, executive and judicial. These tasks are assigned to different institutions in such a way
that each of them can check the others. As a result, no one institution can become so powerful
in a democracy as to destroy this system.
Clear Distinctions - The separation of powers is also reflected in the fact that certain functions
must not be exercised by one and the same person. Thus, the Federal President cannot at the
same time be a Member of the National Council, or a judge who is appointed Minister or
elected to be a Member of the National Council must be temporarily suspended from his/her
judicial duties.
The Legislative Power The first of the three powers has the task of passing laws and supervising
their implementation. It is exercised by Parliament – i.e. the National and Federal Councils – and
the Provincial Diets.
Exercises congressional power
The legislative branch of government is responsible for enacting the laws of the state and
appropriating the money necessary to operate the government.
The implementation of laws is the task of the executive and judicial branches
The Executive Power The executive branch has the task of implementing laws. It comprises the
Federal Government, the Federal President and all federal authorities including the police and
the armed forces.
Exercises executive power
The executive branch is responsible for implementing and administering the public policy
enacted and funded by the legislative branch.
The Judicial Power (Judiciary) Judges administer justice, viz. they decide disputes
independently and impartially. It is their task to ensure that laws are complied with. Judges
cannot be deposed and cannot be assigned other positions against their will.
Exercise judicial review
The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the constitution and laws and applying their
interpretations to controversies brought before it.

F. Chain of Command
The order in which authority and power in an organization is wielded and delegated from top
management to every employee at every level of the organization. Instructions flow downward
along the chain of command and accountability flows upward.
According to its proponent Henri Fayol (1841-1925), the more clear cut the chain of command,
the more effective the decision making process and greater the efficiency.
The definition of a chain of command is an official hierarchy of authority that dictates who is in
charge of whom and of whom permission must be asked.

G. Check and Balance

Counterbalancing influences by which an organization or system is regulated, typically those
ensuring that political power is not concentrated in the hands of individuals or groups.
Checks and balances, principle of government under which separate branches are empowered
to prevent actions by other branches and are induced to share power. Checks and balances are
applied primarily in constitutional governments. They are of fundamental importance in
tripartite governments, such as that of the United States, which separate powers among
legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

H. Blending of Powers
Blending of powers is actually sharing of powers of the different departments of government
whereby one department helps and coordinates with the other in the exercise of a particular
power, function or responsibility.
Delegation of powers is the act whereby a political authority invested with certain powers turns
over the exercise of those powers, in full or in part, to another authority

STATUTORY CONSTRUCTION
The statutory construction/interpretation is the various methods and tests used by the courts
for determining the meaning of a law.
Statutory interpretation is the process by which courts interpret and apply legislation.
Some amount of interpretation is often necessary when a case involves a statute. Sometimes
the words of a statute have a plain and straightforward meaning.

RIGHTS - NATURAL AND SECULAR

OBLIGATIONS
an act or course of action to which a person is morally or legally bound; a duty or commitment.
. A social, legal, or moral requirement, such as a duty, contract, or promise, that compels one to
follow or avoid a particular course of action

HIERARCHY OF LAWS
PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION
NATIONAL LAWS AND INTERNATIONAL (treaties/agreements <e.g. Acts, Commonwealth Acts,
Batas Pambansa, RA's, PD's, EO's, UNCLOS, CCRF)
ADMINISTEATIVE ISSUANCE TO IMPLEMENT NATIONAL LAWS (e.g. Presidential Proclamation,
EO, LOI, AO, MC)
ORDINACES BY LGU (May supplement, but must not contradict any national law)

SUIT VS. CLASS SUIT

A class action lawsuit occurs when a group of people takes action against the same company
for the same source of injury, typically a defective product. The compensation awarded by the
judge or jury is then divided among the group. This is different from standard personal injury
lawsuits in which one plaintiff files a case against a defendant. Thus, all compensation awarded
goes to the plaintiff.
Class action lawsuits are lawsuits brought by one or a few people on behalf of a larger group of
individuals that have been harmed in some way by the persons or entities being sued
A private lawsuit involves only one plaintiff, not a group of plaintiffs

LEGAL PERSONALITY VS. LEGAL CAPACITY VS. LEGAL AGE

Legal Capacity - The contracts that a business enters into with its customers and other
individuals are important to its long-term growth and profitability. However, certain individuals
lack the capacity or legal ability to enter into contracts. The law defines who these people are
and prevents other individuals and businesses from having valid contracts with those who are
said to lack capacity.
One of the elements of a contract is capacity. Capacity means that a person is legally able to
enter into a contract. There are several things that make a person legally able to do so, including
age and state of mind.
Legal Age - As a general rule, anyone under the age of 18 is said to lack capacity to enter into
contracts. From a business standpoint, however, there are a number of important exceptions to
the law prohibiting minors from having capacity. A minor is allowed to enter into contracts –
that is, to purchase – for necessities such as food, clothing and accommodation. Additionally,
some states allow minors to obtain credit and bank accounts. They are responsible for these
accounts as if they were legally binding contracts
Official standard of maturity attaining which a person acquires full legal rights, as well as
responsibilities for his or her acts and omissions. Although an age of 18-years (adulthood) is
commonly considered the legal age, it is not a universally accepted standard and varies among
jurisdictions and for activities such as drinking, driving, getting married, voting in elections. Also
called adulthood, age of capacity, age of majority, full age, or majority.
Legal Personality - A legal person in legal context typically is a person —whether human or non-
human—that is recognized as having certain privileges and obligations such as the legal capacity
to enter into contracts, to sue, and to be sued.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN SELF EXECUTING VS NON SELF EXECUTING PROVISIONS OF THE

CONSTITUTION
A self-executing treaty is a treaty that becomes judicially enforceable upon ratification. As
opposed to a non-selfexecuting treaty, which becomes judicially enforceable through the
implementation of legislation. A treaty could be identified as either self executing or non-self
executing by looking to various indicators, including statements that are made by Congress or
the Executive regarding the treaty, indeterminate language of the treaty, or if the treaty deals
with a matter within the exclusive law-making power of Congress, indicating that Congress must
create implementing legislation.
A constitutional provision is self-executing when it can be given effect without the aid of
legislation, and there is nothing to indicate that legislation is intended to make it operative. For
example, a constitutional provision that any municipality by vote of four-sevenths of its qualified
electors may issue and sell revenue bonds in order to pay for the cost of purchasing a
municipally owned public utility is self-executing and effective without a legislative enactment.
Constitutional provisions are not self-executing if they merely set forth a line of policy or
principles without supplying the means by which they are to be effectuated, or if the language
of the constitution is directed to the legislature. As a result, a constitutional provision that the
legislature shall direct by law in what manner and in what court suits may be brought against
the state is not self-executing.
A constitutional provision is self-executing if the nature and extent of the right conferred and
the liability imposed are fixed by the Constitution itself, so that they can be determined by an
examination and construction of its terms, and there is no language indicating that the subject
is referred to the legislature for action

STATE; PEOPLE, TERRITORY, GOVERNMENT, SOVEREIGNTY

STATE – if all concepts are present, its called the BIRTH of a state. If one concept is
gone, its called the DEATH of the state.
CONCEPTS OF STATE
Ethnographic - nation
Geographic - country
Political – state
ELEMENTS OF STATE
Territory – it is called a territory if land is present because there is no state in waters.
People – human beings are the people
Government – should abide/ implement the will of the state
Sovereignty – state A believes that B is a state. The belief of A that B is a state is
sovereignty.
TYPES OF PERSONS
JURIDICAL – intangible. Entities created by law. (e.g. corporations, foundations,
associations)
NATURAL – tangible. Human beings.
TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS
AGENT – follower. Should not do anything against the principal.
PRINCIPAL – boss
The act of the agent is always the act of the principal (unless the agent is not doing the
will of the principal)
OPERATION OF LAW- The operation of the law is automatic, no process or procedures.
FICTION OF LAW – creation of law
How does a juridical person act? By law through natural persons]

3 INHERIT POWERS – if a state is born, this powers will be visible. But if a state dies,
these powers will be gone
Eminent domain – everything is owned by the state (regalia belief etc)
Police- power to create or implement law
Taxation – power to extract resources from subjects for public use

GOVERNMENT – GRP Government of the Republic of the Philippines (Republic –

Democratic)
Divided in to three equal parts (Major Power; MJ) (MN; Minor Power)
Executive – MJ: execute MN: Interpret, enact, symbol: sword
Legislative – MJ: enact MN: Interpret, execute. Symbol : purse (because they take care
of the tax and budget)
Judiciary - MJ: interpret MN:, enact, execute. Symbol : pen (the strokes of the pen
represents the case law or the actions and decisions of the supreme court)
Government
Separation of powers – each has exclusive powers but everyone is equal (Article 2 sec
1)
Blending of powers – everyone has to coordinate and work for each other
Check and balance – safeguards as to any abuse of the branches
Delegation of powers – even though each areahas different powers, these makes sure
that all minor powers are delegated.
GALVEZ, HERSHEY P.
BSMA 1-9
TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
Anarchy - Anarchism refers to the absence of government, a condition in which a nation or
state operates without a central governing body. This denotes an absence of public utilities or
services, a lack of regulatory control, limited diplomatic relations with other nation-states, and
in most instances, a society divided into different, locally-ruled settlements (or fiefdoms).
Aristocracy - Aristocracy refers to a form of government in which wealthy nobles are given
power over those in lower socioeconomic strata. Positions of leadership are reserved for those
of an elite ruling class, a status which is typically hereditary. The privileged ruling class is viewed,
in this system, as possessing the education, upbringing, and genetic traits required for rulership.
Aristocracy promotes an inherent class system that connects wealth and ethnicity with both the
ability and right to rule.
Bureaucracy - Bureaucracy refers to a form of government in which non-elected government
officials carry out public responsibilities as dictated by administrative policy-making groups. In a
bureaucracy, rules, regulations, procedures, and outcomes are formulated to maintain order,
achieve efficiency, and prevent favoritism within the system. Bureaucracies rarely serve as forms
of government on their own but are instead often used as mechanisms to underlie and
strengthen overarching forms of government. Indeed, bureaucratic streamlining of policy
implementation can take place under the rule of a dictator or a democracy.
Capitalism - Capitalism refers to a form of economy in which production is driven by private
ownership. Capitalism promotes the idea of open competition and extends from the belief that
a free market economy — one with limited regulatory control — is the most efficient form of
economic organization. Its advocates argue that capitalism promotes economic growth,
improved standards of living, higher productivity, and broader prosperity, whereas critics argue
that capitalism inherently promotes inequality, exploitation of the labor class, and unsustainable
use of resources and land.
Colonialism - Colonialism is a form of governance in which a nation will seek to extend its
sovereignty over other territories. In practical terms, colonialism involves the expansion of a
nation’s rule beyond its borders. This often entails occupation of indigenous populations and
exploitation of resources to the benefit of the ruling nation. The colonizer will also often impose
its own economy, culture, religious order, and form of government on an occupied people to
strengthen its own authority.
Communism - In its purest form, Communism refers to the idea of common, public ownership
of the economy, including infrastructure, utilities, and means of production. Communism, as
idealized by thinkers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, denotes an absence of class divisions,
which inherently requires the subversion of the ruling class by the working class. As such,
communism often incorporates the idea of revolutionary action against unequal rule.
Communism often positions itself as a counterpoint to the economic stratification underlying
capitalism. This resistance to stratification sometimes also takes the form of a single-state
authority, one in which political opposition or dissidence may be restricted. This may manifest in
some communist states as a more authoritarian form of governance, as typified by the Soviet
brand of communism that swept the globe during the mid-20th century.
Democracy - Democracy refers to a form of government in which the people are given a direct
role in choosing their leadership. Its primary goal is governance through fair representation, a
system in which no single force or entity can exercise unchecked control or authority. The result
is a system which requires discourse, debate, and compromise to satisfy the broadest possible
number of public interests. Democracy is typified by fair and free elections, civic participation,
protection of human rights, and the rule of law.
Federalism - Federalism is a form of government that both combines and divides powers
between a centralized federal authority and an array of regional and local authorities. This is
typically a system in which a set of states, territories, or provinces are both self-governing and
beholden to the authority of a broad, unifying government structure. This is considered a
balance in approach that provides roughly equal status of authority to two distinct levels of
government.
Feudalism - Feudalism is a social structure revolving around land ownership, nobility, and
military obligation. Though not a formal way of governing, feudalism refers to a way of life in
which sharp, hierarchical divisions separate noble classes, clergy, and peasantry. Opportunities
for movement between these hierarchies is largely impossible. In this system, peasants typically
provided labor and military service in exchange for occupancy of land and protection from
outside forces under the authority of a noble lord. In turn, lordships, or fiefdoms, often engaged
one another politically, economically, and militarily. Feudalism was a highly decentralized and
agrarian way of life supplanted when the European monarchies created the infrastructure to
impose central rule over their various dominions.
Kleptocracy - Kleptocracy is a form of government in which the ruling party has either come to
power, retained power, or both, through means of corruption and theft. This is not a form of
government that a ruling class would ever self-apply but a pejorative term used to describe a
group whose power rests on a foundation of embezzlement, misappropriation of funds, and the
transfer of massive amounts of wealth from public to private interests. These private interests
will typically overlap the ruling party’s own economic interests.
Meritocracy - Meritocracy refers to a system in which authority is vested in those who have
demonstrated the merits deemed pertinent to governing or public administration. Often, these
merits are conferred through testing and academic credentials and are meant to create an order
in which talents, abilities, and intellect determine who should hold positions of leadership and
economic stewardship. The result is a social hierarchy based on achievement.
Military Dictatorship - A dictatorship is a nation ruled with absolute power, in the absence of a
democratic process, and typically under the thumb of a single authority figure. In a military
dictatorship, this authority usually heads the nation’s armed forces. A military dictatorship often
comes to power by subverting the existing seat of government — sometimes though claims of
corruption, weakness, or ineffectiveness — and which subsequently uses the military to
establish its own brand of law and order. Military dictatorships will frequently prioritize law and
order over due process, civil liberties, or political freedoms. Dissent or political opposition can
be dangerous or even deadly for those living under a military dictatorship.
Monarchy - Monarchy refers to a form of rule in which absolute power and authority are held
by a single member of a royal bloodline. In a monarchy, the individual in the seat of power is
often believed to have been placed there by “divine right,” or the will of God. In a monarchical
society, power is inherited within a line of succession that relates to one’s bloodline and birth-
order within the ruling royal family. Though the monarchy has historically indicated absolute
power, the concept has become increasingly diluted with the evolution of democratic principles.
Today, some monarchies exist but are merely symbolic, whereas others coexist within
constitutional structures. However, until the 19th century, monarchy was the most common
form of government in the world.
Oligarchy - Oligarchy refers to a form of government in which a smattering of individuals rule
over a nation. In many ways, oligarchy is a catch-all for any number of other forms of
governance in which a specific set of qualities — wealth, heredity, race — are used to vest
power in a small group of individuals. So, forms of government regarded as aristocratic,
plutocratic, or totalitarian, for instance, can be referred to as oligarchic. Oligarchies are often
characterized by tyrannical or authoritarian rule and an absence of democratic practices or
individual rights.
Plutocracy - Plutocracy refers to a system of rule in which power is determined as a direct
function of wealth. Plutocracy mirrors the economic hierarchy of aristocratic systems but lacks
the philosophical imperatives used to justify the latter. Whereas aristocratic forms of
governance justified economic hierarchy by presuming an equivalence between wealth,
heredity, and the qualification to lead, plutocracy refers in simpler terms to the ascendance of
the wealthy to positions of power. Think of it as the difference between “old money” and “new
money.” As with the phrase “new money” itself, plutocracy is rarely a term that a ruling class
will self-apply. Rather, it is often used as a derogatory term meant to highlight the inequality
inherent in capitalist societies.
Republicanism - Republicanism, the form of government — not to be conflated with the
Republican political party specific to U.S. politics — refers to a system in which power is vested
in the citizenry. In technical definition, a republic is a nation in which the people hold popular
sovereignty through the electoral and legislative processes as well as through participation in
public and civic life. In its earliest form, the republic was perceived as a counterbalance to
monarchy, an approach which merged monarchy and aristocracy with some trappings of
democracy.
Socialism - Socialism refers to a form of government in which the people own the primary
means of production. A counterpoint to the competitive nature and unequal proclivities of
capitalism, socialism has existed in many forms and to widely variant degrees of strictness
throughout history and around the world. From small communal societies to state-level
governments that provide encompassing public services such as universal healthcare, the
concept of socialism permeates governments the world over. By contrast to the less
compromising and often more authoritarian nature of communism, socialism tends to be a
malleable concept. Some adherents view socialism as referring to a strict policy of shared
ownership and equal distribution of resources, while others believe free market capitalism can
coexist with socialist forms of public administration. To wit, the Social Security system of the
declaratively capitalist United States is inherently socialist in nature.
Theocracy - Theocracy refers to a form of government in which a specific religious ideology
informs the leadership, laws, and customs of a nation. In many instances, there will be little to
no distinction between scriptural laws and legal codes. Likewise, religious clergy will typically
occupy roles of leadership, and in some instances, the highest office in the nation. Because
religious law usually extends from writings and traditions that are many centuries old, and
therefore impose practices that may not conform with present-day standards of ethical justice
or constitutional law, theocracies frequently run afoul of organizations and agencies advocating
for global human rights.
Totalitarianism - Totalitarianism is an authoritarian form of government in which the ruling
party recognizes no limitations whatsoever on its power, either in the public life or private rights
of its citizens. Power is often vested in the hands of a single figure, an authority around whom
significant propaganda is built as a way of extending and retaining uncontested authority.
Totalitarian states often employ widespread surveillance, control over mass media, intimidating
demonstrations of paramilitary or police power, and suppression — usually violent — of protest,
activism, or political opposition.
Tribalism - Tribalism refers to a form of governance in which there is an absence of central
authority and where, instead, various regional tribes lay claim to different territories, resources,
or domains. In this system, trade, commerce, and war may occur between different tribes
without the involvement or oversight of a unifying structure. This was a particularly common
way of life in the premodern world, where different families and clans would establish a set of
common rules and rituals specific to their community. While many tribes have forms of internal
leadership — from councils and chiefdoms to warlords and patriarchs — tribes are also distinct
for having relatively limited role differentiation or role stratification within. In some regards, this
can make the customs internal to some tribes particularly egalitarian. That said, tribalism as a
way of life has been threatened, and in many parts of the world extinguished, by modernity,
development, and the imposition of outside authority.