Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery PDF

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Pediatric
Minimal Access
Surgery
edited by
Jacob C. Langer
University of Toronto
and Hospital for Sick Children
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Craig T. Albanese
Stanford Medical University Center
and Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital
Stanford, California, U.S.A.
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DK2211_Discl Page 1 Friday, April 8, 2005 11:55 AM
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Preface
The widespread use of minimal access techniques for performing surgical procedures has
arguably been the greatest advance in surgery over the past 15 years. In addition to lessen-
ing the visible scar, the use of minimal access approaches may decrease postoperative
pain, minimize postoperative ileus, shorten hospital stay, and decrease cost. In some
cases this technology has been credited for other benefits such as decreased adhesion for-
mation, better visualization of anatomy, and attenuation of the surgical stress response. At
its inception, minimal access surgery was limited to the adult population. In the last
decade, it has been widely adopted by pediatric surgeons, and applied in creative ways
to the unique conditions and needs of the heterogeneous pediatric population.
There have been a number of books written on the topic of pediatric minimal access
surgery. As the field is expanding rapidly, these books have grown from small monographs
to larger, more comprehensive volumes. The focus of most texts on this topic has largely
been technical and procedural as it is these advances that have allowed minimal access
surgery to be applied in a seemingly limitless fashion in the pediatric population. As
with many technological advances, however, there has been a tendency for evidence-
based practice to lag behind the many other forces (e.g., economic incentives, academic
interest, and consumer demand) that drive the creation and application of new and inno-
vative techniques. In contrast to previous publications, this book focuses on the principles
behind the use of minimal access approaches, and the evidence, to date, that has been accu-
mulated to support their use. We recognize that for many conditions and operations, there
is a dearth of significant evidence or that the evidence is extrapolated from the results of
operations in the adult population, and thus may not be directly applicable to children. This
first edition can be viewed as “embryonic” in its development. It is intended to stimulate
readers into taking an evidence-based and principle-based approach when using minimal
access technology. The “holes” in our outcomes knowledge need to be studied and filled
in. We also hope that this book will stimulate an interest in contributing to the acquisition
of evidence by having pediatric caregivers participate in proper trials and studies.
This book is dedicated to Ferne, Jessica, Benjamin and Alexander, Laura, Samantha,
and Melanie, without whose support and understanding we would never have been able to
complete this work. We thank all of the contributors for their time and patience. Most of
all, we dedicate this book to all of the children, past and future, who have taught us and
helped us to use our hands, minds and hearts in the pursuit of a better way.
Jacob C. Langer
Craig T. Albanese
iii
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
1. Introduction: An Evidence-Based Approach to Pediatric

Minimal Access Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jacob C. Langer and Craig T. Albanese
2. History of Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Joselito G. Tantoco, Marc A. Levitt, and Philip L. Glick
3. Anesthesia for Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Laura Siedman
4. Minimal Access Neonatal Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Klaas (N) M. A. Bax and David C. van der Zee
5. Clinical Outcomes in Minimal Access Fetal Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Preeti Malladi, Karl G. Sylvester, and Craig T. Albanese
6. The Role of Minimal Access Surgery in Pediatric Trauma .............. 81

Allan M. Goldstein and Steven Stylianos
7. Minimal Access Surgery for Pediatric Cancer ....................... 89

J. Ted Gerstle and Andrea Hayes-Jordan
8. Complications of Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Paul W. Wales
Specific Disease and Procedures in Pediatric General Surgery

9. Minimal Access Surgical Approaches to Childhood Hepatobiliary and
Pancreatic Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Sanjeev Dutta
v
vi Contents
10. Laparoscopic Splenectomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Frederick J. Rescorla
11. Laparoscopic Adrenalectomy in Children: An Outcomes Analysis . . . . . . . . . 151

Mark L. Wulkan
12. Outcomes Following Laparoscopic Pyloromyotomy for Infantile

Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Shawn J. Rangel and Craig T. Albanese
13. Laparoscopic Fundoplication in Infants and Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Daniel J. Ostlie and George W. Holcomb III
14. Gastrostomy, Jejunostomy, and Cecostomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Hanmin Lee
15. Achalasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Craig T. Albanese
16. Laparoscopic Appendectomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

J. Mark Walton and Peter Fitzgerald
17. Meckel Diverticulum, Duplications, Small Bowel Obstruction,

and Intussusception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Mark V. Mazziotti and Jacob C. Langer
18. Laparoscopic-Assisted Total Colectomy with Pouch Reconstruction . . . . . . . 225

Keith E. Georgeson
19. Minimal Access Surgery for Hirschsprung Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Jacob C. Langer
20. Minimal Access Treatment of Anorectal Malformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Thomas H. Inge
21. Laparoscopy for Ovarian Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

David Gibbs and Peter C. W. Kim
22. Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Sean E. McLean and Robert K. Minkes
23. Varicocele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Philippe Montupet and Ciro Esposito
24. Nonpalpable Undescended Testis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Philippe Montupet and Ciro Esposito
25. Lung Biopsy, Lung Resection, and Pneumothorax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Steven S. Rothenberg
Contents vii
26. Minimal Access Surgery in the Management of Empyema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Brian Cameron
27. Mediastinum, Esophagus, and Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

28. Bariatric Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Evan P. Nadler and Timothy D. Kane
29. A Miniature Access Approach to Pectus Excavatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Scott C. Boulanger and Philip L. Glick
Minimal Access Surgery in Other Pediatric Surgical Specialities

30. Minimal Access Surgery in Pediatric Urology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Alaa El-Ghoneimi
31. Minimally Invasive Pediatric Neurosurgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

Wilson Ho and James M. Drake
32. Minimal Access for Surgery in Pediatric Spinal Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Alvin H. Crawford, A. A. Durrani, and Mohammed J. Al-Sayyad
33. Minimally Invasive Surgery in Pediatric Cardiac Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Michael D. Black
34. The Interventional Radiologist’s Role in Pediatric Minimally

Invasive Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Michael Temple, Peter Chait, Bairbre Connolly, Philip John,
and Ricardo Restrepo
Future Directions
35. Ethical Issues in Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Annie Fecteau
36. Education and Training for Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . 471
David A. Rogers
37. Robotically Assisted Pediatric Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

David Le, Russell Woo, and Craig T. Albanese
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Contributors
Craig T. Albanese, MD Department of Surgery, Pediatrics, Obstetrics and

Gynecology, Stanford Medical University Center and Lucile Packard Children’s
Hospital, Stanford, California, USA
Mohammed J. Al-Sayyad, MD Head of Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, King
Abdulaziz University Hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Klaas (N) M. A. Bax, MD Department of Pediatric Surgery, Wilhelmina Children’s
Hospital, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Michael D. Black, MD, FRCSC, FACS, FACC Division of Pediatric Cardiac Surgery,
California Pacific Medical Center, San Francisco, California, USA
Scott C. Boulanger, MD, PhD Department of Pediatric Surgical Services, State
University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
Brian Cameron, MD Department of Surgery, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada
Peter Chait, MBBCh, FFRAD, FRCR, FRCP, LMCC Centre for Image Guided
Therapy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Bairbre Connolly, MB, BCh BAO, FRCSI, MCh, FFRRCSI, FRCP, FLEX,
DADR Centre for Image Guided Therapy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada
Alvin H. Crawford, MD, FACS Professor of Pediatrics and Orthopedic Surgery,
Director, Orthopaedic Surgery, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
James M. Drake, FRCSC Division of General Surgery, Hospital for Sick Children,
Toronto, Ontario Canada
A. A. Durrani, MD Assistant Professor, Orthopaedic Surgery, Cincinnati Children’s
Hospital, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Sanjeev Dutta, MD, MA, FRCSC Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Stanford,
California, USA
Alaa El-Ghoneimi, MD, PhD Professor of Pediatric Surgery, Robert Debré Hospital,
Université Paris VII, Paris, France
ix
x Contributors
Ciro Esposito, MD, PhD Department of Pediatric Surgery, “Magna Graecia”

University, Catanzaro, Italy
Annie Fecteau, MD Division of Pediatric Surgery, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada
Peter Fitzgerald, MD, FRCSC Department of Surgery and Pediatrics, McMaster
Children’s Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Keith E. Georgeson, MD Department of Pediatric Surgery, The University of Alabama
at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
J. Ted Gerstle, MD Division of Surgery, Hospital for Sick Children and Faculty of
Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
David Gibbs Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Philip L. Glick, MD, FAAP, FACS, FRCS Department of Pediatric Surgery, State
University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
Allan M. Goldstein, MD Arnold P. Gold Foundation, Columbia University College of
Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA
Andrea Hayes-Jordan, MD University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center,
Houston, Texas, USA
Wilson Ho, MD Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
George W. Holcomb III, MD, MBA Children’s Mercy Hospital, Kansas City,
Missouri, USA
Thomas H. Inge, MD, PhD Department of Pediatric Surgery, University of Cincinnati
College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Philip John, MBChB, DCH, FRCR, FRCPC Centre for Image Guided Therapy,
University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Timothy D. Kane, MD Department of Pediatric Surgery, Children’s Hospital of
Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Peter C. W. Kim, MD Department of General Surgery, Hospital for Sick Children,
Jacob C. Langer, MD Department of Surgery, University of Toronto and Hospital for
Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
David Le, MD Department of Surgery, Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Stanford,
California, USA
Hanmin Lee, MD Department of Surgery, University of California at San Francisco,
San Francisco, California, USA
Marc A. Levitt, MD Department of Surgery, Schneider Children’s Hospital, New Hyde
Park, New York, and State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
Preeti Malladi, MD Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine,
Stanford, California, USA
Contributors xi
Mark V. Mazziotti, MD Houston Pediatric Surgeons, Houston, Texas, USA

Sean E. McLean, MD Department of General Surgery, Washington University School
of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
Robert K. Minkes, MD, PhD Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center,
Children’s Hospital of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Philippe Montupet, MD University Paris XI, Paris, France
Evan P. Nadler, MD Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh
Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Daniel J. Ostlie, MD Children’s Mercy Hospital, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
Shawn J. Rangel, MD Department of Pediatric Surgery, Stanford University School of
Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
Frederick J. Rescorla, MD Department of General Surgery, Indiana University School
of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Ricardo Restrepo, MD Miami Children’s Hospital, Miami, Florida, USA
David A. Rogers, MD Department of Surgery, Southern Illinois University School of
Medicine, Springfield, Illinois, USA
Steven S. Rothenberg, MD Presbyterian-St. Lukes Hospital, Denver, Colorado, USA
Laura Siedman, MD Department of Anesthesiology, University of California,
San Francisco, California, USA
Steven Stylianos, MD Arnold P. Gold Foundation, Columbia University College of
Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA
Karl G. Sylvester, MD Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of
Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
Joselito G. Tantoco, MD Department of Surgery, State University of New York at
Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
Michael Temple, MD, FRCP Centre for Image Guided Therapy, University of Toronto,
David C. van der Zee Department of Pediatric Surgery, Wilhelmina Children’s
Hospital, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Paul W. Wales, BSc, MD, MSc (Epidemiology), FRCS(C) Department of General
Surgery, University of Toronto and Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
J. Mark Walton, MD FRCSC Department of Surgery and Pediatrics, McMaster
Children’s Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Russell Woo, MD Department of Surgery, Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital,
Mark L. Wulkan, MD Department of Surgery and Pediatrics, Emory University School
of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
1
Introduction: An Evidence-Based Approach
to Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery
Jacob C. Langer
University of Toronto and Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Craig T. Albanese
Stanford Medical University Center and Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital,
1. Creation of Evidence 2
2. Application of Evidence 3
3. Evidence-Based Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery 3
References 5
Progress in medicine is made in small steps. Many day-to-day decisions are made by trial
and error, and the clinician routinely evaluates the results of an intervention and makes
further decisions based on these results. Similar situations in subsequent patients are
managed in a way which is based on the results of decisions made in previous patients.
This process is routinely known as the acquisition of “clinical experience,” which is accu-
mulated over years and then taught to others both formally and informally.
Unfortunately, clinical practice which is developed in this way is not always in the
best interests of patients, as the conclusions drawn from personal experience may be
fraught with error from a wide number of sources. These include the normal variability
of complex biological systems, such as human beings, the tendency for people to “see
what they want to see” and to draw false conclusions based on the incorrect interpretation
of clinical data, biases in patient populations, lack of physician equipoise, lack of adequate
follow-up, and the tendency to generalize conclusions from one population of patients to
others in which the conclusions may not be valid. In addition, the economic, political, and
academic pressures on physicians in the modern world may result in the adoption of clini-
cal practices which are not in the best interest of patients for a variety of reasons.
In recent years, there has been a move toward the adoption of “evidence-based”
practice. The stimulus for this has come from several sources including the increasingly
recognized need to improve patient safety (1), pressure from the managed care industry
1
2 Langer and Albanese
to improve outcomes while decreasing health care costs, and the recognition by health care
professionals that personal experience may lead to incorrect conclusions and the adoption
of ineffective therapies. In addition, the need for multidisciplinary centers of excellence
for rare and highly complex therapies (e.g., fetal and bariatric surgery programs) is
being recognized and driven by outcomes-based practices. However, generating evidence
is a time-consuming and expensive activity, which requires dedication and training. For
this reason, there remains a paucity of evidence which can be used to guide practice in
medical, and particularly in surgical conditions.
1. CREATION OF EVIDENCE
Evidence can be generated from a number of different types of studies, which result in a
variety of levels of “quality.” Table 1.1 shows one way of characterizing levels of evi-
dence, although many other classification systems exist. The principles of generating
quality evidence are the elimination of bias, the ability to rigorously evaluate the statistical
significance of the findings, and the validity of applying or generalizing the results to a
wide population.
Most evidence in the surgical literature comes from case reports or case series, in
which a group of patients treated in a certain way are reported, and results of treatment
are evaluated without any comparison to any other form of treatment. Increasingly, retro-
spective comparative studies have been done using “historical” controls, that is, patients
with the same condition who were previously treated using another modality. Although
more useful than a simple case series, the use of historical controls does not consider
the possibility of changes in other aspects of treatment over time or changes in the
natural history of the disease over time as well as bias in treatment assignment. Attempts
to overcome these problems by using matched historical controls or case – control
techniques improve the validity of the evidence to some extent.
Prospective studies are clearly superior to retrospective studies, as the data
acquisition can be standardized and is less likely to be biased. The prospective, blinded,
randomized, controlled clinical trial is the gold standard for evidence-based decisions.
However, it is important to realize that randomized trials are associated with a number
of logistical issues. They are extremely expensive and difficult to carry out, particularly
when they require a multiinstitutional approach. The results are often highly specific for
a super-selected patient population and may not be generalizable. Particularly in surgical
trials, controlling the actual technique of a surgical procedure can be difficult and may
introduce unanticipated biases, and the natural evolution of surgical technique in the
hands of individual surgeons coupled with the normal learning curve for surgical
procedures may also introduce bias. These trials often take 3 –5 years to complete. Over
that time period, the surgical technique may change or even become obsolete (2), and
Table 1.1 Levels of Evidence
I Evidence from at least one properly designed RCT

II Evidence from nonrandomized studies
a. Well-designed controlled but nonrandomized trials
b. Well-designed cohort or case –control studies
c. Poorly controlled comparative studies
III Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience,
descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees
Introduction to Pediatric MAS 3
there may be significant changes in referral patterns or institutional practices. One must
achieve equipoise among all treating physicians. Patient accrual and the possibility of treat-
ment outside of the trial are considerations for those trials of rare disorders. A difficult issue
centers on the ethics of assigning/withholding innovative therapy to select patients. Before
the trial begins, there must be a willingness on all stakeholders to abandon ineffective
therapy if the results prove so. Negative trials, in which no difference between treatments
is found, may not be statistically sound if the type II error is not calculated and reported (3).
2. APPLICATION OF EVIDENCE
The next step to applying an evidence-based approach to a clinical problem is to gather and
evaluate the evidence and then to develop clinical practice guidelines which are based on
the best evidence available. This can be a difficult task, considering the huge volume of
scientific publications produced each month and the limited time most individual surgeons
have. For specific questions, one can use electronic databases such as Medline, but this is
time-consuming and the sheer volume of information may be overwhelming. For this
reason, most clinicians rely on reviews to educate them on an ongoing basis.
Reviews of the literature may be classified as “narrative reviews” or “systematic
reviews.” Narrative reviews include literature reviews which are commonly published
along with a new case report of a specific condition or technique, “collective reviews”
assembled by a single author who may or may not be an expert in the field, editorials,
and “review articles.” All of these narrative reviews are subjective and tend to reflect
the opinion of the author. In most cases, there is no attempt to evaluate the quality of
the evidence presented, and the completeness of the review may also be questionable.
Systematic reviews are characterized by an attempt to minimize arbitrariness and to
standardize and report the technique used for the review. A clear search strategy is devel-
oped, and some kind of grading system is used to report the quality of the evidence in each
paper used. The technique for combining the evidence gleaned from individual studies is
determined and reported. In essence, a systematic review uses research studies, rather than
patients, as the study material.
The most organized and rigorous form of systematic review is known as “meta-
analysis.” This technique involves the collection and analysis of previous prospective ran-
domized trials, using statistical methodology to combine the results of these trials and
create a unified, statistically more powerful conclusion. Although this technique is
widely used, there are many problems with it. The most important is the inability to stan-
dardize techniques and patient populations used in the trials and the inevitable compro-
mises required to place differing trials into the same analysis.
There are a number of sites for the clinician to access systematic reviews. Perhaps
the most well developed is the Cochrane database, initially founded by Archie Cochrane in
the UK (http://[email protected]/cochrane/abstract.htm). This database provides
up-to-date systematic reviews on a wide variety of clinical problems, which are done at
the highest possible level and which are updated regularly as the field develops.
In addition, methodology reviews are developed and collected by the Cochrane
Collaboration.
3. EVIDENCE-BASED PEDIATRIC MINIMAL ACCESS SURGERY
As with most new technologies, minimal access surgery began with case reports and case
series describing techniques and preliminary results. Procedures such as cholecystectomy,
4 Langer and Albanese
which are very common in the adult population, were the first to be described, followed by
increasingly complex and uncommon operations. Next appeared comparative studies
using historical controls, and only later were prospective controlled or randomized trials
performed. However, in the adult population, a number of randomized trials have now
been done for the more common operations such as cholecystectomy and appendectomy.
In some cases, such as appendectomy, where the benefits of a minimal access approach are
less clear, there have been enough trials done to warrant a number of meta-analyses,
including one from the Cochrane collaboration (4).
Pediatric surgeons were slow to adopt minimal access surgery. Reasons for this
included delay in the downsizing of instrumentation and optics and the fact that the
more common operations in adults, such as cholecystectomy, are much less common in
children. However, the pediatric minimal access surgery literature has followed the
same pattern as the adult literature, with case reports followed by comparative studies
with historical controls. At the time of this writing, however, there have been very few
prospective randomized trials in the field of pediatric minimal access surgery (5,6).
Why has the pediatric surgery community not pursued what is clearly necessary to
validate this technology and create good evidence for practice? One reason is that there
has been a tendency to extrapolate the evidence from adult trials and apply them to chil-
dren. Although this may be valid for some conditions and operations, there are many
differences between children and adults with respect to underlying medical conditions,
indications for surgery, pain tolerance, and postoperative recovery, which may make
adult data irrelevant. Secondly, many of the pediatric conditions which are treated
using minimal access techniques are relatively rare, and multicenter studies are necess-
ary to do an adequate trial. Obtaining funding for such trials and overcoming the logis-
tical issues are difficult. Thirdly, many surgeons have become convinced that the
minimal access approach is superior and have lost equipoise, making it difficult for
them to participate in what they would consider to be an unethical trial. Fourthly, the
use of minimal access surgery has often been advertised by surgeons and hospitals as
a business tool to attract patients, a factor which clearly interferes with the performance
of a randomized trial. Until resources and greater collaboration allow for the broader
application of high quality prospective clinical research, there will be a continued depen-
dence on observational data in shaping the practice of minimal access surgery. However,
this underscores the importance of maximizing the methodological quality of the
research. Clearly the development of rigorous guidelines, similar to the CONSORT-
mandated guidelines for randomized trials (7), is needed for nonrandomized data.
With that said, there are a number of operations which lend themselves to a randomized
trial because of the relative frequency, simplicity, and lack of any good evidence of
superiority over other approaches. Examples include Ramstedt pyloromyotomy, thoraco-
scopic pleural debridement for empyema, and the Nuss repair of pectus excavatum. Each
of these questions is associated with challenges which must be overcome, but each needs
a properly controlled trial to provide appropriate evidence to guide practice in an
evidence-based way.
This book will attempt to discuss the present state of knowledge about the use of
minimal access surgery in children. We have attempted to provide the reader with
current evidence, both from the children, where available, and from the adult literature,
if appropriate. In many cases, the literature is still at the case series stage, and much
more work needs to be done. The authors have also attempted to delineate principles
which can guide the clinician in the use of these techniques and which can be used to
design future studies for the acquisition of better evidence. This book is just a beginning.
We hope that it will stimulate interest in an evidence-based approach and will encourage
Introduction to Pediatric MAS 5
pediatric surgeons to initiate and participate in studies and trials which will continue to
advance the field.
REFERENCES
1. Institute of Medicine. To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press, 2000.
2. Harrison MR, Keller RL, Hawgood SB et al. A randomized trial of fetal endoscopic
tracheal occlusion for severe fetal congenital diaphragmatic hernia. N Engl J Med 2003;
349:1916 – 1924.
3. Freiman JA, Chalmers TC, Smith HJ et al. The importance of beta, the type II error and sample
size in the design and interpretation of the randomized control trial. Survey of 71 “negative”
trials. N Engl J Med 1978; 299:690 – 694.
4. Sauerland S, Lefering R, Neugebauer EA. Laparoscopic versus open surgery for suspected
appendicitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; CD001546.
5. Moss RL, Henry MC, Dimmitt R et al. The role of the prospective, randomized clinical trial in
pediatric surgery: state of the art? J Pediatr Surg 2001; 36:1182 – 1186.
6. Rangel SJ, Henry MC, Brindle M et al. Small evidence for small incisions: pediatric laparoscopy
and the need for more rigorous evaluation of novel surgical therapies. J Pediatr Surg 2003;
38:1429 – 1433.
7. Moher D, Jones A, Lepage L. CONSORT Group: Use of the CONSORT statement and quality
of reports of randomized trials: a comparative before and after evaluation? J Am Med Assoc
2001; 285:1992 – 1995.
2
History of Pediatric Minimal
Access Surgery
Joselito G. Tantoco and Philip L. Glick

State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo,
New York, USA
Marc A. Levitt
Schneider Children’s Hospital, New Hyde Park, New York, and
State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
1. Evolution of Technology 7
2. Application of MAS to Surgical Practice 10
3. Application to Pediatric Surgery 12
4. Future Outlook 13
References 14
1. EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY
Substantial improvements in surgery have been made in the last 150 years. Since the
introduction of antiseptic technique by Lister and the introduction of inhalation anesthetics
at Massachusetts General Hospital in 1846, surgery has progressed at a rapid pace. Prior to
this time, surgical procedures were avoided and, if performed, they were brief. The best
surgeon was the fastest surgeon who caused less pain to his restrained and un-anesthetized
patient (1).
Early on, the idea that “large problems required large incisions” dominated surgical
thinking. Adequate exposure was the key to a safe and successful operation. Today,
exposure is still essential for a safe and successful operation, except that it now can be
achieved with minimal skin incisions and use of minimal access techniques.
Minimal access surgery (MAS) has its roots in the early 19th century. The first report
was in 1805 by Bozzini (2) who attempted to view the bladder of a woman using the candle
powered lichleiter scope, which he developed (Fig. 2.1). The medical community
criticized him for his aggressiveness, and little was done to advance the technique until
Desormeaux, in 1853, ignited a mixture of alcohol and turpentine to produce a light
source (3) (Fig. 2.2). In 1868, Bruck introduced electrical illumination (4). He used a
platinum loop heated by electric current. During the same year, Kussmaul performed eso-
phagogastroscopy on a willing sword swallower (5). The incandescent bulb produced by
Edison in 1880 tremendously improved visibility. In 1883, Newman used the miniature
7
8 Tantoco, Levitt, and Glick
Figure 2.1 Bozzini’s cystoscope using the lamp – mirror –candle system. (Courtesy of National
Library of Medicine.)
version of the bulb mounted at the end of the cystoscope (6). The major problem with this
device was that the light produced too much heat, making it potentially dangerous.
George Kelling (7), in 1901, reported the first celioscopic examination when he used
a cystoscope to examine the abdominal cavity of a dog. In 1911, Jacobeus published his
results of using laparoscopy and thoracoscopy for diagnostic purposes (8). He was the first
to use the technique in humans and described pneumoperitoneum as the first step in per-
forming laparoscopy. The first peritoneoscopy in the USA was also in 1911; Berheim (9)
used a one half-inch proctoscope and an electrical headlamp to examine the abdominal
cavity through the abdominal wall, and called it organoscopy.
Since then, multiple innovations have been made in instrumentation and technique.
Fiberoptic transmission was patented in 1928, but it was not until 1952 that Fourestier
et al. (10) described a method to transmit an intense light from outside the body cavity
along a quartz rod to the tip of the endoscope. By 1957, this technology was used in
flexible telescopes, and is now called the “cold light system.” The next major advance
was the development of the Hopkins rod lens in 1966 (11).
As the optics and illumination improved over the years, so did the techniques of
pneumoperitoneum and entering the abdominal cavity. In 1918, Goetze invented a
spring mechanism for abdominal puncture and gas insufflation (12). Ordnoff invented
the trocar in 1920 (12). The trocar had a pyramidal tip and a valve to prevent the
History of Pediatric MAS 9
Figure 2.2 Desormeaux kerosene lamp. (Courtesy of National Library of Medicine.)
escape of pneumoperitoneum. In 1911, Fervers used oxygen and carbon dioxide but later
turned to room air for pneumoperitoneum. Zollikofer preferred carbon dioxide to room
air for insufflation (13). In 1938, Veress (14) modified Goetze’s needle for the purpose
of creating a pneumothorax for the treatment of tuberculosis. Since then, the Veress
needle became the needle of choice to perform safe penetration of the abdominal wall.
As the procedure became more widely accepted, increasing numbers of access related com-
plications were observed. This situation prompted Hasson, in 1974, to introduce the open
approach for trocar placement, which helped to decrease the incidence of bowel injury (12).
In 1929, Kalk (15) introduced many new instruments and ideas to apply a safe
pneumoperitoneum (Fig. 2.3). He used a trocar with a spring-loaded stylet, introduced
the 308 viewing scope, performed the procedure under sedation and local anesthesia,
and used room air for pneumoperitoneum using the standard rubber bulb used with
sphygmomanometers or rectoscopes. For several decades, manual air insufflation was
Figure 2.3 Hans Kalk, MD.
the method of choice. As laparoscopy became widely accepted, and as procedures become
more therapeutic than diagnostic, requiring longer operating time and use of electrocau-
tery, carbon dioxide became the gas of choice for the creation of pneumoperitoneum.
The simple manual insufflators were no longer adequate to handle the longer operating
times and flow requirements with multiple trocars and instrument exchanges, and this
ushered in the introduction of modern insufflators.
Insufflation of the abdomen or chest cavities for MAS procedures has important
physiologic effects. Much of this physiology has been studied in adults, but there has
been very little work done on this subject in children. Pneumoperitoneum is required in
the majority of cases for successful laparoscopy. There has been some debate in terms
of which medium is best. Once the intra-abdominal volume exceeds the ability of the per-
itoneal cavity to expand without a significant increase in abdominal pressure, increase in
pressure leads to detrimental physiologic effects. This is especially true when the cavity is
small, as in children. Much work needs to be done on the physiologic effects of pneumo-
peritoneum in children. Coronary, hepatic, mesenteric, and renal flow may be impacted as
well as cerebrospinal fluid pressure and pulmonary dynamics (16).
2. APPLICATION OF MAS TO SURGICAL PRACTICE
It took .100 years for MAS to embed itself into surgical thinking. During the 1960s and
1970s, gynecologists took the lead in the development of MAS while most of the surgical
community ignored the possibilities of this new technique (17). The surgeon was required
to hold the scope up to his eye with one hand and operate with the other. The first laparo-
scopic appendectomy was performed in conjunction with a gynecologic procedure using
this technique (18).
The application of MAS to general surgery began when Muhe (19) performed the
first laparoscopic cholecystectomy in 1985. Mouret, Dubois, and Perissat, in 1987,
helped popularize the laparoscopic cholecystectomy (20). The technical innovation that
helped transition laparoscopic surgery into mainstream general surgery was the invention
of video laparoscopy. This development allowed the camera to be attached to the tele-
scope’s eyepiece and the image viewed onto a television monitor (Fig. 2.4). Both hands
of the surgeon were freed, and visualization of the operative field was available to the
rest of the surgical team. With a team, it became possible to perform more technically
demanding procedures.
Within several years, laparoscopic cholecystectomy became the standard of care.
Since that time, MAS has been applied to numerous other procedures with good results.
The sweeping success of this laparoscopic revolution has thoroughly changed the way
surgery is performed.
Surgical procedures can be categorized on the basis of their complexity and can be
divided into excisional, in which a structure is removed; ablative, in which tissue is
destroyed; or reconstructive, in which structures are repaired, joined or connected.
Excisional or ablative procedures are easier to perform than reconstructive procedures
and are more easily adapted to endoscopic techniques. Operations can also be categorized
as either high or low volume procedures. High volume procedures achieve success over a
shorter period of time than low volume procedures because of the ability to learn the pro-
cedure more quickly and because of the market opportunity presented for technology
development.
The success of laparoscopic cholecystectomy in adults was in large part due to the
excisional nature of the procedure and the high volume of cases. Other excisional
Figure 2.4 Video laparoscopy.

procedures, such as cholecystectomy in children, have not been as quick to convert

because of lower case volumes. Neither have other high volume procedures, such as cor-
onary artery by-pass grafting, been as rapidly converted to a MAS approach because of the
complexity and reconstructive nature of MAS (21).
3. APPLICATION TO PEDIATRIC SURGERY
The excitement that general surgeons first experienced with laparoscopic cholecystectomy
during the 1990s was transmitted into a variety of other specialties. However, the wide-
spread enthusiasm among general surgeons to perform minimal access procedures was
muted initially among pediatric surgeons.
There had been a great resistance to MAS in the pediatric population for a number of
reasons. It was traditionally felt that children did not experience pain. The costs of laparo-
scopy and thoracoscopy, with the use of disposable instruments and trocars, were felt to be
too high. Equipment developed for adults was not small enough for infants and children. It
was felt to be too hard to do, too hard to learn, and the cases were felt to take too long to set
up and to perform. Many surgeons thought that laparoscopic and thoracoscopic cases
really did not apply to children, and because pediatric surgeons already prided themselves
on small incisions, they felt that MAS was unnecessary. Many felt MAS was not safe and
its efficacy not proven.
In response to these criticisms, it has become clearer to many pediatric surgeons that
shorter hospital stays, decreased postoperative pain, quicker return to normal activities,
and parents’ earlier return to work counterbalance the higher cost of MAS. Also, the
current trend towards reusable instruments and trocars further lowers the cost of MAS.
Continuing surgical education, training of the surgical team, and use of dedicated
minimal access operating rooms, allow for faster turnover of patients in the operating
room suite, as the surgeon and the staff become more comfortable with the procedure. Evi-
dence continues to accrue which demonstrates that MAS is both safe and effective in
infants and children.
Early attempts to make the telescope smaller resulted in unacceptable optics and
poor vision. This was probably the greatest surgical obstacle to MAS in pediatric
surgery. With the advent of improved fiber optic light sources, lens systems, and video
cameras, a small telescope with superior optics and adequate light was possible. This
process began in 1970, when Gans introduced the prototypic pediatric instruments to
the USA (12).
Despite the previously mentioned impediments, pioneers in the field persisted, and
now MAS is broadly applied to the surgery of infants and children. The techniques that
were found to be useful in adults have now been applied in children. Pediatric surgeons
developed innovative modifications of technique and instrumentation to account for the
smaller working space in the pediatric patient. But even more importantly, the different
spectrum of pathology has led to the development of many techniques, which are specific
to the pediatric patient. The advances in pediatric MAS, particularly instrumentation, have
subsequently been used in adults; adult surgeons often request the smaller telescopes and
instruments developed for children. The modern pediatric MAS surgeon now uses elegant
and delicate instruments with telescopes from 1 to 5 mm in size, has excellent optics that
are steadily improving, and functions in a fully equipped operating suite devoted solely to
MAS (Fig. 2.5).
Sir Willian Osler said, “Diseases that harm call for treatments that harm less”. This
quote represents the impetus for the development of MAS. Because of such influence,
Figure 2.5 MAS suite.
during the last quarter of the 20th century, especially during the last decade, there has been
a paradigm shift in the technique used to perform surgery (22). Using MAS, surgeons have
learned that they can greatly reduce the access trauma (the incision), the primary cause of
pain and disability related to traditional surgery. With this approach, patients can now
expect a less painful convalescence, a shorter hospital stay, a rapid return to full activity,
and excellent cosmetic results (22). For parents, this means that the family unit returns to
normalcy quicker, they can get back to work and their normal activities sooner.
4. FUTURE OUTLOOK
Advances in equipment and instrumentation have expanded the application of MAS to

patients ranging in age from premature infants to teenagers. However, small infants
present significant technical challenges related in part to the smaller working area. The
performance of suturing and intracorporeal knot tying is very difficult and presents possi-
bility for injury to surrounding organs. Robotic technology presents an attractive solution
to these technical challenges. Robotic surgery holds the promise of minimizing the risk of
injury to surrounding tissues and allowing controlled precise movements by filtering out
the surgeon’s tremor and scaling down instrument movement so that large movements
in the console can be translated into much smaller repetitive motions at the instrument’s
tip. In the future, robotic technology will potentially play an important role in expanding
the applications of minimally invasive pediatric surgery (23).
An additional advantage of the robotic technology is the ability to disseminate
pediatric surgical expertise through telementoring and telepresence surgery (24). This
will allow the robotic surgeon in one institution to guide the surgical care or complete a
minimally invasive operation of a patient many miles away.
Integration of preoperative (3D CT imaging) or “biomaterial enhanced” operative
imaging studies (e.g., use of fluorescence emitting dyes coupled to tissue specific com-
pounds captured with infrared cameras) with real time MAS are likely to emerge in the
future as technology advances. This will enable the minimal access surgeon to “see” struc-
tures beneath the operative surface, for example, feeding vessels and tumor margins,
further minimizing potential for errors and complications.
Charles Darwin in 1869 said, “It is not the strongest of a species that survives, but
the one that is most adaptive to change”. Present day surgeons must take this advice
seriously. These are times of rapid change. As pediatric surgeons encounter newer and
better technologies, they will integrate them into practice, always striving to improve
the surgical care of children. The ultimate destination for the patient must be “surgical
cure” (25). Application of MAS to pediatric surgical problems is an excellent example
of this surgical dictum.
REFERENCES
1. Georgeson KE, Owings E. Advances in minimally invasive surgery in children. Am J Surg

2000; 180:362 – 364.
2. Bozzini P. Lichleiter, eine Erfindung zur Anschung innerer Theile und Krankheiten nebstAb-
bildung. J Pract Arzeykunde 1806; 24:107.
3. Bloomberg AE. Thoracoscopy in perspective. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1978; 147:433.
4. Belt A, Charnock D. The history of the cystoscope. In: Cabol H, ed. Modern Urology.
Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1936.
5. Huizinga E. On esophagoscopy and sword swallowing. Ann Otol 1869; 78:32.
6. Gunning JE. Gynecological laparoscopy. Symposium Especialist 1974; 57 – 66.
7. Kelling G. Uber oesophagoskopie. Gastroscopie and Kalioscope Munch Med Wochenschr
1902; 52:21.
8. Rosenthal RJ, Friedman RL, Philips EH. The Pathophysiology of Pneumoperitoneum 1998;
1:1 –6.
9. Berheim BM. Organoscopy. Ann Surg 1911; 53:764.
10. Fourestier N, Gladu A, Vulmiere J. Perfectinnements a l’endoscopic medicale; realization
bronchoscopique. Presse Med 1952; 60:1292.
11. Berci G, Kont LA. A new optical system in endoscopy with special reference to cystoscopy.
Br J Urol 1969; 41:564.
12. Lobe T, Schropp K. Pediatric Laparoscopy and Thoracoscopy. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders,
1994; 1 – 5.
13. Fervers C. Die Laparoscopie mit dem Zystoscope. Med Klin 1911; 19:1042.
14. Veress J. Neues Instrument zur Ausfuhrung von Brust oder Bauchpunktionen und Pneumothor-
axbehandlung. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1938; 64:1480.
15. Kalk H. Erfahrungen mit der laparoscopie. Z Klin Med 1929; 11:303 – 348.
16. Kirpal S, Levitt MA. Pediatric minimally invasive surgery. e-Med, Pediatr Surg (serial online
available at http://www.emedicine.com)
17. Litynski GS. Endoscopic surgery: the history, the pioneers. World J Surg 1999; 23:745 – 753.
18. Semm K. Endoscopic appendicectomy. Endoscopy 1983; 1559– 1564.
19. Muhe E: Die erste cholecystektomie durch das laparoskop. Lagenbecks Arch Klin Chir 1986;
369:804.
20. Litynski GS. Profiles of laparoscopy: Mouret, Dubois, and Perissat: the laparoscopic break-
through in Europe. J Soc Laparoendoscop Surg 1999; 3:163– 167.
21. Mack MJ. Minimally invasive and robotic surgery. J Am Med Assoc 2001; 285:568– 572.
22. Soper NJ. State of the art minimally invasive surgery. Bull Am Coll Surg 2001; 6:63– 64.
23. Hollands CM, Dixey LN, Torma MJ. Technical assessment of porcine enteroenterostomy
performed with Zeus robotic technology. J Pediatr Surg 2001; 36:1231 – 1233.
24. Hollands CM, Dixey LN. Robotic-Assisted Esophagoesophagostomy. J Pediatr Surg 2002;
37(7):983– 985.
25. Othersen HB. Get on the right track and learn. Pediatr Endosurg Innov Tech 2001; 5:3 – 4.
3
Anesthesia for Pediatric Minimal
Access Surgery
Laura Siedman
University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
1. Introduction 15
2. General Considerations 16
2.1. Patient Selection 16
2.2. Patient Positioning 17
2.3. Anesthetic Considerations 18
2.4. Pain Management 19
2.5. Fluid Management 21
3. Cardiorespiratory Effects of Minimal Access Surgery 21
3.1. Laparoscopy 21
3.2. Thoracoscopy 23
3.2.1. Techniques for Single-Lung Ventilation 24
4. Anesthetic Implications of Intraoperative Complications 26
References 27
1. INTRODUCTION
When minimal access surgery (MAS) was first introduced into the mainstream of adult
surgery in the 1980s, anesthesiologists found themselves needing to adjust to a new set
of variables in order to provide optimal intraoperative care for their patients. It became
necessary to minimize the amount of air in the patient’s gastrointestinal tract to
improve surgical visualization, to continue neuromuscular blockade throughout surgery,
to consider hemodynamic consequences of intra-abdominal insufflation and the sitting
position, and to anticipate longer operative times. Thoracoscopy added the challenge of
single-lung ventilation with double-lumen tubes or bronchial blockers in cases which
otherwise did not require lung isolation. Intrathoracic insufflation of gas further
shifts the mediastinum into the dependent, ventilated lung. Because of the additional
burdens and duration of surgery, many patients were excluded from these novel
approaches. Patients with significant cardiopulmonary disease were considered to be at
15
16 Siedman
very high risk and, therefore, could not reap the benefits of reduced postoperative pain,
improved cosmetic appearance, and in some cases, superior surgical outcome.
Pediatric patients had to wait until some of the kinks were worked out in adults, as
well as for the development of appropriately sized instruments before they could
undergo MAS. Children, however, represent the greatest beneficiaries of the potentially
tremendous surgical advantages. They have the most to gain in terms of reducing adhesions
and improving cosmetic results, and they are, in general, the most physiologically
well-equipped to handle the additional stresses imposed by endoscopic surgery. They
have large cardiac reserve and rarely have chronic pulmonary insufficiency; thus, they
can tolerate intra-abdominal or intrathoracic insufflation of gas with minimal change in
hemodynamic measurements. Furthermore, children rarely suffer any sequelae of the
hemodynamic stresses caused by insufflation (e.g., tachycardia and hypo- or hypertension)
because they do not have underlying coronary artery or vascular disease.
Since the 1990s, the production of small endoscopic surgical instruments has made
the common application of adult surgical procedures possible for even tiny neonates. In
many pediatric hospitals, MAS has accounted for a greater percentage of intra-abdominal
and thoracic operations than open surgery. The complexity of the cases continues to
increase, while the patient selection becomes ever more inclusive. Pediatric anesthesiolo-
gists have had to become adept at providing safe anesthesia for patients with a whole new
range of problems. Optimal patient positioning for MAS often dictates that the baby is at
the end of the bed, a long distance from the anesthesiologist and anesthesia machine. They
are often in steep reverse Trendelenberg position or turned 908 on the bed. The need for
maximal operative space has meant that nitrous oxide must usually be avoided. The use of
cold gases for insufflation can make temperature maintenance more difficult. Decisions
regarding postoperative pain control can be tricky. The decision to use neuraxial
blocks, including caudals and epidurals, may need to be delayed until it is determined
whether additional incisions need to be made (e.g., to remove large solid organs or
masses or conversion to an open procedure). Discussion with the family regarding epidural
placement should be done prior to surgery, so that if it is deemed appropriate, it can be
placed at the conclusion of surgery.
To date, the large experience with pediatric MAS demonstrates improved cosmesis,
reduced postoperative pain, earlier feeding, fewer intensive care unit (ICU) admissions,
and shorter hospital stays (1 –9).
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.1. Patient Selection
In the early experience with MAS, children without significant cardiopulmonary disease
were the only ones thought to be amenable to the hemodynamic derangements imposed
by gas insufflation into either the peritoneal or the thoracic space. Although these patients
certainly represent the least challenging group, it has become clear that those who have
significant cardiopulmonary disease are benefited the most. Postoperative pain is
reduced and thereby may reduce splinting and atelectasis. Shorter hospital stays reduce
the risk of acquiring nosocomial infections in these high-risk patients. Less manipulation
of the bowel results in fewer adhesions and may therefore simplify subsequent surgery in
ill children who are likely to need further surgery.
As with all anesthetics, safety begins with a careful history and physical examin-
ation. Derangements in cardiac and pulmonary performance should be sought in order
to determine which patients may not readily tolerate the effects of gas insufflation. Mild
Anesthesia for Pediatric MAS 17
cardiopulmonary disease (e.g., asthma or a left-to-right intracardiac shunt) seldom

represents a significant management problem. However, severe restrictive lung disease
as with advanced neuromuscular disease or kyphoscoliosis may present a challenge.
Likewise, children with severe cyanotic congenital heart disease may not present
unique challenges for MAS. Patients with other severe, underlying medical disease
need to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Derangements that were once thought to
be contraindications to MAS now represents some of the ones that are best served by
the MAS. Coagulopathies, for example, in theory represent a challenge because small
amounts of blood in the surgical field diminish visibility by absorbing light. However,
laparoscopic splenectomy for diseases such as idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura and
hereditary spherocytosis are now common. It is possible to do simultaneous splenectomy
and cholecystectomy for patients with hemolytic disease avoiding one or two large, upper
abdominal incisions.
Healthy children represent the ideal candidate for MAS because of their enormous
cardiac and pulmonary reserves. They, in general, lack underlying atherosclerosis and
therefore tolerate changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac output without sequelae
such as myocardial infarction or stroke. Infants ,6 month-old depend on increases in heart
rate to compensate for alterations in pre- and afterload because they are unable to increase
stroke volume until the contractile function of the heart matures. However, infants with sig-
nificant congenital heart disease may not have the same reserve and alterations in pre- and
afterload introduced by insufflation of CO2 gas into the thoracic or peritoneal cavity may
seriously compromise cardiac output. In particular, babies with single ventricle physiology,
who rely on passive conduits for pulmonary blood flow, may not get sufficient preload to
maintain oxygen saturation or blood pressure. Being vigilant with the maximum insuffla-
tion pressures allowed in both the thoracic and peritoneal cavities is vital in preserving
optimal cardiopulmonary function in these delicate patients. Limiting thoracic insufflation
pressures to 4 –6 Torr and intraperitoneal pressures to 12 Torr has been used successfully
even in sick neonates (10 – 12). Over the past decade, smaller and smaller infants have been
successfully treated with MAS, recognizing that they may have the most to gain from these
innovative techniques. Smaller incisions, often placed more remotely from the diaphragm
than conventional open surgery, allow for better respiratory effort and function postopera-
tively. The need for reduced doses of respiratory depressant opiate analgesics may allow
these babies to be extubated earlier as opposed to open surgery or avoid ICU admissions.
The obvious benefit is the reduction in the risk of pneumonia. In a retrospective review of
neurologically impaired children undergoing fundoplication, the incidence of postopera-
tive pneumonia was shown to be 1.8% with MAS vs. a reported incidence between 14%
and 40% following open fundoplication (13).
2.2. Patient Positioning

MAS necessitates the greatest possible degrees of freedom for the surgeon in order to
accomplish a three-dimensional procedures with two-dimensional visualization. Conven-
tional surgical positioning is vastly altered and frequently dictates that the patients be
either at the far end of the operating table (e.g., for fundoplication) or turned 908 away
from the anesthesiologist (e.g., for pyloromyotomy). Ensuring that the length of airway
circuit and intravenous (IV) tubing is adequate are essential to avoid tension and dislodge-
ment of endotracheal tubes (ET) and IVs. It is advantageous to have the ET taped to the
side of the face toward the anesthesiologist so it is available for inspection and suction
when necessary. The same is true for IVs so that malfunctioning can be expeditiously
evaluated and corrected without interrupting surgery. Avoiding excessive abduction at
18 Siedman
the shoulders can be a challenge for thoracoscopy in small children because the nondepen-
dent arm is often brought up over the head. Alternatively, the arm may be prepped into the
field and therefore IV access must be avoided. Axillary rolls are used to avoid brachial
plexus injury to the dependent arm and to improve respiratory excursion. Perineal
surgery (e.g., pullthrough for Hirschsprung’s disease) makes IV access in the lower extre-
mity undesirable as the entire lower half of the body is usually within the sterile field.
When alternative access is unavailable, IVs can be covered with sterile dressing and
remain on the surgical field. They then, however, become unavailable for inspection
should they cease to function during the operation. The reverse Trendelenberg position
is frequently employed in order to have the bowel fall away from upper abdominal
organs such as during a fundoplication or a cholecystectomy. Care must be taken to
bolster patients from sliding towards the foot of the bed.
Recently, pediatric surgeons have been employing robot-assisted MAS (e.g., da
Vinci Surgical System, Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA) to provide an improved
three-dimensional view. Robotic surgery means the primary surgeon is at a remote site
in the operating room with the robotic controls, while an assistant is at the operating
table to position the robot’s arms. Surgery employing robotics necessitates that small chil-
dren be elevated on foams and blankets so that the robotic arms are free to move without
abutting the operating table. It is essential that ET placement and IVs are impeccably
inspected and secured as access is severely limited to the patients. Moving the robot
away from the patient entails disengaging the instruments prior to moving the robotic
cart, which may be time consuming and cumbersome (14).
Open thoracic surgery is always performed in the straight lateral decubitus position.
In contrast, thoracoscopy procedures require one of three positions depending on which
area of the mediastinum is being dissected. Patients are nearly prone for posterior mediast-
inal surgery (e.g., esophageal atresia repair), nearly supine for anterior mediastinal surgery
(e.g., thymectomy) and straight decubitus for middle mediastinal operations (e.g., lobect-
omy). For prone and semi-prone thoracoscopy, it is critical that care be taken to avoid
kinking of the ET or inspissation of secretions in small ETs. Using warmed, humidified
circuits is helpful in reducing the viscosity of airway secretions and should be considered
for all prone cases, especially when small ETs are employed as these are the most difficult
to effectively suction when they become occluded.
As MAS often requires steep positioning of small patients, whether it be reverse
Trendelenberg position or 308 from prone, it is vital to ensure that the patients are
secured on bolsters and either taped, seat-belted to the table, or supported in a molded
“beanbag.” Slipping of axillary rolls may lead to brachial plexus injuries if the dependent
shoulder is allowed to abduct .908.
2.3. Anesthetic Considerations

The induction of anesthesia in infants and children is accomplished by either the inhaled or
the IV route. Being mindful of the importance of the available workspace for the surgeon
dictates certain elements of anesthesia practice. It is crucial to limit positive pressure ven-
tilation by facemask as much as possible before laparoscopic surgery because intraluminal
bowel air reduces the available workspace, making some procedures impossible due to
poor visualization. Bowel obstructions from atresias or malrotation do not allow gas
egress distally and may preclude a laparoscopic approach. Prompt suctioning of the
stomach following endotracheal intubation may prevent air from passing the pyloru.
Once in place, a sump-type suction catheter should remain at least for the duration of
the surgery to keep the stomach and bowel as decompressed as possible. Nitrous oxide
is best avoided for laparoscopy in order to reduce intraluminal bowel gas as much as
possible and for thoracoscopy to allow maximal oxygenation under adverse ventilation –
perfusion conditions.
Endotracheal intubation is preferable for all MAS. However, short, pelvic pro-
cedures may be done with the use of a laryngeal mask airway. Brief, low-pressure insuf-
flation has been reported to maintain barrier pressure at the lower esophageal sphincter and
therefore should not pose a substantial risk of gastroesophageal reflux and aspiration in
low-risk patients. However, surgeon preference may dictate intubating these patients in
order to establish controlled ventilation with less abdominal muscle use and greater regu-
larity of the respiratory pattern.
Endotracheal tube selection may be affected by MAS because of the need to venti-
late against extrapulmonary pressure from peritoneal insufflation and the cephalad displa-
cement of the diaphragm. Rounding up to the larger ET size for age or employing a cuffed
rather than the more traditional uncuffed ET in small children may allow improved ven-
tilation under adverse situations, for example, thoracoscopy in a child with underlying
diffuse pulmonary disease. Uncuffed ETs that leak at ,15 cmH2O may not allow adequate
ventilation when the peritoneum is insufflated. The use of cuffed ETs allows air to be
added or removed as needed to improve ventilation. It is imperative to use a heated,
humidified circuit in small children undergoing thoracoscopy because it may prevent
secretions and blood from becoming inspissated and impeding ventilation and helps to
reduce heat loss from the respiratory route.
Monitoring is with routine American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) monitors
including electrocardiogram, noninvasive blood pressure, pulse oximeter, capnograph,
temperature, and precordial or esophageal stethoscope. Patients with underlying cyanotic
heart disease may benefit from the use of arterial lines in order to determine acid–base
balance and allow for prompt treatment of derangements. Urinary catheters should be
used in all at least for the duration of laparoscopy, and particularly in the shortest cases
because it aids visualization by decompressing the bladder, while providing information
regarding volume status. Small patients in the lithotomy or prone position may fail to
produce enough urine to be measured at the collecting urimeter because of pooling in the
dome of the bladder. This must be considered in light of hemodynamic measurements
before aggressive hydration is used to correct “inadequate” urine output. Gentle pressure
on the lower abdomen by the surgeon or intermittent reverse Trendelenberg may
augment the flow of urine into the collecting bag for a more accurate assessment. Central
venous pressure (CVP) catheters are reserved for patients in whom volume status is critical
and fluid shifts are likely to be great. Indwelling central venous lines are used for chemother-
apy can easily be used to monitor CVP, when necessary.
The type of anesthetic administered varies by procedure and physiologic status of the
patient. Commonly, an inhaled, potent volatile anesthetic (e.g., sevoflurane or isoflurane),
combined with an opiate and a nondepolarizing muscle relaxant is used. The volatile
agents contribute to muscle relaxation and thus offer the advantage of greater surgical
exposure with less insufflation pressure and the potential for less CO2 leak from around
the trocars. Other than for brief, pelvic operations, muscle relaxation should be maintained
throughout MAS to provide the best working conditions for the surgeon with the minimal
insufflation. Upon exsufflation, muscle relaxation can be allowed to wear off and reversed
during wound closure.
2.4. Pain Management

One of the greatest benefits of MAS is the reduction in postoperative pain. The
contrast from open surgery is greatest when one considers the subcostal incisions used
for conventional surgery like diaphragmatic hernia, fundoplication, splenectomy, and
20 Siedman
cholecystectomy or the large thoracotomies used for lung resections. The four or five
trocar sites may be pre-emptively infiltrated with local anesthesia (most often ,1 cc/kg
of 0.25% bupivicaine). There is good recent evidence that the pre-emptive infiltration
of local anesthetics into trocar sites reduces postoperative pain when compared with infil-
tration at the time of wound closure suggesting that the inflammatory cascade may be
thwarted (15 – 16). In the smallest patients it is impossible to adequately block a large
cutaneous area without exceeding toxic doses of local anesthetics whereas the small
trocar sites may be liberally infiltrated while remaining well within nontoxic doses of
local anesthetic.
Traditional regional anesthesia employed to minimize postoperative pain are typi-
cally avoided with MAS thereby removing the attendant risk of performing these
blocks in anesthetized children. The most recent rendition of MAS hernia repair employ-
ing a transcutaneous stitch technique probably does not even require a caudal block, the
nearly routine block used by pediatric anesthesiologists for decades. The placement of a
thoracic epidural catheter in anesthetized children has always been a contentious issue
because of the possibility of injury to the spinal cord in a patient who is unable to
report paresthesias prior to serious neural damage. MAS obviates the need for neuraxial
blockade. Postoperative pain is easily controlled with local anesthesia and intermittent
small doses of IV opiates or Patient Controlled Analgesia (PCA) for the first one or two
postoperative days.
Recently, even operations which are not readily amenable to laparoscopy are being
performed with laparoscopic assistance in an effort to reduce postoperative pain and its
attendant negative effects on pulmonary toilet by making small, trocar incisions in the
upper abdomen while allowing large masses or solid organs, for example, massive
spleen or multicystic kidney, to be removed via low pelvic incisions. The impact on post-
operative management of pain and pulmonary toilet is obvious.
While pain is significantly reduced following MAS, it is certainly not eliminated.
There are several causes implicated in post-MAS pain. It is thought that pressure peaks
from gas insufflation may have a noxious effect on the phrenic nerve, perhaps from
stretch caused by displacement of the diaphragm. This, is turn, may cause endoneural
ischemia and lead to the common postoperative referred shoulder pain following MAS.
Subdiaphragmatic instillation of local anesthetics has been advocated by some. Addi-
tionally, dissolution of CO2 may have an irritant effect on the phrenic nerve and the per-
itoneum by virtue of the acidic milieu it creates in addition to the distention. Complete
exsufflation following MAS may help to prevent some of the discomfort. Physical charac-
teristics of the gas insufflated my also have a role in postoperative pain. While cool gas is
rapidly warmed by the body, it is speculated that dry gas may have a damaging effect on
exposed membranes (17). Warming and, more importantly, humidifying insufflated gas
may help to reduce postoperative pain and diminish heat loss from the patient, although
in practice this does not appear to be a substantial problem.
Despite the small incisions, inflammatory mediators are induced by skin pain
nociceptors. Pre-emptive infiltration with local anesthesia has been shown to reduce post-
operative pain for open surgery perhaps by blocking this sensory input to pain receptors.
Recent evidence shows that the use of selective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs), that is, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors, prior to surgery has a significant
impact on postoperative pain presumably by reducing the cascade of inflammatory
mediators caused by surgery (18,19). Pre- and postoperative use may reduce the need
for opiate medications with their attendant side effects of respiratory depression and
delayed gastric motility. COX-2 inhibitors do not interfere with platelet function and,
therefore, alleviate the concern for postoperative bleeding like older, less specific
NSAIDs caused in the past (e.g., ketorolac). Drains and chest tubes are a frequent source of
postoperative pain. Liberal use of local anesthetics may help, particularly surrounding
chest tubes where pain may impede respiratory effort.
2.5. Fluid Management

Conventional teaching for anesthesiologists is to replace deficit fluids, administer calcu-
lated maintenance fluids, and to replace ongoing losses, in particular blood loss and
“third space” losses, mostly evaporative. Fluid deficits may need to be replaced earlier
in the course of MAS than open surgery because the combined effects of induction of
anesthesia, reverse Trendelenberg position and insufflation of CO2 conspire to reduce
preload leading to an exaggerated reduction in cardiac output and potentially blood press-
ure. Patients with cardiac shunts who are extremely sensitive to changes in intravascular
volume in order to maintain pulmonary or systemic perfusion may need to be hydrated
prior to insufflation.
In general, third space losses are inconsequential during thoracoscopy as opposed to
the 4 –8 cc/kg per h loss incurred during open thoracic surgery. Laparotomies, in which the
bowel is exposed for prolonged periods of time, may result in losses of 10 –15 cc/kg per h
or more. Reducing these fluid losses to the ambient environment may lead to a substantially
lower overall volume of crystalloid replacement and less postoperative edema. Laparo-
scopic replacement volumes are difficult to estimate but are significantly less than with a
laparotomy and should be based on heart rate, blood pressure, and hourly urine or
central venous pressure when available.
Blood loss may take longer to control with MAS than with open surgery because of
the reduced freedom of movement and exposure for the surgeon. Small hemorrhages
impede visualization because hemoglobin absorbs light and may make it difficult to ident-
ify the source of bleeding quickly. It may be necessary to make an additional incision to
gain control. Quantifying the amount of blood loss represents a challenge because small
pools of blood are difficult to estimate in two dimensions. The traditional weighing of
sponges to estimate blood loss in small children is replaced by estimating the volume in
large suction canisters. Blood may pool in dependent areas including the pelvis that are
not obvious without deliberate inspection. For the anesthesiologist, however, having
greater visualization into the field via television monitors allows for prompt assessment
and intervention as needed.
3. CARDIORESPIRATORY EFFECTS OF MINIMAL

ACCESS SURGERY
3.1. Laparoscopy
Surgical exposure for MAS depends on the continuous flow of gas in order to produce dis-
tention in the peritoneal cavity and lung collapse in the thoracic cavity. Carbon dioxide is
currently used because of its physical characteristics. It is noncombustible, highly soluble,
and does not cause serious cardiovascular compromise in the event of an IV gas embolus.
Its absorption can be readily eliminated via an increase in minute ventilation in healthy
patients.
Changes in cardiovascular function during laparoscopy are affected by insufflation
pressure, intravascular volume status, patient position, and anesthetic agents. While the
increase in end-tidal CO2 is easily handled by increasing ventilation, the effects of the
mechanical distention of the peritoneum are more hemodynamically significant. While
22 Siedman
invasive hemodynamic studies are scant in infants and children, Sakka et al. (20) reported
a decrease in cardiac index (CI) of 13% by transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) at an
insufflation pressure of 12 mmHg and no reversal of this effect at 6 mmHg in small,
healthy children Guegniaud et al. (21) looked at the hemodynamic effects of pneumoper-
itoneum during laparoscopy in 12 ASA Class 1 infants by using noninvasive continuous
esophageal aortic blood flow echo-Doppler. Insufflation to 10 mmHg caused the cardiac
output to decrease approximately 30%, but MAP was unchanged. They noted a significant
decline in aortic blood flow and increase in systemic vascular resistance (SVR) as in the
adult studies. Several studies using adult patients support the fact that peritoneal insuffla-
tion has significant hemodynamic consequences. Joris et al. (22) studied 15 non-obese
healthy adults undergoing laparoscopic choplecystectomy under general anesthesia
using invasive hemodynamic monitoring via flow-directed pulmonary artery catheters.
The study showed that insufflation pressures of 15 mmHg caused an increase in mean
arterial pressure (MAP) of 35%, decrease in CI of 20%, increase in SVR of 65%, and
an increase in pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) of 90%. When combined with
general anesthesia and the reverse Trendelenberg position of 108, CI decreased 50%.
Dorsay et al. (23) also studied 14 healthy adult patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecys-
tectomy by transesophageal echocardiography and found that with insufflation pressures
of 15 mmHg CI decreased 3%, heart rate (HR) increased 7%, MAP increased 16%, and
stroke volume index (SVI) decreased 10%. The addition of 208 head-up position decreased
CI by 11%, SVI by 22%, and increased HR and MAP by 914 and 19%, respectively.
A third similar study in adults by Mclaughlin et al. (24) using TEE and invasive CVP
and arterial blood pressure monitoring found an increase in MAP of 15.9%, increase in
systolic blood pressure (SBP) of 11.3%, increase in diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of
19.7%, increase in CVP of 30%, decrease in stroke volume (SV) and CI of 29.5% follow-
ing positioning in the reverse Trendelenberg position. All hemodynamic derangements
were reversible following exsufflation (24).
Healthy infants and children easily tolerate these hemodynamic stressors because of
their huge cardiac reserve. Issues of tachycardia and hypertension leading to myocardial
ischemia and infarction are virtually nonexistent. Children with underlying cardiac
disease (congenital or acquired), may not benefit from this some luxury. In particular, chil-
dren with severe cyanotic heart disease and single ventricle physiology represent a great
challenge. They are the patients most likely to benefit from MAS with its reduced post-
operative respiratory compromise from smaller incisions and reduced narcotic medication
perhaps leading to decreased postoperative pulmonary dysfunction (25). These fragile
babies often require gastrostomy tubes and fundoplications in order to grow and may
suffer from other congenital anomalies that necessitate surgical correction.
Small babies with hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) often fail to thrive fol-
lowing the first stage Norwood procedure. This palliative procedure uses the anatomic
right ventricle as the systemic “workhorse” ventricle while using a Blalock – Taussig
shunt in order to create passive pulmonary blood flow from the subclavian artery. The
ratio of pulmonary to systemic blood flow (Qp/Qs) depends on the balance between
SVR and PVR. These patients are routinely placed on afterload reduction medication in
order to unburden this morphologically weaker ventricle. Absorption of CO2 from the per-
itoneum may lead to a rise in arterial CO2 leading to increased PVR, decreasing Qp, and
diminished oxygen saturation. Ventilation must be carefully adjusted to maintain end-tidal
CO2 in the normal range so as to prevent a respiratory acidosis in addition to the potential
metabolic acidosis which frequently occurs in these patients. It has been shown that end-
tidal CO2 may not be a reliable indicator of arterial CO2 in infants and children with cya-
notic heart disease undergoing laparoscopic procedures. Large gradients are seen between
end-tidal CO2 and arterial CO2 in these patients. Although the cause of this gradient is
unknown, possible causes include the absorption of CO2 across the peritoneum, dead
space ventilation caused by decreased functional residual capacity, alterations in pulmon-
ary blood flow, or reduction in cardiac output caused by insufflation (26). The increase in
afterload posed by intraperitoneal insufflation could in theory cause this ventricle to fail.
Using the lowest possible insufflation pressures, judicious hydration and careful monitor-
ing of blood pressure have made MAS possible for these patients. Fluid administration
is particularly critical because the passive pulmonary circulation relies on systemic blood
pressure to maintain oxygen saturation. Sluggish flow through synthetic systemic-
to-pulmonary shunts may precipitate thrombosis and death. Because of the lack of
reliability of end-tidal CO2 monitoring and delicate fluid balance, invasive arterial cath-
eters may be necessary in all but the most basic procedures for this patient population
in order to avoid severe acidosis from inadequate ventilation or poor peripheral perfusion.
Low-dose inotropic support with dopamine or dobutamine may be necessary. When acido-
sis cannot be corrected with IV volume administration, reduction of insufflation pressure,
and an increased minute ventilation, conversion to open surgery should be considered.
3.2. Thoracoscopy
A vast array of surgery is currently being performed with thoracoscopy in neonates,
infants, and children including newborn anomalies. While decortication for empyema
and lung biopsies have been standard thoracoscopic cases for years, more and more
complex operations can now be done with minimal access techniques. Tracheoesophageal
fistulae and esophageal atresias, in addition to lobe resections, patent ductus arteriosus
occlusion and anterior spine fusion are among the more recent repertoire of pediatric oper-
ations amenable to minimally invasive repair. With these technical advances, pediatric
anesthesiologists have had to address the issues of lung separation for optimal surgical
exposure in patients for whom no double-lumen endotracheal tubes exist. Alterations in
patient positioning and the cardiopulmonary effects of gas insufflation and single-lung
ventilation now must be considered when planning an anesthetic for these children.
There is perhaps no greater benefit to patients from MAS than is seen with thoraco-
scopy. The reduction in postoperative pain and splinting is an obvious advantage, particu-
larly in the sickest patients who would have required large incisions for relatively minor
surgical procedures. Open lung biopsies in severely ill or immunocompromised patients
may necessitate postoperative intubation and mechanical ventilation in an intensive care
setting. Smaller incisions via thoracoscopy allows many of these patients to be extubated
immediately following surgery because of the reduced pulmonary dysfunction from
reduced pain and depressant medication. Patients with severe, diffuse pulmonary
disease used to be considered poor candidates for MAS because of the potential for
bronchopleural air leaks following surgery, but advances in stapling devices have made
it possible for these procedures to be done safely and effectively.
Thoracoscopy is performed with gas insufflation at low flow (1 L/min) and pressure
(4 –6 Torr). Lung collapse and the working space are created by first producing a
pneumothorax via a Veress needle. A valved trocar is then introduced. In small patients,
where lung separation is the most difficult, gas flows of 1 L/min at a pressure of 4 –6 Torr
allow the lung to be mechanically pushed away allowing greater exposure. The hemody-
namic consequences of gas insufflation at 5 mmHg with selective lung intubation in
adult swine has shown a decrease in CI, MAP, and left ventricular stroke work index
while pulmonary artery and CVP increased (27). This technique, however, is well toler-
ated even by small infants undergoing PDA ligation at flows of 1 L/min at a pressure
24 Siedman
of 4 mmHg (10). The physiologic impact of one-lung ventilation can be profound, particu-
larly in the smallest and sickest patients. While ventilation to perfusion ratios (V/Q) are
well maintained in the supine and lateral position in larger, awake children, small children
are prone to atelectasis. The hydrostatic gradient caused by gravity is reduced and the
chest wall is more compliant. Therefore, functional residual capacity is closer to residual
volume and closing volume. Atelectasis leads to compromised ventilation and V/Q mis-
match. General anesthesia and mechanical ventilation cause further V/Q mismatch.
Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, a mechanism whereby blood is diverted away
from nonventilated lung, is blunted by many anesthetics, including inhaled, volatile
anesthetics. All of these factors operate in concert to increase shunt fraction and reduce
arterial oxygen saturation. Allowing some low-pressure ventilation to the operative,
nondependent lung may help to improve oxygen saturation while low flow, low pressure
CO2 insufflation maintains the working space. Neonates ,4 kg often do not tolerate
single-lung isolation. Despite this, adequate lung collapse is achieved with a CO2 pressure
of 4 Torr with the ET positioned in the trachea. This revelation is what has allowed the
repair of tracheoesophageal fistulae and esophageal atresias by thoracoscopy in newborns.
3.2.1. Techniques for Single-Lung Ventilation

Various parameters of the techniques used for single-lung ventilation are summarized in
Table 3.1.
Double-Lumen Endotracheal Tubes. Double-lumen tubes have been the main-
stay of single-lung ventilation in adults undergoing thoracoscopy. They utilize two
coaxial, cuffed tubes, the proximal one in the trachea and the distal into either the right
or left mainstem bronchus. This is ideal because it can provide complete lung separation
while allowing either single- or double-lung ventilation whenever appropriate. Position
can be confirmed by use of a fiberoptic bronchoscope (FOB) at any point during
surgery. The nondependent operative side can be suctioned and continuous positive
airway pressure can be administered when needed to improve declining oxygen saturation.
The smallest available double-lumen tube, however, is a 26-French and is, therefore,
appropriate for children 8– 10 years old (30 –40 kg).
Table 3.1 Age, Airway Dimensions, and Device Sizes

Endotracheal Fiberoptic Balloon Double-lumen
Age Approximate tube ID bronchoscope catheter Univent tube French
(year) trachea (mm) (OD) (mm) OD (mm) French (mm) ID (mm) OD
,0.5 5 3.0 – 3.5 (4.3 –4.9) Up to 2.4

0.5 – 1 5.5 3.5 – 4.0 (4.9 –5.5) Up to 3.1
1–2 6 4.0 – 4.5 (5.5 –6.2) Up to 3.4 +5 (1.67)
2–4 7.5 4.5 – 5.0 (6.2 –6.8) Up to 3.4 5 (5 Arndt)
4–6 8.0 5.0 – 5.5 (6.8 –7.5) Up to 4.2 5
6–8 9.0 5.5 – 6.0 (7.5 –8.2) Up to 4.2 5 or 6 3.5
8 – 10 10.0 5.5 – 6.0 cuffed Up to 5.2 5 or 6 3.5– 4.5 26
10 –12 10.5 6.0 – 6.5 cuffed Same 6 4.5 26 –28
12 –14 11.5 6.0 – 7.0 cuffed Same 6 (9 Arndt) 4.5, 6.0 32
14 –16 13.0 6.5 – 7.0 cuffed Same Same 6.0– 6.5 35
16 –18 13.5 7.0 – 7.5 cuffed Same Same 7.0 35 –37
Note: ID, internal diameter; OD, outer diameter.

Single-Lumen Endotracheal Tubes with Selective Mainstem Intubation. For

smaller children and neonates, an assortment of techniques is available to attempt to sep-
arate ventilation. Nearly, all are fraught with significant failure rates meaning they cannot
be effectively placed or they do not prevent spillover ventilation from occurring despite
optimal positioning. The simplest technique is the use of a single-lumen tube advanced
into the contralateral mainstem bronchus until breath sounds disappear on the ipsilateral
side, taking care to avoid occluding the takeoff of the upper lobe bronchus. Left mainstem
intubation presents a challenge, particularly in neonates. Turning the head to the right may
help the ET advance into the left mainstem bronchus by directing the tip to the left.
Rotating the ET 908 to the left or 1808 (where the bevel faces right and points left) may
be effective. Placing the child in the right lateral decubitus position may help to shift
the mediastinum to the right and partially compress the right mainstem bronchus, prefer-
entially allowing passage into the left. Use of a FOB as a guiding stylet is useful. However,
in neonates, the small ET necessitates the use of a small, floppy 2.2 mm FOB which may
not be stiff enough to help guide a tube into the left mainstem. Tube position may be con-
firmed with the use of a FOB either within the lumen of the ET or alongside it. This tech-
nique requires minimal excess equipment, but may fail to achieve an adequate seal of the
mainstem bronchus, especially if size limitations preclude the use of a cuffed ET. Care
must be taken to make sure the entire cuff is below the takeoff of the mainstem bronchus
so that ventilation does not spill over to the operative lung.
Balloon Occlusion Bronchial Blockers. Balloon-tipped bronchial blockers
including Fogarty embolectomy catheters and end-hole, balloon wedge catheters
(Arrow International Corp., Redding, PA), and the Arndt Endobronchial Blocker (Cook
Critical Care, Bloomington, IN) may be used to seal the bronchus on the operative side.
The catheter may be placed into the trachea under direct vision with laryngoscopy. Fol-
lowing this the trachea is intubated with an appropriate sized ET. Using a FOB via a
swivel adapter in the ET, the catheter is manipulated into the operative mainstem
bronchus. Care is taken to assure that the ET remains above the carina. Conversely, the
bronchus may be intubated first with an ET and then a guidewire is passed through and
the ET withdrawn. The open-ended balloon-tipped catheter is then fed over the guidewire
into the bronchus. The trachea is then intubated alongside the balloon catheter. Fiberoptic
bronchoscopy is used to confirm placement of the balloon below the takeoff of the main-
stem bronchus and position of the ET above the carina. The Arndt Endobronchial Blocker
(Cook Critical Care) has a guide loop at the end of the blocker’s balloon that can be placed
under FOB guidance. The loop is secured to the FOB and introduced through an ET with
the use of the Arndt Multiport Airway Adaptor, which permits uninterrupted ventilation
during placement. The 5 French pediatric blocker can be used with the smallest FOB
through a 4.5– 5.0 internal diameter ET. A small lumen allows CPAP to be delivered, if
needed and the blocker may be withdrawn without the need for reintubation should be
patient require postoperative ventilation.
Regardless of the device used, placement is confirmed by inflation of the balloon and
the loss of breath sounds on the operative side. The balloon should remain deflated until
after insufflation of the chest so that the lung is able to collapse. The catheter is then firmly
secured to the ET and face to prevent dislodgement.
Balloon-tipped catheters have the advantage of reliable occlusion of the operative
side. They are, however, equipped with low-volume, high-pressure balloons and may
cause trauma to the airway mucosa if overinflated. Inadvertent displacement of the
balloon into the trachea upon insufflation will result in the inability to ventilate the
patient. Also, the more readily available closed-tip, Fogarty-type, catheters do not allow
suctioning of the lung or delivery of CPAP if oxygenation declines during surgery.
26 Siedman
Univent Tubes. A Univent tube (Fuji Systems Corporations, Tokyo, Japan) is a

conventional ET with a second lumen that contains a balloon-tipped, small tube that
may be advanced into a mainstem bronchus via FOB guidance. These tubes are available
as small as 3.5 mm internal diameter (ID) (outer diameter 7.5 –8 mm, equivalent to
approximately 5.5 ID conventional ET). Therefore, these tubes are useful for school-
age children, but are not suitable for infants and toddlers.
Because the Univent tube employs an integral bronchial blocker, dislodgement of
the blocker may be less likely. It also has a small lumen that can be used to provide an
outlet for gas, delivery of oxygen, or the application of CPAP.
4. ANESTHETIC IMPLICATIONS OF INTRAOPERATIVE

COMPLICATIONS
As with any modality, complications occur with MAS. Early in the evolution of MAS,
operative times were long mostly because of the awkward nature of suturing with two-
dimensional visualization. Technical difficulties often led to the conversion to open
surgery. Prolonging surgery leads to increased fluid requirements, problems with tempera-
ture maintenance, atelectasis, and potential for delayed emergence from anesthesia.
Experience now shows that over time, MAS has proved to be efficient and often superior
to conventional open surgery. Remote reaches of the abdomen and thorax are accessed
with improved visibility. Technical advances and positioning have made suturing and
other two-handed procedures appear effortless. Still, complications unique to MAS
remain and require vigilance to recognize and correct.
Because gas insufflation is continuous during MAS, it may dissect into tissue planes
including across the diaphragm and into the mediastinum. Pneumomediastinum and pneu-
mothorax can occur from breaches in the diaphragm caused by the heated tip of a cautery
device and may go unrecognized until respiratory or cardiovascular compromise becomes
apparent. Prompt discontinuation of insufflation and evacuation of gas from these spaces
returns cardiopulmonary function to normal. Carbon dioxide may also cause subcutaneous
emphysema when it tracks during malplacement of trocars or via the mediastinum. When
it becomes severe in the neck, subcutaneous emphysema may impede respiration. It may
be necessary to leave patients intubated to maintain airway patency until some of the
emphysema resolves. Patients who require postoperative positive-pressure ventilation
should have chest tubes left in place following thoracoscopy to avoid a pneumothorax.
Though the conversion rate to open surgery is declining over time, the complexity of
cases dictates that occasionally hemorrhage or technical difficulties will arise. Converting
to open surgery may necessitate changing the position of a patient while maintaining the
sterile field. Vigilance regarding IVs and airway devices is of paramount importance. Con-
firming adequate ventilation and IV patency after repositioning is vital. Consideration
should be given to epidural placement at the conclusion of surgery.
MAS has become the gold standard for many operations, once thought too complex
for this innovative approach. It has become clear that over time the vast majority of pedi-
atric surgery will be done with some form of MAS. Robotic surgery is the most recent ren-
dition, allowing surgeons greater freedom of movement plus all the advantages of MAS.
Pediatric anesthesiologists have had to adapt to provide safe operating conditions in an
environment that fosters the success of novel techniques. Perhaps even more than for
open surgery, communication between members of the team is critical. Difficulties arise
during surgery (e.g., cephalad displacement of ETs) upon insufflation need to be addressed
quickly. Often, small decrements in insufflation pressure or repositioning of ETs make
management of small patients vastly easier. Minor ventilatory changes may help to
improve visualization by the surgeon by reducing inflation of the operative lung.
Monitors allow the anesthesiologist a view into the operative field that was unavail-
able before and provides valuable information regarding possible causes for cardiopul-
monary changes. Prompt intervention can help prevent significant desaturation or
hemodynamic decompensation. Communication is most important perhaps when signifi-
cant bleeding occurs or the decision is made to convert to an open procedure.
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tering rofecoxib for postoperative pain management. Anesth Analg 2003; 97:35– 38.
19. Reuben SS, Bhopatkar S, Maciolek H et al. The preemptive analgesic effect of rofecoxib after
ambulatory arthroscopic knee surgery. Anesth Analg 2002; 94:55 –59.
28 Siedman
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4
Minimal Access Neonatal Surgery
Klaas (N) M. A. Bax and David C. van der Zee
Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
1. Introduction 29
2. Thoracoscopic and Laparoscopic Interventions 31
2.1. Indications 31
2.1.1. Thoracoscopic Interventions 31
2.1.2. Laparoscopic Interventions 32
3. Unique Technical Aspects of Neonatal Thoracoscopic and
Laparoscopic Surgery 33
3.1. Patient Positioning 33
3.2. Limited Working Space 33
3.2.1. Working Space in Thoracoscopic Surgery 33
3.2.2. Working Space in Laparoscopic Surgery 34
3.3.3. Secondary Factors Influencing Working Space 35
3.3. Cannula Position 35
3.4. Cannula Fixation 35
3.5. First Cannula Insertion 36
3.6. Insertion of Secondary Cannulae 36
3.7. Instruments 37
4. Conclusions 37
References 37
1. INTRODUCTION
The emancipation of neonatal surgery is of relatively recent date. It began roughly after the
First World War when William Ladd started his work at the Boston Children’s Hospital.
It only became established in most countries since Second World War. Rickham in 1969
attributed the rapid after Second World War development of neonatal surgery to four main
factors:
1. Concentration of neonates with a surgical condition in centers draining large
areas
2. Improvement in anesthesia and management of cardiorespiratory complications
29
30 Bax and van der Zee
3. Pre- and postoperative care

4. Improvement in surgical technique.
He regarded the last factor as the least important (1).

With increasing safety of anesthesia in neonates, coupled with the improvement in
postoperative facilities, the length of the operation has become less important, allowing for
complex operations to be performed. It appears that surgical technique is a major factor in
the progress of neonatal surgery. Good exposure has always been and still is one of the
fundamentals of surgery. In the era before muscle relaxation, this had to be achieved by
large incisions and strong retractors. It seems likely that this has been one of the factors
why Dennis Brown advocated transverse abdominal incisions in which both rectus
muscles were severed and why he placed so much emphasis on retractors (2,3). Thanks
to muscle relaxation, the access to body cavities can be much smaller without jeopardizing
exposure.
Pediatric surgeons have always sought for less invasive ways of dealing with
surgical conditions, for example, the transumbilical route for pyloromyotomy and the
muscle sparing thoracotomy for esophageal atresia (4,5). Nevertheless, many incisions
in the newborn today are still quite extensive, for example, the supraumbical transverse
laparotomy, which gives a tremendous exposure yet at the cost of extensive skin,
fascia, muscle, and nerve cutting. Moreover, such a laparotomy exposes most of the
bowel and of peritoneal cavity to the surrounding air, promoting evaporation, and as
consequence hypothermia and drying out of the tissues. Moreover, the contamination of
the peritoneal cavity with air seems to be a potent stimulator of the stress response
(6,7). Last but not least, the covering of the viscera and peritoneum after such “excellent”
exposure with gauzes in order prevent dehydration and direct trauma may harm the
covered structures as a result of tissue foreign body reaction and repetitive trauma
due to friction. This is a chain of events believed to lead to adhesion formation and
an ileus.
In adults, transient cellular and humoral immunosuppression after a different degree
of operative stress has been well documented (8,9). Such immunological studies in the
neonate are largely absent. In 1-week-old rats, however, immunosuppression up to
7 days depending on the degree of invasiveness of the procedure was demonstrated (10).
Incisions and the subsequent scars are permanent and do grow proportionally with
the child. Moreover, as the newborn and especially the premature newborn lacks subcu-
taneous fat, the skin scar may become adherent to the fascia giving a poor cosmetic result.
It leaves little doubt that neonates with a surgical condition have had less than
optimal care for many years as it was thought that neonates experience less pain. A
great step forward in the care of neonates in general but of surgical neonates, in particular,
is the increasing awareness that the newborn even the premature can mount a considerable
endocrine and metabolic response to surgery and that neonates experience pain (11,12).
The hormonal and metabolic responses of the neonate to surgery are directly proportional
to the degree of surgical trauma (13). More and more evidence is accumulating that early,
especially repetitive painful stimuli have a negative effect on behavioral development and
decrease the pain threshold level (14).
Although pediatric surgeons were at the forefront of diagnostic thoracoscopy and
laparoscopy, they were rather skeptical when endoscopic surgery boomed for adult
patients at the end of the 1980s. Since then, however, minimal access surgery in children
has quickly evolved. Newborn minimal access surgery has progressed, albeit more slowly,
is not surprising in view of the small body cavities, the relatively large endoscopic instru-
ments and the relative rarity of many conditions. There are many theoretical advantages of
Neonatal MAS 31
using minimal access techniques in neonates, yet hard evidence that these procedures are
superior when compared with procedures using a classic approach are largely lacking,
except for the cosmetic benefits. The success of endoscopic surgical techniques is often
expressed in terms of postoperative hospital stay or postoperative time to full tolerance
of oral feeding. Such endpoints, however, can only be used when they have been
exactly defined in advance. Few studies have looked at factors such as serum interleukins.
Fujimoto et al. (15,16) found lower IL-6 responses in laparoscopically operated children.
Iwanakawa et al. (17) did not found significant differences, but the group of patients, they
studied, was very heterogeneous. Bozkurt et al. (18) studying older children undergoing
emergency abdominal surgery also found no difference, but this may have been caused
by the magnitude of the underlying pathology.
There are three body cavities in the neonate that are regularly approached endo-
scopically namely the ventricles of the brain, the chest, and the abdomen. Endoscopic
techniques have revolutionized pediatric neurosurgery and especially the treatment of
hydrocephalus (19,20). We will not elaborate further on this subject. The focus of this
chapter is to assess the development and outcomes of neonatal laparoscopic and thoraco-
scopic procedures.
2. THORACOSCOPIC AND LAPAROSCOPIC INTERVENTIONS

2.1. Indications
2.1.1. Thoracoscopic Interventions
These can be subdivided into diagnostic and therapeutic procedures.
Potential indications are
Great vessels
Interruption of a patent ductus arteriosus (21,22)
Division of vascular rings
Aortopexy
Pericardium, for example, cyst excision
Thoracic duct ligation
Lungs
removal of a bronchogenic cyst
lobectomy for lobar emphysema and cystic adenomatoid malformation (23,24)
resection of a pulmonary sequestration (25)
Esophageal pathology, for example, atresia, duplicate cyst (26,27)
Diaphragmatic repair for eventration or hernia.
The most common thoracoscopic operation that has been performed in neonates, and
even in prematures, is the interruption of a patent ductus arteriosus (21,28). Laborde, a
pioneer in the field, published, already in 1995, a series of 300 pediatric patients.
Schier and Waldschmidt (29) described their experience with thoracoscopy in children.
Of the 22 children, three were neonates and two additional children were younger than
6 months. One neonate had a bronchogenic cyst. The remaining children had a diagnostic
thoracoscopy. In 1997, Rothenberg and Chang (30) described their experience with endo-
scopic surgery in neonates and infants; six had PDA occlusion and five lung biopsy. At
the Children’s Hospital in Utrecht, 10 neonates have been thoracoscoped so far by the
Department of Pediatric Surgery. Nine had esophageal atresia with distal fistula (31). Lung
and heart surgery at the Children’s Hospital is done by pediatric cardio-pulmonary

surgeons.
2.1.2. Laparoscopic Interventions

At the University Children’s Hospital in Utrecht, the endoscopic surgical program started
in 1992. Until August 2001, 1036 endoscopic surgical operations have been performed. Of
these 112 were in neonates, which is 10.8% (Table 4.1). Roughly, half of the children had
hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. The remaining children had a variety of pathology. If not
only neonates, but also all children below the age of 6 months are counted then 303 chil-
dren have had endoscopic surgery, which is 29.2% of the total population (Table 4.2).
Again about half of these children had hypertrophic pyloric stenosis.
An increasing number of neonates have undergone minimal access surgery in the
face of associated cardiac anomalies (32). In this series, 22 had nonduct-dependent
lesions and underwent a variety of thoracoscopic and laparoscopic interventions using
insufflation pressures of 6 – 8 Torr. There were no perioperative adverse events referable
to the surgery or anesthetic technique.
The indications are shown in the following Tables 4.1 and 4.2.
In this series, there were only few laparoscopies for inguinal hernia. The indication
for laparoscopy in these patients was when there was doubt about the diagnosis of a clini-
cal hernia or in the case of a recurrence. Before the era of minimal access surgery, it has
been common practice in North America to explore the other side in unilateral clinical
Table 4.1 Endoscopic Surgical

Procedures Carried out in Neonates
Hypertrophic pyloric stenosis 46

Malrotation 10
Esophageal atresia 9
Ovarian cyst/torsion 8
Duodenal atresia 8
Anorectal anomaly 3
Diaphragmatic hernia 5
Hirschsprung’s disease 3
Duplication cyst of the ileum 2
Anorectal malformation 2
Obstruction 3
Intersex 2
Sacrococcygeal teratoma 2
Gastrostomy 1
Jenunostomy 1
Meckel 1
NEC 1
Antireflux surgery 1
Jejunal atresia 1
Perforation NEC 1
Testicular teratoma 1
Jaundice 1
Inguinal hernia 1
Total 112
Neonatal MAS 33
Table 4.2 Endoscopic Surgical

Procedures Carried out in 1- to 6-month-
old Children
Hypertrophic pyloric stenosis 107

Hirschsprung’s disease 22
Jaundice 20
Antireflux surgery 9
Malrotation 8
Inguinal hernia 6
Diaphragmatic hernia 5
Ovarian cyst/torsion 3
Duplication 2
Intersex 2
Duodenal stenosis 1
Obstruction 1
Rectal prolaps 1
Intussusception 1
Recurrent pneumothorax 1
Anorectal stenosis 1
Cholelithiasis 1
CAPD catheter 1
Total 192
hernia. By laparoscopy of the contralateral internal inguinal ring, the incidence of negative
explorations will undoubtedly drop.
3. UNIQUE TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF NEONATAL

THORACOSCOPIC AND LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY
3.1. Patient Positioning
Owing to the small size of neonates, they can be placed transversally or at the end of the
operating table, allowing for a perfect in line position of the surgeon, operative field and
monitor, which is ergonomically better.
3.2. Limited Working Space

3.2.1. Working Space in Thoracoscopic Surgery
A particular problem in thoracoscopic surgery in the neonate is the creation of an adequate
working space. Single lung ventilation would be ideal but this is hard to achieve in small
children. Main stem intubation of the contralateral lung is an alternative but is seldom
selective enough. Bronchial blocking of the ipsilateral main bronchus with a balloon cath-
eter is often mentioned as alternative but there are very few publications on its actual use.
There are no publications on the effects of one lung ventilation in the newborn. In an
experimental study in neonatal pigs, it was concluded that single lung ventilation was
well tolerated (33). Three out of the eight animals, however, were hemodynamically
very unstable and were excluded from analysis. In the remaining animals, the arterial
blood pressure dropped in a statistically significant way. Moreover, the ventilation rate
had to be increased by 25% in order to keep PaCO2 within normal limits.
The single most common indication for thoracoscopic surgery in the neonate has
been open ductus arteriosus. In most of these publications, no selective intubation was
used. Instead, the lung was retracted with an additional instrument. An alternative to
retraction is the use of CO2 insufflation. Insufflation pressures of 4 up to 8 mmHg have
been used. Flow should be low, for example, 100 mL min. Apparently, such a CO2 pneu-
mothorax is well tolerated and there are no reports on adverse effects. It is the author’s
experience that the ventilator settings have to be adjusted in order to create a new
equilibrium. If an increased frequency is not enough, pressure should be increased. Some-
times, it is advantageous to manually assist the ventilation until a stable situation is
reached. It will take 5 min before the lung on the ipsilateral side collapses, so the
surgeon should be patient. Major CO2 leaks should be prevented because of cooling
down and drying out of the tissues. Alternatively, preheated and moistened CO2 should
be used. Apart from retraction or CO2 insufflation, advantage should be taken of gravita-
tional forces, for example, for posterior mediastinal structures to be approached a prone
position is advantageous as the lung falls out of the way. It has been suggested that the
prolonged use of a telescope in a small working like the chest in the neonate can
produce hyperthermia, because of the energy released through the telescope by the light
source (34).
3.2.2. Working Space in Laparoscopic Surgery

As in the chest, the limited working space in the abdomen in the neonate is a major
problem. There are two ways to enlarge the working space: CO2 insufflation and abdomi-
nal wall lifting.
As is well established, CO2 insufflation has a number of disadvantages. There is the
increased intraabdominal pressure and the use of CO2 both having local and systemic con-
sequences. Studies on the consequences of the CO2 peritoneum in the neonate are largely
lacking. In 14- to 19-day-old piglets, Graham et al. (35) showed that CO2 insufflation at a
pressure of 15 mmHg increased PaCO2 by 31%, cardiac index by 10%, central venous
pressure by 29%, and blood pressure by 17%. There was no increase in systemic vascular
resistance or in inferior vena cava flow. If the increased PaCO2 was controlled by
increased ventilation, there was significant change in cardiac index, but blood pressure
and systemic vascular resistance increased by 7%, whereas pressure in the inferior
caval vein increased by 57%. In contrast, inferior vena cava flow decreased by 22%. Sub-
stitution of CO2 with N2O resulted in an unchanged cardiac index, but in an increase of
blood pressure by 16%, of systemic vascular resistance by 22%, of central venous pressure
of 35%, and in a decrease in inferior vena cava flow of 25%.
It has been shown that there is a direct transmission of the increased intraabdominal
pressure onto the ventricle system of the brain (36). Recently, an increase in flow in the
basilar artery in rabbits has been documented (37). It seems logical to assume that
the same occurs in neonates but this remains to be proven. Whether such changes
would be clinically relevant is another question to be answered.
The effects of the pneumoperitoneum on local hemodynamics in the abdomen in
neonate have also not been properly studied. As blood pressure in neonates is proportion-
ally lower when compared with older children, more profound effects on regional per-
fusion can be expected. During long lasting procedures, urine production is almost
absent. Routine insertion of a urine catheter, therefore, makes no much sense. For the
same reason, the administration of intravenous fluids should not be pushed for the sake
of the diuresis alone as this will not lead to an increased diuresis but to overhydration,
edema, and hemodilution.
Neonatal MAS 35
Even when CO2 is insufflated, the working space is limited. The abdominal cavity in
a neonate can only contain about 300 mL of CO2 at a pressure of 8 mmHg. Abdominal
wall lifting using either an intraabdominal device or a subcutaneous wire has been
described but has not gained wide acceptance (38,39). In abdominal wall lifting,
ambient air has to enter the abdominal cavity. Contact of air with the peritoneum and
viscera seems to be a potent stimulator of the immune system (6,7). Moreover, an abdomi-
nal wall lifting does not create a nice dome shaped space, often low pressure CO2 insuf-
flation is added.
3.3.3. Secondary Factors Influencing Working Space

1. Optimal muscle relaxation: Although there is no scientific evidence that muscle
relaxation increases the working space, it is logical to assume that such a
relationship exists.
2. Cannula length inside the working space: The less cannula length sticks inside
the cavity, the more working space will be available. There is, however, a
relationship between this length and the chance of the cannula being pulled
out. Secure fixation of the cannula rather to the fascia than to the skin is, there-
fore, of paramount importance. The use of cannulae with beveled end should be
avoided, as the beveled end has to be entirely in the body cavity thereby
decreasing the working space.
3. Length of the active tip of the instrument: Manufacturers of endoscopic instru-
ments have sized down the diameter of the instruments, mainly for use in adults.
As a result, the length of the instruments and especially of their active ends has
remained long. Such long active ends decrease the available working space.
Moreover, as these long metal ends are not insulated, collateral damage when
energy is applied can easily occur.
4. Pathology-specific considerations: For example, when the diaphragm has to be
plicated for paralysis, a thoracoscopic approach will be difficult because of the
high position of the affected hemidiaphragm. In congenital diaphragmatic
hernia, the abdomen is smaller than normal. Moreover, withdrawal of the
abdominal viscera from the chest into the abdomen will decrease the working
space.
3.3. Cannula Position

It is common practice to insert the telescope and working cannulae relatively more remote
from the target organ, the smaller the child is. Owing to the limited dimensions of the
abdominal cavity and the spherical shape after insufflation, the more distally the telescope
and instruments are inserted, the smaller the optical axis to target view, and the smaller the
elevation angle will be. Moreover, such low positions result in small manipulation angles. It
has been shown that optimal task performance is achieved when the optical axis to target
view is 908, when the elevation angle is 308 and the manipulation angle 608 (40).
3.4. Cannula Fixation

The thickness of the wall of the thorax and abdomen in the neonate is so small that the wall
does grip well enough onto the cannula. Moreover, when CO2 insufflation is used, the
cannulae have to be valved, which causes additional friction of the instruments inside
the cannulae. As a result cannulae in the neonates are easily pushed in or pulled out.
Pushing in of the cannulae may not only harm the viscera but limits the small working
space even further. Special fixation of the cannulae in the neonate is therefore essential.
There are several ways of doing this. Georgeson (41) uses 1 –2 cm long rubber sleeves
cut from Red Robinson catheters. The sleeve is pulled over the cannula and fixed to the
skin. This is a good way of fixing the cannulae. Moreover, it allows for adjustment of
the inside length of the cannula by gliding the cannula inside the sleeve. However, an
other material than rubber would be better in view of possible latex allergy.
Another way of fixing the cannulae is to suture the stopcock to the abdominal wall and
to put a piece of tape, for example, a large SteriStripw around the cannula and suture at skin
level (42). In the neonate, it is advisable to put the suture not only through the skin but also
through the underlying fascia in order to prevent that traction is applied on the loose skin
only allowing the short inside part of the cannula to be pulled out of the working space.
There are expandable sleeve trocars on the market (Stepw, US Surgical). The sleeve is
introduced over a Veress needle through a stapwound into the cavity to be entered. The
Veress is then removed and a cannula with blunt trocar introduced. The sleeve is thus radially
dilated. The general experience with this kind of cannula in children has been good and only
few complications have been reported (43). In a series of 2157 insertions, slippage occurred
in 0.88%. Mean age of the children, however, was 7.2 years and mean weight 28.4 kg. The
exact number of neonates in the series is not given but underrepresentation is likely.
A disadvantage of these cannulae is the poor relationship between outside diameter
of the cannula with sleeve and internal diameter of the cannula, for example, a cannula
with sleeve for 2 –3 mm diameter instruments has an outside diameter of 7.2 mm. More-
over, the resistance inside the valve is rather high so that the cannula with sleeve is likely
to dislodge in neonates unless additional fixation measures have been taken.
3.5. First Cannula Insertion

The safety of first cannula insertion is more a function of training and personal experience
rather than the technique itself. An open technique is often advocated. On the other hand,
there are data to support the use of the Veress technique, as it has been shown to be safe for
many thousands of patients (43). Whether the umbilical region should not be used for the
insertion of the first cannula because of the vicinity of the urachal remnant and the umbi-
lical vessels, as stated by Waldschmidt and Schier (44) is debatable. The authors have had
no problems with an open approach through the inferior infraumbilical fold. We pick up
the inferior umbilical fold with a surgical forceps and the skin in the midline immediately
below. With a curved pair of scissors, we make a small smile like incision in the picked up
skin. Next, the fascia is freed and a very small transverse incision using electrocautery is
made. As soon as the fascia is opened, a Mosquito type forceps is pouched into the
abdomen with the beak of the forceps to the left of the urachal remnant and tangential
to the abdominal wall. The pushing of the Mosquito should be done with a firm quick
movement in order to avoid pushing off of the peritoneum. The point of the beak of the
Mosquito should be freely movable inside the cavity. Only a small hole is made, so that
the cannula will fit snugly. The cannula is inserted with a blunt trocar. Before starting
insufflation, one should make sure that the cannula has pierced the peritoneum. One can
argue that this is not a complete open insertion.
3.6. Insertion of Secondary Cannulae

The optimal place for the secondary cannulae is determined with the telescope and exter-
nal landmarks (e.g., costal margin). The authors pierce the body wall with a pointed blade
and insert then a cannula with a blunt trocar. Again the hole is kept to strict minimum place
Neonatal MAS 37
so that the cannula fits snugly. Many pediatric surgeons experienced in the field, some-
times insert instruments directly through the wall into the cavity to be operated, which
has the advantage that the hole in the body wall is smaller. This is only advantageous,
however, when the particular instrument has not to be changed often.
3.7. Instruments
There are instruments with varying diameters and lengths. Instruments with a smaller diam-
eter need smaller holes in the body wall and are less invasive from that point of view. On the
other hand, smaller diameter instruments grasp less well and the application of more force
may easily damage the tissues. Moreover, as such instruments are less blunt than larger
diameter instruments, they may accidentally pierce organs, for example, the bowel or liver.
As far as length is concerned, it has been stated that the optimal ratio between the
inside and outside parts of an instrument should be 2 to 1 (40). This ratio is hard to
achieve in the neonate. The ratio will be at best inverse as otherwise the handles will
clash. Long instruments have the disadvantage that they will have to be operated with
the upper arms of the surgeon in abduction which is very tiring. The authors have
started to use 20 cm long instruments in the neonate and feel more comfortable with
them. A problem with the short and smaller diameter instruments is that the available
variety of these instruments is smaller than the variety of the longer and thicker instru-
ments, for example, clipping and stapling instruments, energy applying tools such as ultra-
sonic graspers. As said before, despite the miniaturization of instruments in terms of
diameter and recently in terms of length, the metal end of most short and small diameter
instruments has remained rather long. As a result, it is difficult to keep to whole metal end
in view when working in a limited space, which predisposes for collateral damage when
monopolar high frequency electrocautery is used.
4. CONCLUSIONS
For years, it was erroneously believed that surgery in neonates was associated with less
pain compared with older children and that they were unable to mount a good response
to stress. There is concern, now a day, about the long-term consequences of pain in the
neonatal period on further brain development. Pain should not only be treated adequately
but also be prevented as much as possible. Theoretically, minimal access techniques
should be associated with less perioperative stress than open surgery. After a slow start
of endoscopic surgery in children in general but in the neonate in particular, most oper-
ations that have been performed in an open way can now be performed endoscopically.
The cosmetic results are undoubtedly superior but are the so-called minimally invasive
procedures really minimal invasive? As long as this question is insufficiently answered
through research the term minimally invasive should not be used. Pediatric endoscopic
surgeons should be careful in thinking that what they do is really better. A continuous criti-
cal evaluation of endoscopic surgery in general, but in the neonate in particular, is the best
guarantee that this type of surgery will progress along the least invasive ways.
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23. Albanese CT, Sydorak RM, Tsao K, Lee H. Thoracoscopic lobectomy for prenatally diagnosed
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atresia in an infant: a surgical first. Pediatr Endosurg Innovat Tech 2000; 3:141 –151.
Neonatal MAS 39
27. Rothenberg SS. Thoracoscopic repair of a tracheoesophageal fistula in a newborn infant.

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5
Clinical Outcomes in Minimal Access
Fetal Surgery
Preeti Malladi and Karl G. Sylvester

Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
Craig T. Albanese
1. Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia 44

2. Twin –Twin Transfusion Syndrome 50
3. Twin Reversed Arterial Perfusion and Twins Discordant for a
Lethal Anomaly 52
4. Obstructive Uropathy 54
5. Sacrococcygeal Teratoma 60
6. Myelomeningocele 62
7. Tension Hydrothorax 63
8. Congenital Heart Defects 65
9. Premature Rupture of Membranes 68
10. Amniotic Band Syndrome 69
11. Gastroschisis 69
12. Potential Future Applications of Minimal Access Fetal
Surgical Technique 70
References 71
The rapid advances over the last 20 years in prenatal imaging and diagnosis, coupled with
an increased understanding of the pathogenesis of neonatal disease, has led to the identi-
fication of the fetus as a patient and to the burgeoning field of fetal surgery. An increasing
number of select fetal anomalies are currently amenable to prenatal intervention
(Table 5.1). Life-threatening congenital anomalies have been historically treated by
open fetal surgical techniques. Yet, a variety of significant complications including pre-
term labor (PTL), premature rupture of membranes (PROM), pre-term delivery and
maternal complications from the tocolytic therapy have lead surgeons to investigate inno-
vative approaches to minimize these complications. In order to reduce maternal morbidity
related to the hysterotomy and fetal morbidity due to exposure and manipulation, minimal
41
42
Table 5.1 Summary of Applications of Fetal Surgery
Defect Effect on development Open Minimal access
LETHAL
Placental vascular
anomalies
Twin– twin transfusion Vascular steal through ! Fetal hydrops/demise Fetectomy Photocoagulation of
syndrome (TTTS) placenta Surviving twin with chorangiopagus
severe morbidity
Twin reversed arterial Normal cotwin hear ! High output cardiac Fetectomy Selective reduction via
perfusion syndrome pumps for both twins failure, hydrops umbilical cord ligation
(TRAP) or radiofrequency
needle
Obstructive uropathy Hydronephrosis ! Renal failure Vesicostomy Vesicoamniotic shunt
Lung Hypoplasia Pulmonary failure Valve ablation
Congenital Lung hypoplasia ! Pulmonary failure Complete repair Temporary tracheal
diaphragmatic hernia Temp tracheal occlusion occlusion (PLUG)
(CDH)
Cystic adenomatoid Lung hypoplasia or ! Respirator insufficiency Pulmonary lobectomy Radiofrequency ablation
malformation/ hydrops Fetal hydrops/demise
sequestration
Sacrococcygeal High-output heart failure ! Fetal hydrops/demise Debulk Laser vascular occlusion
teratoma Complete resection Radiofrequency ablation
Complete heart block Low output failure ! Fetal hydrops/demise Pacemaker Pacemaker
Pulmonary/aortic Ventricular hypertrophy ! Heart failure Valvuloploasty Catheter valvuloplasty
stenosis Single ventricle
physiology
Pericardial Teratoma Heart failure ! Fetal hydrops/demise Resection —
Ebstein’s anomaly Heart failure ! Fetal hydrops/demise Valve repair and atrial —
Pulmonary hypoplasia Pulmonary failure reduction
Malladi, Sylvester, and Albanese
Congenital high airway Overdistention by lung ! Fetal hydrops/demise Tracheostomy Tracheostomy
obstruction syndrome fluid EXIT strategy
Obstructive Hydrocephalus ! Brain damage Ventriculoamniotic shunt Ventriculoamniotic shunt
hydrocephalus Ventriculoperitoneal
shunta
NONLETHAL
Myleomeningocele Chiari formation ! Paralysis Repair Repair
Exposed spinal cord Neurogenic bladder/
Hydrocephalus bowel
Orthopedic anomalies
Clinical Outcomes in MAFS
Tension Hydrothorax Lung hypoplasia ! Respiratory failure — Serial thoracenteses

Thoracoamniotic shunt
Previable premature PTL ! Fetal demise — Amniopatch
rupture of Fetal/Maternal infection Amniograft
membranes (PROM)
Gastroschisis Bowel exteriorization ! Bowel preivisceritis — Amnioexchange
Prolonged ileus
Amniotic bands Limb/digit/umbilical ! Limb/digit deformity or — Laser separation of bands
cord constriction amputation
Fetal demise (cord
occlusion)
OTHER —
Stem cell/enzyme Hemoglobinopathy ! Anemia — Stem cell transplants
defects Immuno-deficiency Infection Gene therapy
Storage diseases Neurological impairment
Note: Refs. (228, 229).

43
44 Malladi, Sylvester, and Albanese
access surgical techniques have been adapted to the fetal environs. Minimal access fetal
surgery (MAFS) may allow for a broader applicability of fetal intervention, and extension
of treatment to nonlethal and highly morbid fetal maladies.
Experimental animal research suggests that MAFS techniques may improve the
outcome measures of uterine contractions and PROM. The data on PTL, however,
remains equivocal. In 1995, Van der Wildt et al. (1) studied the uterine contractions of
five mid-trimester Rhesus monkeys after fetoscopic access. Twenty-four hours after
access, no uterine contractions could be measured. Of the three monkeys who did not
die within 1 week of surgery, no premature uterine contractions were observed in the
third trimester. On the other hand, in 1996, Luks et al. (2) studied 10 third trimester
sheep and showed no difference in quality or quantity of uterine activity between
control, endoscopic access, and hysterotomy. These differences between the two studies
may, in part, be attributed to the behavioral differences between the primate uterus and
the sheep uterus. The sheep uterus is thin and tolerant of injury, whereas the primate
uterus is thicker and more unforgiving. The study of Luks et al. did show a decrease
in uterine artery blood flow and uteroplacental oxygen delivery by 73% compared with
control in sheep undergoing hysterotomy vs. no decrease after endoscopy. This can
result in a decreased fetal pH, an increased serum lactate, and a redistribution of fetal
blood flow (3,4). Thus, fetal homeostasis may be more stable with fetoscopy. Human clini-
cal experience with fetoscopic intervention for congental diaphragmatic hernia has shown
promise with decreased PTL, a decreased use of tocolytics and subsequent reduction in
maternal complications and maternal hospital stay (5,6). A review of the evolution in tech-
nique for the fetal treatment of congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is illustrative of the
overall rationale of MAFS toward ameliorating the pathophysiology of major congenital
malformations.
1. CONGENITAL DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIA
CDH is a condition that develops when there is an abnormal fusion of the four structures of
the diaphragm: the septum transversum, the pleuroperitoneal membranes, dorsal mesen-
tery of the esophagus, and the body wall (7). Abdominal viscera are able to herniate
through the defect into the thoracic cavity. If the defect is large or occurs early, a large
volume of viscera may herniate, and anatomic compression of the developing lung bud
can occur. Compression of the lungs can stunt pulmonary development and possibly
displace the heart and vessels. This leads to the recognized pathophysiologic sequelae
of pulmonary hypoplasia, pulmonary hypertension, and postnatal respiratory failure.
CDH affects approximately 1 in 3500 live births (8). The clinical course for neonates
ranges from exceedingly good with standard postnatal care to death despite all interven-
tions. Historically, the reported mortality for neonates diagnosed with CDH at birth has
been reported to be 30 –50% (9), and the reported mortality for those diagnosed antena-
tally up to 88% (10,11) despite optimum postnatal care including extracorporeal mem-
brane oxygenation (ECMO). This difference, termed the “hidden mortality” by Harrison
et al. (11), reflects fetal death in utero or shortly after birth. Fetuses with the poorest out-
comes can be risk stratified by prenatal ultrasound through the identification of liver her-
niation (liver-up) (12); and calculation of a lung-to-head ratio (LHR—length times width
of right lung divided by the head circumference) (13,14). Fetuses with “liver-up” CDH
have a 43% survival vs. 93% in those with “liver-down” CDH. Liver-down fetuses with
LHRs less than 1 have 100% mortality, LHR between 1 and 1.4 have 60% mortality,
and LHR greater than 1.4 have zero mortality. Some have argued that new nonsurgical
Clinical Outcomes in MAFS 45
therapies have improved survival for CDH infants, but Stege et al. (15) contend that
reported increases in survival for CDH over the 1990s have been due to selection bias
and that newer therapies such as ECMO, high-frequency ventilation, and inhaled nitric
oxide have had no effect on the mortality of 62%. Most experts currently believe that
a philosophical change toward permissive ventilatory care to include spontaneous respir-
ation has had the greatest impact on survival (16,17).
The early dismal postnatal mortality rates (18) and the desire to combat the “hidden
mortality” led to the first attempt to repair diaphragmatic hernia in utero. Experimental
results in sheep and primates demonstated improved lung growth, pulmonary function,
and neonatal survival (19 – 22). Although the open surgical repair (i.e., hysterotomy,
partial fetal delivery, and repair of the diaphragmatic defect) was demonstrated to be feas-
ible in humans (23 – 25), there were many factors limiting its usefulness including the
global issues for open fetal surgery of PROM, PTL, and fetal morbidity.
In 1997, Harrison et al. (26) reported the results of a prospective, National Institutes
of Health (NIH)-funded trial comparing open repair to standard postnatal care [which
included ECMO support, when indicated]. Four fetuses with isolated left-sided CDH, sig-
nificant lung volume displacement, and no liver herniation underwent prenatal repair, and
seven were repaired after birth. There was no significant difference in survival (75% vs.
86%), and therefore the study concluded that fetuses with prenatally diagnosed CDH
without liver herniation should be treated with standard postnatal care. Yet, the
optimum treatment of fetuses with severe CDH as evidenced by liver herniation and a
low LHR, remain unaddressed.
The UCSF group subsequently searched for ways to exploit the known observation
that fetal lungs externally drained of fluid do not grow, whereas prevention of the efflux of
fluid from fetal lungs via tracheal obstruction promotes lung growth (27 – 29). Several
methods of reversible tracheal occlusion were devised and applied. The initial human
experience at UCSF with tracheal occlusion (PLUG technique—plug the lung until it
grows) (31) involved open surgery (Table 5.2) with placement of an intratracheal plug
or external tracheal clips. These devices were removed at the time of birth using the
ex utero intrapartum treatment (EXIT) strategy. Initially, eight fetuses underwent tracheal
occlusion. The first occlusion device was an internal foam plug which produced the
desired result on the lung but caused tracheomalacia. In the second case, a smaller plug
was used to avoid tracheal injury but it failed to produce lung enlargement, likely due
to leak around the plug. To overcome these problems, an external clip technique was
developed using aneurysm clips (two cases) and subsequently hemoclips (four cases),
which were easily removed.
Flake et al. (33) at the Children’s Hospital of Pennsylvania (CHOP) reported their
experience with open fetal tracheal occlusion with hemoclips (Table 5.3). From 1995 to
1999, 15 fetuses underwent open temporary tracheal occlusion. These fetuses had isolated,
severe right- and left-sided CDH with low LHR. Five (33%) fetuses survived long-term,
and of these, three had severe neurological deficits. Lung growth was variable but those
occluded early (before 26 weeks’ gestation) showed more consistent lung growth. This
group observed that even in the fetuses with dramatic lung growth, lung function
seemed impaired postnatally. They attributed this to prematurity, to the detrimental
effect on the number and function of type II pneumocytes by tracheal occlusion
(34 –36), and possibly to altered lymphatic drainage impairing lung fluid clearance after
birth.
The open tracheal occlusion procedures were performed by hysterotomy and
therefore, were complicated by the ever present specter of PROM and PTL. To minimize
uterine trauma and its sequelae, video-assisted fetal endoscopy (FETENDO) was
Table 5.2 Open Tracheal Occlusion (UCSF Experience) (31)
Gest Gest Gest

age at age at age at
Case diagnosis operation delivery Survival Cause of death Other
1 23 27 30 E Foam plug
2 18 27 31 C Plug not occlusive, Foam plug
pulmonary hypoplasia
3 18 25 29 B Umbilical cord accident Hemoclip
4 20 25 28 C Intracranial hemorrhage, Hemoclip
support withdrawn
5 20 27 27 B Tocolytic failure, IUFD Aneurysm clip
6 20 27 34 D Plug not occlusive, death Aneurysm clip
at 4 months
7 19 26 29 D Bowel necrosis at Hemoclip
4 months
8 18 27 32 D CNS damage at 4 months, Hemoclip
support withdrawn
9 23 26 27 B Hydrops from rapid, Hemoclip
excessive lung growth
10 21 29 30 C Ipsilateral sequestration Hemoclip
11 20 30 33 C Tetrasomy 12 p, death at Hemoclip
4h
12 21 30 31 C No biologic response to Hemoclip
occlusion, death at 1 h
13 26 30 33 C No biologic response to Hemoclip
occlusion, death at 30 h
Note: A, Died intra-operatively; B, Died in utero but not intra-operatively; C, Died within 30 days of birth;
D, Died after 30 days old; E, Long-term survival.
developed (6,37,38). The initial technique utilized a maternal laparotomy and three access
ports. Under ultrasound guidance, the fetal neck was fixed in extension with a chin stay-
suture and the tracheal midline is identified with the placement of a T-bar. A perfusion
pump circulated warmed irrigation and suction fluid via an operative fetoscope. The
trachea was dissected and occluded with two titanium clips.
A comparison of the FETENDO technique with open tracheal occlusion and stan-
dard postnatal care was reported in 1998 by UCSF in a retrospective study. From 1994
to 1997, the initial eight fetuses and an additional five fetuses (four of which were conver-
sions from fetoscopy) underwent open tracheal occlusion. Thirteen underwent standard
postnatal care and eight were treated with fetoscopic tracheal occlusion. The results
were very promising for FETENDO with a 75% survival rate (does not include converted
cases) compared with 38% standard care and 15% open surgery. Seven out of the eight
FETENDO fetuses demonstrated a reliable physiologic response to the occlusion with
consistent lung growth, whereas only five of the thirteen open fetuses had evidence of
lung growth.
In July 2003, UCSF reported progress with the FETENDO technique and discussed
11 additional fetoscopic cases (Table 5.4) (39), making a total of 19 fetuses treated with
FETENDO clips from 1996 to 1999. They reported an overall 68% survival 90 days after
delivery, with an 86% survival for fetuses with LHR .1 and 63% for LHR ,1. Only one
fetus died in utero on postoperative day two. Obstetrical complications included 6 mothers
Table 5.3 Open Tracheal Occlusion (CHOP Experience) (33)
Enrollment and selection

Total number of cases 15
Right-sided liver herniation 2
Left-sided liver herniation 13
Maternal morbidity
Early preterm labor (POD 2, 5) 2
Complicated post-op course 3
† Readmission for tocolysis
† Pulmonary edema and ventilation
Vaginal bleeding and possible
chorioamnionitis
† Uterine irritability and cervical change
Bedrest, PTL
Lung growth after fetal tracheal occlusion
Late tracheal occlusion (27 – 28 weeks) 3/7
with clear lung growth
Early tracheal occlusion (25 –26 weeks) 5/6
with clear lung growth
Survival
Right sided/left sided 2/3 [total 5 (33%)]
ECMO required 4 (1 survived)
LHR (left-sided lesion only) 0.73
Average hospitalization for survivors 76 days
Average hospitalization for deaths 18 days
Causes of death † Early PTL (2)
† Atrial perforation with central line (1)
† Inadequate lung growth, inability to be
resuscitated (1)
† Multisystem organ failure (6)
Long-term survival
Tracheal stenosis 0
Severe neurologic deficits 3
Recurrent pneumonia 2
Note: POD, Postoperative day; ECMO, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; LHR, lung-head ratio.
who developed pulmonary edema, 12 who had chorioamniotic membrane separation, and
12 who developed PROM. There was an additional fetal morbidity in the form of vocal
cord paresis/paralysis, tracheomalacia, and tracheal stenosis in five patients. Although
the early attempts at endoluminal plugging encountered problems with tracheomalacia
and leak, this concept was revisited. The evolution of the endoluminal approach involved
a gelfoam plug, an expanding umbrella, and finally a detachable balloon (30,40,41). In
May 2001, UCSF reported two cases of CDH treated by fetoscopically placed detachable
balloon (42). Maternal laparotomy was still performed, but only a single 5 mm trocar was
used. Hydrodissection with a continuous perfusion fetoscope allowed for access to the
fetal mouth and trachea, and a detachable balloon loaded on a catheter was placed in
the trachea via the side port of the fetoscope. The balloon was inflated to optimize the
seal but to avoid tracheal ischemia. Both fetuses survived and did well without any
airway-related problems.
Table 5.4 FETENDO Clip Experience (5,39)
48
Gest Gest Gest

age at age at age at
Case diagnosis operation delivery Survival Cause of death Other
1 23 30 33 C Multiple pterygium syndrome, support

withdrawn
2 16 30 31 E
3 21 30 33 E Vocal cord paresis, tracheostomy
Died at 11 months, tracheostomy dislodgement
5 20 29 35 C No biologic response to occlusion
6 19 27 31 E Laceration, repair at EXIT
7 18 28 29 E
8 19 27 32 E
9 23 29 32 E Died at 9 months, meningitis
10 24 28 31 C No biologic response to occlusion
Died at 15 months, tracheostomy dislodgement
12 16 25 26 B Fetal demise
13 19 26 27 C Pneumonia, sepsis, pulmonary
hemorrhage, ischemic bowel
14 21 26 30 C During CDH repair
15 24 27 32 E Laceration, repair at EXIT
16 21 26 33 E
17 17 25 29 E Vocal cord paresis, tracheostomy, malacia
with multiple stents
18 17 26 31 E Malacia with multiple stents
Cotton procedure
19 17 26 32 E
Note: A, Died intra-operatively; B, Died in utero but not intra-operatively; C, Died within 30 days of birth; D, Died after 30 days old; E, Long term survival; EXIT, ex utero intrapartum
Malladi, Sylvester, and Albanese
treatment.
Before this technique could be widely disseminated, the UCSF group embarked on
an NIH-sponsored prospective, randomized trial to compare fetoscopic tracheal occlusion
(balloon) with optimal postnatal care. In November 2003, the results of that trial were
reported (43) (Table 5.5). Women with fetuses between 22 and 27 weeks’ gestation and
severe left-sided CDH (liver herniation and LHR ,1.4) were randomized. After the
enrollment of 24 women, an interim analysis demonstrated no difference in 90 day survi-
val between groups (77% vs. 73% for postnatal care and tracheal occlusion, respectively).
This was an unexpectantly high survival in the postnatal care group. It was determined that
it would not be feasible to accrue enough patients to show a difference in mortality
between groups and the study was terminated. There was a significant difference in gesta-
tional age at delivery between the two groups. The tracheal occlusion group delivered at an
average of 31 weeks vs. 37 weeks gestation with standard care. This result combined with
the survival statistics suggests that the benefits of lung development with tracheal occlu-
sion may be offset by the costs to the fetus from prematurity. Another significant result was
the direct correlation of LHR to mortality. The hazard ratio for death associated with an
Table 5.5 FETENDO Balloon vs. Postnatal Care Randomized Trial Data (43)
Standard care Tracheal occlusion

Parameter (%) (N ¼ 13) (N ¼ 11)
Maternal age 28.5 + 5.7 29.5 + 5.6

Fetal sex (% male) 9 (69) 8 (73)
Gestational age at randomization 25.4 + 1.3 24.5 + 1.6
LHR 0.96 + 0.20 0.97 + 0.14
Maternal wound infection 0 1 (9)
PTL 4 (31) 8 (73)
PROM 3 (23) 11 (100)
Time from tracheal occlusion to PROM 24.8 + 14.8
Time from PROM to delivery ,1 9.5 + 8.5
Placental abruption 1 (8) 3 (27)
Mode of delivery 0/12 (92)/1 (8) 11 (100)/0/0
EXIT/vaginal/Cesarean section
Gestational age at delivery 37 + 1.5 30.8 + 2.0
Birth weight 3.03 + 0.48 1.49 + 0.36
Survival LHR ,0.79 0/0 0/1
Survival LHR 0.79 – 1.06 8/11 (73) 5/7 (71)
Survival LHR 1.07 – 1.39 2/2 (100) 3/3 (100)
Age at CDH repair 6.7 + 2.2 5.7 + 2.3
Prosthetic patch CDH repair 10/11 (91) 11/11 (100)
Age at successful extubation 35.3 + 20.5 38.8 + 15.5
Age at hospital discharge 62.1 + 28.7 59.6 + 17.9
Supplemental oxygen at discharge 4/9 (44) 4/8 (50)
Age at full enteral feeding 27.2 + 10.5 31.9 + 11.9
Fundoplication 8/11 (73) 7/11 (64)
Gastrostomy tube 3/10 (30) 1/9 (11)
Tube feeding at discharge 5/9 (55) 4/8 (50)
Antireflux meds at discharge 8/9 (89) 7/8 (88)
Weight gain at discharge 680 + 490 570 + 540
Note: LHR, Lung-head ratio; PROM, Premature rupture of membranes; EXIT, Ex utero intrapartum treatment;
CDH, Congenital diaphragmatic hernia.
LHR .0.9 to an LHR 0.9 was 0.13. The results of this study have generated many ques-
tions that need further study. The optimal timing and duration of occlusion in humans still
need to be determined. Also, developments in endoscopic instrumentation may improve
the PTL rates with fetoscopy and therefore eliminate some of the morbidity of prematurity.
Finally, fetuses with LHR ,0.9 still have a very poor prognosis. Therefore, the Eurofetus
group is developing plans for a randomized control trial targeting this particular subset of
CDH fetuses (49). The unexpectedly high survival with standard care may be evidence of
the advancement in perinatal care concurrent with advances in surgical treatment.
2. TWIN – TWIN TRANSFUSION SYNDROME
Twin– twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS) is a complication of monochorionic pregnan-

cies. Of the total 20– 30% of all twins are monochorionic, and 10% of these suffer
from varying degrees of TTTS (50). In diamniotic pregnancies, TTTS is defined by the
presence of polyhydramnios [maximum vertical pocket (MVP) .8 cm] in the recipient
twin’s sac and oligohydramnios (MVP ,2 cm) in the donor or “stuck” twin’s sac (51).
The syndrome results from an imbalance in net blood flow between the twins due to abnor-
mal placental vascular communications. The donor twin typically suffers from growth
retardation and progressive renal failure, whereas the recipient twin experiences overload
cardiac failure, hydrops, and possibly in utero demise. Expectant management results in
80 – 100% mortality of both twins (44,46).
Quintero et al. (47) described a staging system to risk stratify twins (Table 5.6) based
on retrospective data. The absence of urine in the donor twin bladder after 60 min of ultra-
sonographic observation coupled with critically abnormal Doppler studies in either twin
(e.g., absent or reverse end-diastolic velocity in the umbilical artery, pulsatile umbilical
venous flow, or reverse flow in the ductus venosus) were determined to be poor prognostic
indicators. Hydrops in either twin, indicative of cardiac failure, was an extremely poor
prognostic indicator, and finally death of either twin was usually followed by death of
the other, or the delivery of an extremely compromised (usually neurologic impairment)
twin. This group’s 1999 study demonstrated a statistically significant difference in survival
rates by stage; however, another study by Taylor et al. (48) reported that prognosis corre-
lated with a change in stage rather than the stage on presentation.
Treatment strategies for TTTS have included expectant management, serial amnio-
centeses (amnioreduction), laser therapy, umbilical cord occlusion, and septostomy.
Expectant management results in ,20% survival (49). One may argue for a role of
expectant management in stage I disease late in gestation.
Table 5.6 Twin –Twin Transfusion

Syndrome Staging (47)
Stage I þBDT
Stage II 2BDT
2CAD
Stage III 2BDT
þCAD
Stage IV Hydrops
Stage V In utero demise
Note: BDT, urine visible in bladder of donor

twin by ultrasound; CAD, critically abnormal
Doppler studies.
Serial amniocentesis of the polyhydramniotic sac to reduce the amniotic fluid

volume has been shown to prolong pregnancy and improve survival by an unknown mech-
anism (49 –52). This procedure has an overall success rate of 66% (at least one twin sur-
vival) with a risk of neurological impairment of 15% (45). A recent study by Johnsen
et al. (53) examined 24 pregnancies with TTTS treated by serial amniocenteses
between 1993 and 1999. A 79% of pregnancies had at least one fetus survive with 50%
of both fetuses surviving. The mean gestational age was 34.6 weeks.
In 1990, De Lia et al. (54) demonstrated the feasibility of using Nd:YAG laser
photocoagulation as a treatment modality for TTTS. In this technique, all placental
vessels crossing the inter-twin membrane are photocoagulated using fetoscopy. By
1995 (55,56), this group demonstrated a 53% survival rate (28/53) with this technique.
Ville et al. (57) used photocoagulation in a study with 132 pregnancies and demonstrated
a 55% survival rate, a 73% survival rate of at least one twin, and a 4.2% rate of adverse
neurologic sequelae after 1 year.
In a 1999 retrospective study by Hecher et al. (58), 73 of the patients treated with
laser therapy were compared with 43 patients treated with amniocentesis. The two
groups had similar survival rates (61% vs. 51%), but the laser group had a greater
number of pregnancies with one or more survivors (79% vs. 60%), less spontaneous
intra-uterine deaths (3% vs. 19%), lower incidence of brain abnormalities (6% vs.
18%), a longer interval between intervention and delivery (90 days vs. 72 days), and
higher birth weights (1750 g vs. 1145 g). The next year, the same group (59) reported
an overall 68% survival rate, with an 81% survival rate for one twin and a 42% survival
rate of both twins in a large series of 200 pregnancies.
In 1998, Quintero et al. (60) introduced the concept of selective laser photocoagula-
tion of communicating vessels (S-LPCV) vs. non-selective laser photocoagulation of
communicating vessels (NS-LPCV). In NS-LPCV, all vessels crossing the inter-twin
membrane are targeted. In the selective technique, only unpaired vessels are targeted.
Arterio –venous communications are identified by noting that the terminal end of one
artery does not have a corresponding returning vein to the same fetus but, rather,
returns to the other fetus. Also, arterio –arterio and venous – venous communications are
identified by following these vessels from one fetus to the other. In 2000, the group pub-
lished data (61) by comparing these two approaches. There were 18 pregnancies in the NS-
LPCV group and 74 in the S-LPCV group. Survival of at least one twin was higher in the
S-LPCV group (83% vs. 61%) because there was a lower rate of intra-uterine demise of
both fetuses (5.6% vs. 22%). There were more hydropic fetuses in the NS-LPCV group
(27% vs. 5.4%). Feldstein et al. (62) described a similar but “super selective” technique
denoted as the “SELECT” procedure (63) (sonographically evaluated, laser endoscopic
coagulation for twins). In the SELECT procedure, a TTTS pregnancy, unresponsive to
serial amniocenteses, was successfully treated by identifying the single offending arterio-
venous anastomosis through spectral Doppler and fetoscopy. Only this putative anastomo-
sis was laser coagulated.
Prospective, randomized clinical trials are currently underway in Europe and in the
United States to compare the efficacy of amnioreduction and laser photocoagulation. The
inclusion criteria for the multi-center US trial include monochorionic diamniotic pregnan-
cies diagnosed with TTTS prior to 22 weeks’ gestation, oligohydramnios in the donor twin
and polyhydramnios in the recipient twin, decompressed bladder in the donor (stages
II – V), and no structural abnormalities or known CNS abnormality by MRI. Patients
will be randomized to either aggressive serial amnioreduction or selective fetoscopic
laser photocoagulation before 24 weeks’ gestation and stratified by pregnancies presenting
prior to 20 weeks’ and after 20 weeks’ gestation. The pregnancies will be followed with
ultrasound, MRI, and echocardiography. The primary outcome measure is 30 day survival
after delivery (with no treatment failure). Secondary outcome measures will include neo-
natal comorbidities and long-term neurodevelopmental assessment, short- and long-term
maternal morbidities and postpartum correlation of imaging data, and placental examin-
ation. This trial differs from the European trial in the use of selective laser photoco-
agulation (vs. nonselective in Europe), and in the rigorous assessment of long-term
developmental outcomes. Patient recruitment began in March 2002.
Umbilical cord occlusion is usually reserved for the severe case in which fetal death
of one twin is likely. When one twin dies, the loss of blood pressure in the dying twin
causes an acute hemorrhage from the healthy twin into the dying one. Acute hypotension
usually causes death or neurologic damage in the remaining twin (64). The goal of umbi-
lical cord occlusion is to eliminate the blood exchange between the two fetuses by ligating
(65,66) or cauterizing (67,68) the umbilical cord of the terminal twin. This can limit the
acute transfusion event, although some transfusion can occur through other anomalous
connections. In a related study by Taylor et al. (68), bipolar cord coagulation was per-
formed on 15 Stage III and IV TTTS pregnancies with a survival rate of the co-twin of
93%. This is marginally higher to the single survivor rates of laser coagulation of
vessels of 85% for Stage III/IV (61). The overall survival for umbilical cord ligation is
a little lower at 46% compared with 57% for photocoagulation (61,68). Quintero (51)
quotes a survival rate of 76% with no incidence of cerebral palsy with umbilical cord
ligation.
Septostomy was first described by Saade et al. (69) in 1995 as a method to equalize
volumes in each fetal sac and minimize the number of invasive procedures. The technique
used a needle to puncture the intertwin membrane, allowing fluid to accumulate around the
oligohydramniotic fetus. The same group showed in 1998 that septostomy can provide a
survival rate of 83% (20/24) which is comparable to more invasive methods. Johnson
et al. (70) compared amnioreduction with septostomy and demonstrated a similar
overall survival rate (78%). These groups believe that septostomy may provide similar
benefits as amnioreduction with fewer numbers of procedures, more room for the
“stuck fetus,” and possibly a later gestation delivery. Some groups believe that the pro-
blems with septostomy make it a poor treatment option. Quintero (45) has demonstrated
that there is no pressure differential between the two sacs (71,72); thus obviating the need
for eliminating the membrane. He states that septostomy can result in a pseudomonoam-
niotic state fraught with the problems of cord entanglement and fetal demise. A random-
ized multi-centered trial is being considered to compare these options (73).
3. TWIN REVERSED ARTERIAL PERFUSION AND TWINS

DISCORDANT FOR A LETHAL ANOMALY
Twin reversed arterial perfusion (TRAP) is a rare complication of monozygotic twin preg-
nancy and occurs in 1% of these pregnancies (74). The TRAP sequence is the most severe
form of TTTS. A normal (pump) twin provides circulation for itself and an abnormally
developing acardiac (perfused) twin. The acardiac twin is not connected to the placenta
but, rather, directly to the umbilical cord of the pump twin. The acardiac twin is perfused
by the normal twin pumping in a reversed direction into the acardiac twin. The pump twin
is at risk for developing high output cardiac failure, hydrops, and death (75). The mortality
for the acardiac twin is 100% and 35 –55% for the pump twin (76 – 78). One prognostic
indicator is the twin:weight ratio (weight of the acardiac twin expressed as a percentage
of the weight of the other twin). Moore et al. (78) noted that in 49 TRAP pregnancies,
a 70% ratio predicted a 90% pre-term delivery rate, 40% hydramnios rate, and 30% con-
gestive heart failure rate in the pump twin.
Some monochorionic twin pregnancies can be complicated by one twin that is dis-
cordant for a lethal anomaly, that is, one that has a likelihood of leading to in utero demise.
Usually there is no placental anomaly. However, if the abnormal twin dies in utero, the
normal co-twin may be impaired or die due to a hemodynamic “unloading” into the
deceased co-twin. Interventions for TRAP that have been described include termination
of pregnancy, expectant management with early delivery, treatment of polyhydramnios
with indomethacin, (79) treatment of heart failure with digoxin (75,80), and early delivery
of the abnormal twin by hysterotomy (termed sectio parvo) (81 – 83). All of these
approaches carry significant risks to the mother and the normal fetus. Currently, the treat-
ment goals for TRAP sequence, discordant anomalies and Stage V TTTS is selective
reduction of the acardiac, anomalous, or hydropic co-twin. Depending on the placental
anatomy, selective twin reduction can be done via umbilical cord embolization, ligation,
ultrasonic transaction, laser coagulation, or thermal coagulation using monopolar, bipolar,
and radiofrequency (RF) energy. Embolization, although widely studied (84 – 88), has
fallen into disfavor because of high failure rates (23%) and pregnancy loss (32%) (75).
In 1994, Quintero et al. (89) described the first successful endoscopically guided
umbilical cord suture ligation of an acardiac twin. The mother had an uncomplicated
birth of a normal twin at 36 weeks. In 1998, DePrest et al. (90) reviewed 23 cases of
cord ligation which had a survival rate of 73% but a high risk of PROM (40%).
Laser photocoagulaton of the cord is performed fetoscopically (91 – 93). The root of
the anomalous twin’s umbilical cord is targeted with an Nd:YAG laser. Lewi et al. (94)
reported a consecutive series of 50 cases. Forty-six percent of the cases failed and were
completed with bipolar coagulation. The Lewi study noted a 75% survival rate, and a per-
sistent PPROM rate of 25%. Moldenhauer et al. (75) described two successful cases of
laser coagulation through a 16 gage needle under ultrasound guidance.
Because of the high failure rate of photocoagluation, thermal coagulation has been
attempted. A monopolar technique first performed in four cases was described by Rodeck
et al. (95). In this technique, a sonographically guided wire is placed into or adjacent to
the lumen of the aorta. Three of the cases in the Rodeck experience had good outcomes,
in the remaining case, blood flow was only reduced not terminated. The acardiac twin
stopped growing after 2 weeks, and the hydrops of the pump twin improved. The
mother suffered from pre-eclampsia and the baby was delivered at 32 weeks’ gestation
with hyaline membrane disease and developmental delay. Rodeck contends that the sono-
graphically guided needle and wire are safer and less expensive than other techniques and
targeting the aorta vs. the umbilical cord is relatively easy. It can also be performed earlier
in gestation (95 – 97).
Bipolar coagulation has been performed in 108 cases by a number of groups with
excellent success (100%), but with a high rate of PROM (20%) (75). This procedure is
performed under ultrasound guidance using a bipolar cautery device through an endo-
scopic trocar. The umbilical cord is grasped, thermal energy applied, and cessation of
blood flow is confirmed by Doppler ultrasound. Bipolar energy via a single trocar has
also been used to transect the umbilical cord (98 –100).
Perhaps the quickest and simplest method for selective reduction of a compromised
twin is the use of RF energy for cord ablation (100 – 102). Using sonographic guidance, a
14 gauge needle is percutaneously placed at the base of the umbilical cord. Energy is
applied through a radiofrequency ablation (RFA) probe placed through the angiocath
and blood flow ceases within 5 min. An additional advantage of this approach is an
ability for the needle and probe to be placed through an anterior placenta without
complication. Tsao et al. (102) described 13 TRAP cases treated with RF ablation. Twelve of
the 13 delivered a healthy twin, and one was prematurely delivered and died subsequently.
Tan and Sepulveda (103) reviewed treatment of acardiac twins through 2002. They
identified 75 cases treated with minimally invasive techniques and divided these into two
treatment modality groups—umbilical cord occlusion and intrafetal ablation. Cord
occlusion included embolization, ligation, laser coagulation, and monopolar and bipolar
thermocoagulation. Intrafetal ablation included alcohol injection, monopolar thermocoa-
gulation, interstitial laser photocoagulation, and RFA. The overall twin survival rate
was 76%. Comparing intrafetal ablation with umbilical cord occlusion, they found
lower technical failure rates (13% vs. 35%), lower rate of premature delivery or rupture
of membranes (23% vs. 58%), higher median gestational age at delivery (37 vs. 32
weeks), and a longer interval between treatment and delivery (16 vs. 19.5 weeks) with
the intrafetal ablation techniques. This group, therefore, claims that the treatment of
choice for TRAP should utilize intrafetal ablation. A summary of experience with vascular
occlusion techniques is listed in Table 5.7.
4. OBSTRUCTIVE UROPATHY
Fetal lower urinary tract obstruction (LUTO) can lead to irreversible renal damage from renal
dysplasia and to lung hypoplasia from oligo- or anhydramnios (104). Oligohydramnios can
also lead to face and limb deformities, and bladder distention can lead to abdominal muscle
deficiency. Obstructive congenital abnormalities occur in 1% of pregnancies, but only one
out of 500 pregnancies have severe urologic manifestations (105). The most common
cause of LUTO in males is posterior urethral valves and urethral atresia. Female fetuses
with LUTO, typically have developmental abnormalities associated with syndromes (e.g.,
cloacal anomaly) that are not amenable to antenatal treatment (105). Neonates that manifest
completely obstructing posterior urethral valves from early gestation have a 45% mortality
rate (106) due mostly to pulmonary hypoplasia. Early oligohydramnios from LUTO (,22
weeks’ gestation) has a mortality rate as high as 95% (107).
The clinical picture of fetal LUTO was reproduced in an elegant experimental sheep
model by Harrison et al. (108) where ligation of the fetal lamb urachus and urethra in utero
Table 5.7 Outcomes of Vascular Occlusion Techniques for Fetuses With TTTS, TRAP, and
Those Discordant for Lethal Anomaly (75,97,100– 102)
Gestational Gestational
age at Success of Total age at
Technique Procedures procedure occlusion PROM loss delivery
Embolization 22 24 (18 – 27) 17 (77%) 2 (9%) 7 (32%) 34 (24 – 39)

Ligation 24 22 (17 – 26) 21 (88%) 7 (39%) 9 (35%) 30 (24 – 37)
Monopolar 13 20 (16 – 24) 11 (85%)a 1 (8%) 4 (31%) 36 (32 – 42)
coagulation
Bipolar 108 21 (13 – 28) 108 (100%) 21 (21%) 19 (18%) 33 (24 – 41)
coagulation
Radiofrequency 16 20 (17 – 24) 15 (94%) 3 (19%) 2 (13%) 38 (24 – 40)
ablation
a
The two failures required a second occlusion.
Note: PROM, premature rupture of membranes.
produced bilateral hydronephrosis and severe pulmonary hypoplasia with a resultant high
perinatal mortality. The same group was able to ameliorate these effects by relieving the
obstruction with a suprapubic cutaneous cystostomy (109). These experiments suggested
that the fetus with early and severe obstructive uropathy may be salvageable.
In 1982, Harrison et al. (110,111) reported the first human clinical experience with
antenatal surgical intervention for fetal LUTO. Of 26 pregnancies with hydronephrosis,
9 underwent antenatal interventions. Three who were diagnosed by percutaneous vesico-
amniotic shunting to have poor renal function were aborted. Four had percutaneous vesi-
coamniotic shunts successfully placed. Only one underwent open fetal surgery with the
creation of bilateral ureterostomies. Three of the five unaborted fetuses died postnatally
and two survived. Of the three nonsurvivors, one had multiple anomalies and two had irre-
versible kidney damage. With five out of nine fetuses having renal failure, this experience
illustrated the need for more accurate and earlier diagnosis to identify fetuses that may
benefit from prenatal intervention.
In 1994, Johnson et al. (112) reported the evaluation of 24 cases of fetal obstructive
uropathy and proposed an algorithm for identifying fetuses for antenatal treatment
(Fig. 5.1). The steps include (1) a detailed ultrasound exam identifying the signs of
LUTO and also screening for other structural abnormalities, (2) fetal karyotype analysis,
and (3) three serial fetal bladder aspirations (over 3– 5 days) with analysis of fetal urinary
electrolytes and protein to assess kidney function (Table 5.8). The third aspiration is
believed to most accurately reflect fetal renal function. Candidates for fetal surgery
need to have a normal male karyotype, no other lethal anomalies, a favorable urinalysis,
and favorable-appearing kidneys by ultrasound (i.e., no evidence of corticomedullary dys-
plasia or cystic changes).
Bilateral Hydronephrosis
Oligohydramnios
Dilated bladder
Chorionic Villous Serial Bladder

High Resolution Sampling Taps
Ultrasound
Other Normal Good

Anomalies? Male Prognostic
Karyotype? Values?
Yes No Yes No Yes No

Counseling Counseling Counseling
Consider Fetal Therapy
Vescioamniotic Shunt <30 Observation

Consider Cystocopy Weeks? Consider Early Delivery
Yes No
Figure 5.1 Management algorithm for fetal obstructive uropathy [Johnson et al. (112)].
Table 5.8 Favorable Levels of Fetal Urinary

Electrolytes and Protein (112)
Electrolyte Cutoff
Sodium ,100 mg/dL

Chloride ,90 mmol/L
Calcium ,8 mg/dL
Osmolality ,200 mOsm/L
B2-Microglobulin ,4 mg/L
Total protein ,40 mg/dL
Current treatment therapies for LUTO include percutaneous sonographically guided

vesicoamniotic shunt placement and direct valve ablation via fetal cystoscopy. In early
surgical experience, open fetal therapy was performed but was abandoned due to the
advent of percutaneously placed shunts which resulted in less morbidity to mother and
fetus than the open hysterotomy approach (113).
Subsequently, there have been a number of large series examining clinical experience
in using vesicoamniotic shunts. Vesicoamniotic shunting is performed percutaneously with
ultrasound guidance. Since the initial double-J catheter proved to be prone to obstruction
and dislodgement, it was subsequently replaced by a double pigtail catheter by Rodeck
et al. (114). The pigtail shunt is placed between the bladder and the amniotic cavity to tem-
porarily divert urine, relieve the obstruction, and potentially treat oligohydramnios. The
first large series was reported by Elder et al. (115) who reviewed all cases of antenatal inter-
vention for fetal obstructive uropathy through the end of 1985. Of the 57 interventions
(from bladder aspirations to vesicostomies), 21 were technically successful and 10 unsuc-
cessful. The complications included shunt migration or poor drainage (11) and shunt extru-
sions into the peritoneal cavity (2). Of the nine patients with oligohydramnios treated by
shunt, only two survived, three were terminated and four died. Forty-five percent of
fetuses reviewed had complications (although not all of these had shunt placement).
In 1986, the report of the International Fetal Registry was published (116). The
registry described 73 catheter shunt placements for fetal obstructive uropathy with a
41% survival rate (48% if elective terminations not included) and a 4.1% procedure-
related mortality rate. The majority of deaths were perinatal due to pulmonary hypoplasia.
Although this was encouraging and, again, demonstrated feasibility, efficacy could not be
established due to the selection bias in this data set.
In 1990, Crombleholme et al. (117) presented 19 cases of vesicoamniotic shunt pla-
cement with encouraging results. Shunting restored amniotic fluid levels and prevented
pulmonary hypoplasia in 9 of 17 (53%) fetuses with oligohydramnios. Overall survival
for shunted fetuses was 58% (11/19). The report divided the cases into those with good
prognosis and poor prognosis according to the prenatal diagnostic evaluation. In the
poor prognosis group, 3/10 survived with shunting and 0/14 survived without. In
the good prognosis group, 8/9 survived with shunting and 5/7 survived without.
In 1993, Lipitz et al. (118) examined a series of 25 fetuses with LUTO, 14 of who
underwent vesicoamniotic shunting. Of these fetuses, two were electively terminated, one
died in utero, five died in the newborn period, and six survived (43%). Five of the six
shunted survivors had evidence of renal dysfunction. Three out of eleven (27%) survived
without a shunt with two having evidence of renal damage. Although the numbers in this
study were small and there was one procedure-related death, these data suggest shunting is
worthwhile.
In 1996, Freedman et al. (119) reviewed 55 cases of fetal obstructive uropathy. Of

these 28 were shunted with an overall survival of 61%. Of the poor prognosis fetuses, 50%
of those shunted survived whereas none of the nonshunted survived. Of the good prognosis
fetuses, 64% of those shunted survived, and 45% of the nonshunted survived. Of the 13
fetuses with posterior urethral valves, 6/9 (67%) shunted survived [vs. 0/4 (0%) non-
shunted]. Of nine prune-belly fetuses, 5/5 (100%) of shunted survived [vs. 1/4 (25%)
of nonshunted]. None of the 11 fetuses with urethral atresia survived.
Coplen (120) reviewed these five large series and noted that even with 169 success-
ful shunt placements, fifteen others were unsuccessful or had serious complications includ-
ing three severe maternal infections and seven procedure-related intra-uterine deaths.
Other complications included catheter obstruction, migration, and fetal injury. Failure
to restore amniotic fluid levels met with 100% mortality, and 40% of survivors still suf-
fered from end-stage renal disease.
In 1999, Freedman et al. (121) looked at the long-term outcomes for children who
underwent antenatal intervention (Table 5.9). Of 34 patients who underwent vesicoamnio-
tic shunting from 1987 to 1996 at the Children’s Hospital of Michigan, seventeen sur-
vived, but three were lost to follow-up. The 14 children evaluated had a range of
diagnoses with most having prune-belly syndrome or posterior urethral valves. Of the
long-term survivors, 43% had normal renal function, but 36% required renal transplan-
tation. Some suffered multiple urinary tract infections postnatally that may have worsened
any baseline renal dysfunction. The authors concluded that antenatal intervention for chil-
dren with severe LUTO resulted in outcomes similar to children with less severe disease
diagnosed postnatally. This same group compiled their data on complications of vesi-
coamniotic shunting (122). They compared 31 fetuses that underwent shunt placement
to 31 whom did not. Forty-eight percent of the shunted fetuses suffered from mechanical
complications—35% had migration out of the bladder, 23% developed urinary ascites
(three from intraperitoneal shunt migration and four from bladder fistula), three had
bowel herniation at the insertion site. Pre-term delivery occurred in 71% of cases, 32%
had PROM, 6% had chorioamnionitis, and 6% died in utero. There were no peri-procedure
deaths. Of the 16 nonshunted and nonaborted fetuses, 50% had pre-term delivery due to
PROM (13%), chorioamnionitis (13%), and in utero death (25%).
In 2001, McLorie et al. (123) described the experience at Mt. Sinai Hospital and the
Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto from 1989 to 1998. Of 89 fetuses with obstructive
uropathy, nine underwent vesicoamniotic shunting. One fetus was electively terminated
after shunting, and two with poor prognostic urinalysis died shortly after birth from pul-
monary disease. Overall six of eight shunted fetuses (75%) survived, but two of six (33%)
had renal failure, and three of six (50%) had bladder dysfunction requiring augmentation.
The authors encountered similar complications as other authors including shunt migration
with need for reinsertion and bladder prolapse in a fetus with prune belly syndrome. These
long-term outcomes and those from Freedman (121) are summarized in Table 5.9.
In 2001, UCSF compiled their data on 14 patients with posterior urethra valves
(PUV) treated prenatally (124) (Table 5.10). All had favorable urine electrolytes and
only two had sonographic evidence of renal dysfunction. Interventions included cutaneous
ureterostomies (1), bladder marsupialization (2), laser ablation of valves (2), and
placement of vesicoamniotic shunts (9). Overall mortality was 43% (six fetuses). Five
of the surviving eight (63%) have chronic renal disease and five have required urinary
diversion due to poor urinary drainage. One surviving child has required an augmentation
cystoplasty. Three have exhibited uninhibited bladder contractions, but normal bladder
compliance and no vesicoureteral reflux. Two have decreased bladder emptying. These
cases again strikingly illustrate the inability to accurately identify fetuses with reversible
Table 5.9 Long-Term Outcomes for Children After

Vesicoamniotic Shunting (121,123)
No. %
Total number of children studied 20 100

Diagnoses
Prune belly 8 40
Posterior urethral valves 8 40
Urethral atresia 2 10
Vesicoureteral reflux 1 10
Megacystitis 1 10
Renal function
ESRD with transplant 7 35
Renal insufficiency 4 20
Normal function 9 43
Voiding function
Incontinent 3 15
Continent 12 60
Not toilet trained yet 5 25
Urinary tract infections
,3 in last year 10 50
.6 in last year 4 20
Prophylactic antibiotics 10 50
Growth
Height ,25% 14 70
Height ,50% 9 45
Weight ,25% 8 40
Respiratory function
Asthma 2 10
Chronic bronchitis/frequent 4 20
respiratory tract infections
Development
Developmental delay 2 10
Speech therapy 3 15
Physical therapy 1 5
Total surgeries performed on these children 62
Bladder augmentation 5 25
Renal transplant 7 35
Note: ESRD, end-stage renal disease.
renal disease. Intriguingly, 63% of survivors in this series had chronic renal disease which
is higher than estimated to occur in prenatally diagnosed, postnatally treated PUV (125).
This may indicate that prenatal treatment improved lung development which decreased
perinatal mortality due to lung hypoplasia, but it did not prevent the renal disease. There-
fore, more babies survived the immediate perinatal period only to be faced with chronic
renal disease. The investigators suggested that the poor results may be due to diagnosis
and treatment that is already too late to prevent irreparable disease. Also, the screening
criteria used for determination of salvageable renal function remains controversial.
Since four of five children with renal disease had no evidence by ultrasound of their
renal disease, this should be used as a minor criterion to determine renal salvageability.
Table 5.10 Fetal Therapy for Posterior Urethral Valves (UCSF Experience 1981 – 1999) (124)
Gest Gest Serum

age at age at Cr Renal
Case electrolyte Na Cl Osmolarity operation Technique Survival Cause of death (age .12 m) transplant?
1 20 98 84 210 20 CU C PTL, resp failure

2 18 95 82 205 18 BM E 0.5 N
3 24 88 83 202 24 BM E 2.2 Y
4 25 52 39 119 25 ABL E 1.4 N
5 22 87 70 179 22 ABL C PTL, resp failure
6 18 95 77 194 24 VAS C PTL, resp failure
7 19 90 74 193 18 VAS B Terminated
9 19 93 66 175 19 VAS (3) E 1.0 N
10 24 85 70 170 24 VAS E 3.1 List
11 24 81 64 170 24 VAS E 3.3 Y (2)
12 25 92 81 103 25 VAS E 2.0 N
14 30 70 68 158 30 VAS E 0.5 N
Note: CU, cutaneous ureterostomy; VAS, vesicoamniotic shunt; BM, bladder marsupialization; ABL, in utero valve ablation; PTL, pre-term labor and delivery.
A, Died intra-operatively; B, Died in utero but not intra-operatively; C, Died within 30 days of birth; D, Died after 30 days old; E, Long-term survival.
59
Fetal urinary electrolytes were also considered to be only somewhat reliable because all
fetuses in this study had “good” urine electrolytes. They concluded that this study did
not support the ability of prenatal intervention to salvage renal function for posterior ure-
thral valves, but that improvements in minimally invasive techniques and tocolysis may
improve outcomes in the future.
The clinical outcomes of vesicoamniotic shunting for fetal obstructive uropathy
demonstrates that there are some significant limitations. Although shunting does seem
to improve the incidence of lung hypoplasia and perinatal death for patients with oligohy-
dramnios, shunting has a high rate of complications including shunt migration and shunt
obstruction. Shunting is only a temporizing measure, and the fetus requires another pro-
cedure(s) for definitive treatment. Finally, many survivors still suffer from renal
damage and bladder dysfunction. As the bladder does not experience the developmentally
important normal emptying and filling cycle, it shrinks and develops poor compliance
(104). This “valve bladder” has decreased residual capacity which has led to some of
the PUV children requiring bladder augmentation after birth. Postnatally it contributes
to urinary tract infections which can worsen renal function (104).
A new approach to the treatment of obstructive uropathy utilizing cystoscopy
appears promising. Quintero et al. (126) described the first case of fetal cystoscopy and
fulguration of posterior urethral valves in 1995. The 19 week fetus was diagnosed with
LUTO by ultrasound. Using an ultra-fine fiberoptic endoscope, fetal percutaneous cysto-
scopy was performed. The valves were electrocoagulated, and the distal urethra was
immediately visualized. At 31 weeks’ gestation, the patient suffered from PTL and
gave birth to a baby boy. His urethra was patent as evidenced by spontaneous urine
emission at birth, but he died 4 days later with pulmonary hypoplasia. This case demon-
strated the feasibility of posterior urethral valve ablation in utero.
Creative variations on this technique have developed. Quintero et al. (127) has
examined the use of fetoscopically guided cystotomy in two cases where safe percuta-
neous vesicoamniotic shunt placement was not possible. Hofman et al. (128) has described
a fetoscopic approach in the antegrade placement of a transurethral stent which may avoid
possible urethral and sphincter damage from laser ablation. Quintero et al. (129) has also
used cystoscopy to guide a laser incision of a ureterocele causing bladder outlet obstruc-
tion and oligohydramnios. The right kidney was dysplastic by ultrasound. The oligohy-
dramnios resolved. At birth, the right kidney was nonfunctional, but the left kidney’s
function was preserved.
As minimal access fetal surgical techniques evolve, patient selection criteria should
be continually revisited and current algorithms revised. For example, asymmetric renal
injury is currently not accurately assessed. The assumption of stable “normal” fetal
urine composition is also inaccurate because it actually varies with gestational age
(130). In addition, uniformly recognized outcome measures need to be adopted in order
to better assess efficacy of these treatments. Freedman et al. (122) now contends that
gross survival, postnatal survival, shunted survival, and nadir creatinine at one year are
important parameters to use for comparison.
5. SACROCOCCYGEAL TERATOMA
Sacrococcygeal teratoma (SCT) is a tumor arising from extragonadal germ cells around
the sacrum. It occurs in 1 out of 35,000 to 40,000 live births and four times more fre-
quently in females (131). Nearly 90% of SCTs are benign (132). Neonates with SCT
usually have an excellent prognosis after resection, but the fetus diagnosed with a large,
rapidly growing, solid, vascular SCT is at high risk. The fetus with a large vascular SCT is
at risk for hydrops, placentomegaly, and high-output cardiac failure with subsequent rapid
fetal demise due to “vascular steal” from high blood flow through the tumor (133). Other
complications include tumor rupture, PTL, and dystocia (134 – 136). Additionally, mothers
may develop a hyperdynamic “mirror syndrome” similar to pre-eclampsia that mimics the
fetal condition.
The goal of fetal intervention is to interrupt the high flow circulation through the
tumor. Historically, this was accomplished by open hysterotomy with tumor debulking
or complete resection. In 1989, the first case of attempted in utero resection was reported
by Langer et al. (137). The 22 week gestation fetus had a large SCT, hydrops, and placen-
tomegaly. The tumor was debulked and its major blood supply interrupted successfully,
but the fetus was delivered prematurely at 26 weeks and died from pulmonary immaturity.
The first successful case was reported by Adzick et al. (138) in 1997. A 25 week gestation
fetus underwent successful resection with resolution of hydrops. The fetus was delivered
at 29 weeks, underwent resection of the remaining tumor mass and coccyx, and did well.
In 2000, a unique case was described of an SCT fetus with rectal atresia discovered at the
time of surgery. The SCT was resected, and a pull-through anorectoplasty and a bilateral
ureterostomy performed. The fetus survived and delivered at 31 weeks (prompted by chor-
ioamnionitis), but died several days postnatally from iatrogenic atrial rupture from a
central venous catheter. The experience at UCSF and CHOP (137 – 142) has demonstrated
the feasibility of open surgery, but it continues to be limited by the problems inherent to
open fetal surgery accomplished via hysterotomy.
Potentially promising, less invasive approaches have been attempted to minimize
these complications. In the context of predominantly cystic, avascular tumors, cyst aspira-
tion to reduce uterine irritability or maternal discomfort has been used with some success
(140). Cyst aspiration at near delivery has helped prevent tumor rupture (140) and even
allowed for a vaginal delivery (143). Some groups have placed cyst-amniotic shunts to
alleviate obstructive uropathy due to the tumor’s mass effect (144,145). These cases
demonstrate the nonvascular steal morbidity of fetal SCT which relates to tumor size
with potential for resultant PTL and/or dystocia.
For large, predominantly solid, highly vascular tumors in fetuses with impending
heart failure, minimally invasive approaches have included tumor embolization, balloon
occlusion, sclerosis, endoscopic snaring of the tumor neck, laser ablation, thermocoagula-
tion, and RFA. Tumor embolization, balloon occlusion, sclerosis, and endoscopic snaring
have been attempted by a few groups without success (141).
Hecher et al. (146) has described the successful use of fetoscopically guided
Nd:YAG laser treatment to reduce blood flow to the tumor in a 20 week gestation fetus
with polyhydramnios but no hydrops. Three weeks after surgery, there was bleeding
into the cystic portion of the tumor requiring intra-uterine blood transfusion and repeat
laser coagulation. In this case, the maternal morbidity was minimal, and the baby was suc-
cessfully delivered at 37 weeks and underwent subsequent surgical resection. This fetus,
however, did not meet standard criteria for fetal intervention (i.e., hydrops), thus the
survival may or may not have been due to the therapy. Lam et al. (147) attempted thermo-
coagulation of the tumor neck in one fetus but resulted in fetal death on postoperative day
two. The cause of death was not evident, but may have been due to microbubbles from
thermocoagulation, hyperkalemia from tissue necrosis, or hyperthermia from hemolysis.
Paek et al. (148) attempted percutaneous coagulation using RFA of large SCT
tumors in four fetuses (Table 5.11). Two fetuses died due to hemorrhage after ablation
of a large percentage of the tumors. The other two fetuses survived with delivery at 28
and 31 weeks after having only the tumor necks ablated. There was minimal maternal
Table 5.11 RFA Experience (148)
Gest age Gest age

Case at operation at delivery Outcome
1 20 20 Died (in utero): hemorrhage into tumor

2 21 28 Alive: perineal necrosis
3 19 31 Alive: gluteal necrosis
4 22 25 Died postnatally: hemorrhage into tumor
morbidity but the neonates had gluteal and perineal necrosis requiring additional oper-
ations. Ibrahim et al. (149) reported the long-term sequelae in a newborn (case 3,
Table 5.11) after in utero RFA of an SCT. The child was born at 31 weeks’ gestation
with a large soft-tissue defect over the left hip, exposure of a dislocated hip, and loss of
sciatic nerve function. These experiences indicate that a more focused field of ablation
using a probe that limits collateral heat production is required.
6. MYELOMENINGOCELE
Myelomeningocele, or “spina bifida,” is a devastating birth defect affecting 5 children per

10,000 live births or 1500 infants per year (150) at a cost of approximately $200 million
annually (151). It is the most common congenital malformation of the central nervous
system. Although typically nonlethal, this neural tube defect may result in a spectrum
of morbidity including somatosensory loss, paresis, neurogenic sphincter dysfunction of
bowel and bladder, musculoskeletal deformities, sexual dysfunction, Arnold Chiari mal-
formation, hydrocephalus, and impaired mental development. Eighty-five percent of
patients require lifelong cerebrospinal fluid decompression with mortality in the first
two decades of life approaching 30% primarily due to shunt complications (152). The
clinical effects of a myelomeningocele are believed to result from a two “hit” theory: a
defect in neurulation which causes the neural tube defect and myelodysplasia from
subsequent exposure of the spinal cord to the intrauterine environment causing chronic
chemical and mechanical trauma (153).
An increasing body of experimental data suggests that fetal therapy focusing on
alleviating the traumatic insult to the spinal cord may be of benefit. A variety of animal
experiments involving mice, rat, rabbit, sheep, pig, and monkey have been promising
(154 –157). These experiments showed that surgical creation of spinal dysraphism repli-
cates the neurologic sequelae of myelomeningocele and immediate surgical repair
allows for normal development. In addition, experiments in sheep by Paek et al. (158)
demonstrated that hindbrain herniation may be prevented with in utero repair. Fetoscopic
repair in sheep by Copeland et al. (159) showed that a minimally invasive approach may
be feasible.
As the risks to the mother and fetus were originally believed to outweigh the benefit
of an open repair, a minimally invasive approach was first attempted. Four fetoscopic
repairs were attempted at Vanderbilt University Medical Center (160). The technique
involved a maternal laparotomy, placement of three ports, aspiration of the amniotic
fluid, and replacement with CO2 for the duration of the procedure. A maternal skin
graft was then fixed over the defect with a combination of fibrin glue and sutures. The
uterine cavity was refilled with either amniotic fluid or sterile saline. One fetus died
intraoperatively from PTL. One died a few weeks later after getting PTL from amnionitis.
The other two delivered near term, but the skin graft could not be identified and the defect
was essentially unrepaired.
The UCSF group also reported their attempts at fetoscopic repair (161). In one case,
an alloderm patch was placed fetoscopically, but the case was converted to open due to
placental bleeding. At delivery, the patch was partially pulled away. The baby required
re-repair and a VP shunt. In the second case, the defect was repaired with a two-layer
closure. The mother delivered pre-term due to spontaneous rupture of membranes, and
the baby required re-repair and VP shunt due to CSF leak. The baby later died from uro-
sepsis. The third case was converted to open due to an anterior placenta. The fetus,
however, was spontaneously aborted 2 weeks later. Table 5.12 summarizes the experience
in human fetoscopic repair of myelomeningocele.
The fetoscopic approach to meningomyelocele repair was then abandoned and open
repair was again contemplated. Advances in tocolysis and management of PTL, coupled
with the fact that the meningomyelocele fetus is otherwise healthy, have possibly dimin-
ished the risks to both mother and fetus. The first open repairs were done in 1997, and in
2000, Bruner et al. (162) compared the initial endoscopic cases with the initial open cases.
The Bruner study concluded that the hysterotomy approach was technically superior
because of shorter operating times, no fetal mortality, shorter neonatal hospital stay,
and a suggestion of better functional outcomes.
Since 1997, nearly 200 open repairs have been performed. The open repairs have
followed the standard technique of laparotomy, hysterotomy, neurosurgical dissection,
three-layer closure with or without lumbar-peritoneal shunt placement and occasionally
amnion patch placement. Sutton et al. (163) has shown MRI evidence that the incidence
of hindbrain herniation is improved by intrauterine repair, but this did not correspond to a
demonstrable reduction in neurologic symptoms or hydrocephalus. Others studies report
that leg function and bladder function are not improved in intrauterine repair over conven-
tional therapy (164,165). Recently, in a large retrospective review, Tulipan et al. (166)
compared all intrauterine meningomyelocele repairs performed at VUMC and CHOP
from 1997 until 2000 with conventionally treated patients from 1983 to 2000. The
study demonstrated that fetuses repaired before 25 weeks’ gestation have a 50% reduction
in the need for ventriculoperitoneal shunts compared with historical controls. Even with
these impressive results of decreased shunts rates, the fetal and maternal morbidity
(11%) and fetal mortality (4%) are still significant for the treatment of a nonlethal
disease (167). As minimally invasive techniques and instrumentation improve, these
techniques will be revisited for myelomeningocele treatment (168).
A randomized, prospective trial with three participating centers, Vanderbilt Univer-
sity Medical Center, CHOP, and UCSF, has been underway for the past 2 years to defini-
tively compare fetal myelomeningocele repair with postnatal repair. The primary outcome
variable being studied is the need for a ventriculoperitoneal shunt at 1 year of age.
7. TENSION HYDROTHORAX
Fetal tension hydrothorax is an uncommon fetal lesion which occurs in 1 out of 15,000
pregnancies (169). It has a male predominance and is typically right-sided (170). It is
caused primarily by leakage of lymph or secondarily by generalized hydrops or certain
anatomic abnormalities. Congenital hydrothorax has a 57 – 100% perinatal mortality
(114) with the main cause of death being pulmonary hypoplasia due to compression
(171). Intrauterine death is usually caused by fetal hydrops due to mediastinal shift
Table 5.12 Outcome of Fetoscopic Repair of Myelomeningocele (160 – 162)
GA at
procedure Lesion (US) Technique GA at delivery/outcome
VUMC
22 3/7 L4-S3, mild Maternal STSG, fibrin glue 35 week 1 day: planned C-
VM, AC section, lesion covered by
thin translucent membrane,
neonatal closure and VPS,
mild somatosensory deficit
at 30 months
23 6/7 L3-S2, mild Maternal STSG, fibrin glue 24 week 5 day: amnionitis,
VM, AC, bil death in delivery room,
talipes lesion uncovered, graft not
attached
22 4/7 T12-S5, Maternal STSG, fibrin glue, 28 week 1day: disruption of
mild VM, AC absorbable sutures membranes, PTL, C-
section, lesion covered
with thin translucent
membrane, neonatal
closure and VPS, mild
somatosensory deficit at
6 months
24 3/7 T12-S3, Maternal STSG, fibrin glue, 24 week 3 day: intraoperative
hemivertebra absorbable sutures uterine contractions,
L-3, mild VM, placental abruption,
AC, bil talipes intraoperative demise
UCSF
25 L2-S1, One layer w/Alloderm patch 35 week: planned C-section,
unilat VM, AC with suture, converted to patch partially pulled away
open to control placental from fetal skin, neonatal
bleeding closure and VPS,
somatosensory level to L4
by 1 year
24 L3-S, AC, Two-layer closure 31 week: spontaneous rupture
bil talipes of membranes, C-section,
lesion with some CSF leak,
neonatal repair and VPS,
somatosensory level to L4,
represented at 1 month with
urosepsis with eventual
demise
19 L3-S1, AC, Converted to open due to 21 week: premature rupture of
bil talipes difficulty with fetal membranes and
positioning, three-layer spontaneous abortion of
closure using nonviable fetus
chorioamnion patch, fetal
ankle dislocation and
laceration repaired, fetal
bradycardia treated with
epinephrine
Note: GA, gestational age; US, ultrasound; L, lumbar; S, sacral; VM, ventriculomegaly; AC, Arnold-Chiari II
malformation; VPS, ventriculoperitoneal shunt; STSG, split thickness skin graft.
resulting in compression of the heart and/or the vena cavae. Fetuses with hydrothorax that
exhibit hydrops have a 76% mortality vs. a 25% mortality without hydrops (172).
Intrauterine therapy has focused on ameliorating lung compression, preventing or
reversing hydrops, and improving postnatal pulmonary function. For effusions that are
large and/or increasing in size, therapies have included percutaneous ultrasound-guided
thoracenteses and thoracoamniotic shunts. The first cases of fetal intervention for
pleural effusion were published in 1982. In 1992, Weber and Philipson (173) conducted
an extensive review of 124 cases of fetal pleural effusions. They noted that poor outcomes
were significantly associated with three risk factors: (1) ,32 week gestational age at
delivery, (2) presence of hydrops, and (3) no antenatal therapy. This same review found
a mortality rate of 50% with no antenatal therapy, 42% with thoracentesis, and 22%
with a shunt.
In another review, Hagay et al. (174) looked at all cases of fetal pleural effusion
without hydrops at initial diagnosis. Of 82 cases reviewed, 54 did not undergo antenatal
intervention and had a mortality rate of 37%, while fetuses that did undergo prenatal
intervention had a comparable rate of 33%. In 1997, Wilkins-Haug and Doubilet (175)
studied the treatment of unilateral pleural effusions. Both hydropic and nonhydropic
fetuses had good outcomes with thoracoamniotic shunting. Those treated conservatively
(all without hydrops) resulted in death in three out of ten.
In 1998, Aubard et al. (172) comprehensively reviewed 204 cases of primary fetal
hydrothorax. The mortality rates with and without antenatal treatment were 57% and
78%, respectively. Those fetuses with hydrops had a 23.5% chance of survival with no
treatment, a 10% survival with only thoracentesis, and a 66.6% survival with shunting.
Without hydrops, fetuses had a 21.3% survival without treatment, a 60% survival with
thoracentesis, and a 100% survival with shunting. On the basis of their findings, Aubard
recommended a management algorithm for treatment of congenital hydrothorax. As
most pleural effusions rapidly reaccumulate fluid, the invesitigators recommended thora-
centesis only in fetus with acute signs of distress, in late gestation fetuses (.32 weeks), or
in fetuses just prior to birth to optimize postnatal respiratory function. A shunt should be
placed for fetuses that progressively worsen and are under 32 week’s gestation or have
failed thoracentesis. Aubard noted complications associated with thoracoamniotic
shunts including shunt failure (11/80) and catheter migration/obstruction (10/80).
8. CONGENITAL HEART DEFECTS
Treatment of complex congenital heart defects (CHDs) and arrythmias is an exciting and
promising new frontier in fetal surgery. CHDs are the most common congenital malfor-
mations affecting 8 in 1000 live births. Up to 20% of perinatal mortality from congenital
malformations (176) and half of the deaths in childhood caused by malformations are due
to CHDs (177,178). Many CHDs are successfully treated postnatally with good long-term
outcomes. Unfortunately, some are impossible to correct at the time of birth and surgery is
only palliative. These CHDs may be important targets for in utero treatment. Particular
attention has been paid to severe aortic and pulmonary valve obstructions both of
which can lead to severe dysfunction and malformation of the affected ventricle. The
promise of in utero therapy is to treat the obstruction early enough in the disease
process to prevent the ensuing ventricular hypoplasia. Several studies have reported on
the progression of hypoplasia due to valvular stenosis (179,180).
Current standards for prenatal screening result in the majority of serious CHDs
going undetected. The standard “four chamber” view by echocardiography, even with
additional views of the outflow tracts, identifies only gross structural abnormalities such as
hypoplasia or vessel defects (181). Only real-time pulse-wave and color Doppler evalu-
ation can detect valve stenosis and early degrees of obstruction prior to the evolution of
hypoplasia (182), and these modalities are not used routinely during prenatal ultrasound
screening.
Another barrier to in utero intervention is feasible access to the fetus. Innovative
animal research has been performed to develop methods of fetal access. Fetal cardiac
bypass has been studied in fetal sheep (183,184) and has been shown to be feasible
after surmounting issues related to perturbation of placental circulatory homeostasis.
Endoscopic techniques and advanced intra-amniotic imaging have been developed by
Kohl (185 – 188) to perform balloon valvuloplasties in sheep through umbilical vessel
access.
In human fetuses, the most common MAFS procedures for cardiac intervention have
been ultrasound-guided balloon valvuloplasty in cases of severe aortic stenosis and
pulmomary stenoses. In these cases, a needle is advanced percutaneously with ultrasound
guidance through the maternal abdomen, into the amniotic sac and then through the fetal
chest wall. It is placed into the obstructed ventricle, and then a coronary artery balloon
catheter is advanced over a guidewire. Maxwell et al. (189) reported the first two
balloon valvuloplasties in humans. A decade later, a total of 12 cases of aortic balloon val-
vuloplasties have been performed and reviewed by Kohl et al. (190). The outcomes of this
initial clinical experience were poor. The mean gestational age at detection was 25.7
weeks and at the time of intervention was 29.2 weeks. Success was determined by echo-
cardiographic relief of obstruction following the procedure. Seven fetuses (all without
atresia) had successful valvuloplasties although only one survived. Of the five technical
failures, only one survived with postnatal surgery. There was no PTL. The authors attrib-
uted the poor results primarily to the severity of cases, technical problems, high postnatal
mortality, and complications ranging from fetal bradycardia and bleeding to difficulties
with catheter introduction and withdrawal. The child who survived after successful valvu-
loplasty was doing very well at age four with trace mitral and aortic valve regurgitation,
and an ejection fraction of 55% (191).
Recently, two cases of pulmonary valvuloplasty were reported by Tulzer et al. (192).
Both fetuses (28 and 30 weeks gestation) had severe pulmonary valve obstruction (one,
stenotic, and the other, atretic) and imminent hydrops. Both demonstrated more favorable
results immediately postoperatively with decreased circulatory failure demonstrated by
resolution of pericardial effusions and improved RV function. Both delivered near term
gestation and required postnatal valvuloplasties and placement of systemic-to-pulmonary
arterial shunts. All published balloon valvuloplasties to date are summarized in Table 5.13.
At the 2004 meeting of the Society of Maternal –Fetal Medicine, 15 unpublished
cases of aortic balloon valvuloplasties were presented by a group from the Brigham and
Women’s Hospital and Children’s Hospital of Boston (193). All were treated prior to
28 weeks gestation. The group’s technical success rate was 66% (10/15) with a combined
endoscopic/percutaneous approach (9/11) being more successful than a solely percuta-
neous approach (1/4). The only maternal complication was pulmonary edema requiring
diuretics and supplemental oxygen. Given the minimal risk to the mother and the low
risk of PTL, fetal balloon valvuloplasties may become more efficacious with better
patient selection and improved technical methods.
Another potential target for in utero intervention is the pericardial teratoma. Pericar-
dial teratomas are extremely rare neoplasms. They are usually large, multicystic, have
associated pericardial effusions, and frequently cause cardiorespiratory failure due to tam-
ponade or obstruction to blood flow (194). There have been multiple reports of fetal
Table 5.13 Fetal Balloon Valvuloplasties (190,192)
Gest Gest Gest

age at age at age at Technical
Case Diagnosis diagnosis operation delivery success Survival Cause of death Other
1 AV stenosis 30 31 34 Y C LV dysfunction Balloon rupture

33 Intermittent bradycardias
2 AV stenosis 32 33 38 Y E Balloon rupture
Intermittent bradycardias
3 AV stenosis 30 30 35 Y C LV dysfunction Balloon rupture

4 AV stenosis 29 32 32 Y A Sustained bradycardia Balloon rupture
Hemopericardium
5 AV stenosis 21 30 30 N E Balloon rupture
6 AV stenosis 24 26 37 Y C Postnatal post-op
7 AV stenosis 26 28 38 Y C Postnatal post-op
8 AV stenosis 27 27 38 Y C Postnatal intra-op Balloon rupture
9 AV atresia 22 28 28 N A Hemothorax Intermittent bradycardias
Hemothorax
10 AV atresia 20 29 30 N A Chorioamnionitis Intermittent bradycardias
11 AV stenosis with 24 27 27 N A Sustained bradycardia Sustained bradycardia
PV stenosis
12 AV stenosis with 24 28 28 N A Sustained bradycardia Sustained bradycardia
PV atresia Hemopericardium
13 PV atresia 28 38 Y E
14 PV stenosis 30 35 Y E
Note: A, Died intra-operatively; B, Died in utero but not intra-operatively; C, Died within 30 days of birth; D, Died after 30 days old; E, Long term survival; AV, aortic valve; LV, left
ventricle; PV, pulmonic valve.
67
pericardiocentesis to stabilize fetuses at high risk for tamponade (194 – 198). There has
been one attempt reported of in utero resection of a pericardial teratoma (199). A
24-week gestation hydropic fetus underwent open fetal surgery for teratoma resection.
The tumor was removed, but the hydrops did not resolve. Three weeks later, the mother
experienced severe pre-eclampsia which was deemed maternal mirror syndrome. There-
fore, emergency C-section was performed, but the baby died immediately after birth.
Fetal cardiac arrythmias have also been treated by in-utero therapy. Fetuses with
complete heart block have been treated unsuccessfully with ventricular pacemaker
placement, both by open approach and by catheter approach (200 –202). Maternal dexa-
methasone treatment has been shown to have some efficacy in fetuses with complete
heart block (203).
9. PREMATURE RUPTURE OF MEMBRANES
One of the consistent complications following fetal interventions of any kind includes
PROM. Iatrogenic PROM occurs in 1.2% after amniocentesis, 3– 5% after diagnostic
fetoscopy, and 5 – 8% after operative fetoscopy (204). The perinatal mortality of iatrogenic
and spontaneous PROM managed expectantly is 60% (205,206).
On the basis of the initial idea of a blood patch to treat spinal headache by Gormley
(207) in 1960, Quintero successfully treated iatrogenic PROM with an intra-amniotic
injection of platelets and cryoprecipitate (the “amniopatch”) (208). The patient had
been leaking amniotic fluid beginning the fourth postoperative day after fetoscopic umbi-
lical cord ligation. She was expectantly managed for 3 weeks with continued leakage and
reduction of amniotic fluid on ultrasound. One unit of platelets and one unit of cryopreci-
pitate were administered under ultrasound guidance. The leak stopped and the pregnancy
continued with delivery at term. Another group reported success using whole blood to treat
PROM in a patient after genetic screening amniocentesis (209).
In 2003, Quintero (210) reported a series of 28 patients treated with amniopatch.
Patients with iatrogenic PROM between 16 and 18 weeks’ gestation without evidence
of infection were placed on bedrest and antibiotics for 1 week. If there were no spon-
taneous sealing of the membranes, autologous (if possible) platelets followed by cryopre-
cipitate were administered via amniocentesis into the largest amniotic fluid pocket.
Initially one unit of each was administered, but subsequently one half unit of platelets
was given with good results. This was done because some of the early fetal deaths were
probably due to activation of a large number of platelets. Eleven had a large membrane
detachment but no detectable leak, while the remaining seventeen had a gross leak.
Amniocentesis was responsible for PROM in 10 (36%) patients. The average gestational
age at delivery was 33.4 weeks. Membrane sealing occurred in 19 patients (67.9%).
Quintero et al. (210) then attempted to use the technique on women with spontaneous
PROM. The first 12 patients did not respond to the treatment and continued to leak. To learn
more about the membranes in spontaneous PROM, four women were studied endoscopi-
cally while undergoing the amniopatch procedure. These cases indicated that the membrane
defect is usually located over the internal cervical os vs. elsewhere with iatrogenic PROM.
This might be explained by the cervix failing to protect the membranes from ascending
infection and/or gravity concentrating inflammatory agents in the lower portion of the
membranes, thus weakening them. The membrane defect became larger with more time
between PROM and intervention, and the edges became more rolled and less sharp.
Perhaps intervention could be more successful in the early stages of spontaneous PROM.
In vitro and in vivo experiments with rabbits and sheep have demonstrated the
feasibility of using an Nd:YAG laser to weld a collagen-based patch over the amniotic
membrane defect (210,211). The first human spontaneous PROM repair with this method
was described in 2002 (212). PROM occurred at 16.5 weeks’ gestation and severe oligo-
hydramnios developed 2 weeks later. The fetus had a normal karyotype so that the “amnio-
graft” procedure was performed. The patient did not leak for 2 weeks, but then had a
recurrent leak. At this point, it was managed expectantly and the baby was delivered at
32 weeks by Cesarean section.
10. AMNIOTIC BAND SYNDROME
Amniotic band syndrome affects 1 in 1200 to 1 in 15,000 live births per year (213). It is a
collection of acquired congenital malformations involving the limbs, craniofacial region,
and trunk resulting from fibrous bands attached to the fetus causing constriction and defor-
mation. These bands are thought to arise from rupture of the amnion and can result in digit,
or limb amputations, facial clefting, and even death. Umbilical cord compromise by
amniotic bands arising after uterine instrumentation can be fatal and may be targeted
for intra-uterine release (214). Data from a sheep model of amniotic band syndrome
suggest that fetoscopic release of these bands may prevent limb deformities (215,216).
The human experience in amniotic band release is limited to four cases (Table 5.14).
Quintero et al. (217) performed the first fetoscopic release of amniotic bands in two
patients. The first fetus was at 21 weeks gestation with evidence on ultrasound of a
band constricting her left upper extremity causing abnormal deviation and distal edema.
She was deemed at risk of arm amputation. The fetus had bilateral cleft lip and normal
karyotype. It was planned to cut the band with scissors under fetoscopic guidance, but
when uterine bleeding caused the second port to be removed, ultrasound guidance was
used. Band release resulted in an immediate improvement in the angulation of the arm,
and the edema improved over time. The second case involved a fetus with a band constrict-
ing the ankle. A YAG laser fiber was used to disrupt the band. There was marked improve-
ment to the foot. It developed normally and full functional recovery was expected.
In 2003, Keswani et al. (218) attempted fetoscopic release of amniotic bands on two
patients with isolated limb constrictions. One fetus had a circumferential band of the right
wrist which was released with an Nd:YAG laser. The wrist recovered normal blood flow
and was viable but suffered from secondary lymphedema. The second case involved bands
to the right upper and lower extremities released with laser. Both extremities were viable
at birth, but the upper extremity was atrophic and subsequently amputated for prosthesis
compatibility.
11. GASTROSCHISIS
Gastroschisis is a condition affecting 1 out of 10,000 live births (219). It is a condition in

which the bowel remains exteriorized through a paraumbilical defect. After delivery, the
bowel must be surgically replaced into the abdomen. Survival rate is 90%, but at least 25%
of the babies suffer from perivisceritis. These babies, typically, have a prolonged stay in
the NICU and hospitalization averaging 20– 80 days with a delay to enteral feeding of
25 days (220).
Animal models of gastroschisis have led to the proposal that gastrointestinal waste
in the amniotic fluid can contribute to the intestinal lesions of the fetus with gastroschisis
(221). In 1998, Aktug et al. (222,223) demonstrated that exchanging the amniotic fluid
with saline or saline plus dextrose decreased intestinal lesions in a chick gastroschisis
model. Improvement was also seen with amnioexchange in a lamb model (224).
Table 5.14 Experience With Fetoscopic Release of Amniotic Bands (217,218)
GA Lesion (US) Technique GA at delivery/outcome
22 Bil cleft lip, bands to face Initially two ports but due 39 week: Bil cleft lip,
and left arm, left to bleeding second port craniofacial cleft, right
forearm edema, arterial removed, scissors used microphthalmia, left
blood flow ok under ultrasound arm—minimal scarring,
guidance radial paresis and mild
hypoplasia
23 Band constricting left Two ports – one port due to 34.5 week: PROM at 31
ankle, distal edema, bleeding, scissors weeks, z-plasties of
minimal blood flow attempted—no success, amniotic band
YAG laser remnants, expected full
functional recovery of
foot
23 Circumferential band 600-micron endostat with 33 week: Normal blood
around left wrist, distal Nd:YAG laser flow to left wrist but
edema, compromised persistent lymphedema.
blood flow via single Viable hand but limited
artery range of motion
secondary to scarring
from reconstruction for
lymphedema.
20 Circumferential band 400-micron endostat with Atrophic, malformed,
around right wrist, Nd:YAG laser viable right hand—later
distal edema, amputated for
compromised prosthesis. Normal right
perfusion. lower extremity.
Intraoperative findings
also included bands
around right calf and
right thigh.
Note: GA, gestational age; US, ultrasound; Nd:YAG, neodymium-yttrium aluminum gamet; PROM, premature
rupture of membranes.
The first case of human amnioexchange was reported in 1998 by Aktug et al. (225).
Four amnioexchanges were performed by an ultrasound-guided percutaneous approach for
a fetus with a gastroschisis. After delivery, the baby’s abdomen was closed primarily with
low intra-abdominal pressure, was fed by day 5, and discharged by day 8.
Luton et al. (226) compared 10 fetuses that underwent amnioinfusion with 10 who
did not. Their data suggest that amnioinfusion decreased inflammation of the bowel and
allowed for immediate and easier primary closure of the defect. The treated babies
required less days of ventilation and hospitalization and less time to enteral feeds.
These data were not statistically significant, but suggest a trend that may or may not be
substantiated as more cases are performed in a prospective and randomized manner.
12. POTENTIAL FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF MINIMAL ACCESS

FETAL SURGICAL TECHNIQUE
Until very recently, fetal surgery has been a treatment option only for fetuses with other
lethal conditions. However, as advances in fetal minimal access technique evolve, a wider
variety of maladies, including nonlethal, but highly morbid conditions may become more
appropriate target lesions. Just as advances in prenatal imaging provided a better under-
standing of the natural history and pathophysiology of the full spectrum of current fetal
anatomic lesions, many advances in the molecular understanding of disease and our
ability to detect them earlier may lead to a variety of in utero cell and gene therapy correc-
tion strategies. With the cataloging of the human genome leading to better genetic charac-
terization of disease, advances in DNA microarray technology, new methods for obtaining
fetal DNA, and the ability to diagnose virtually all human genetic disease prior to birth
may be within grasp. These technologies taken together may thus establish in utero mol-
ecular manipulation as a treatment option. The advantages of an antenatal treatment of
genetic disease may exploit the dissemination effect of either stem cell or gene expansion
in the highly proliferative tissues during fetal development (227).
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6
The Role of Minimal Access Surgery in
Pediatric Trauma
Allan M. Goldstein and Steven Stylianos

Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA
1. Introduction 81
2. Role of Minimal Access Surgery 82
3. Technique of Trauma Laparoscopy 84
4. The Role of Thoracoscopy in Thoracic Trauma 85
5. Summary 86
Acknowledgment 87
References 87
1. INTRODUCTION
Multiple diagnostic modalities exist to ensure the prompt and accurate assessment of the
injured patient. In abdominal trauma, these include physical examination, computed tom-
ography (CT), ultrasound, and diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL). The use and sequence
of these methods depend on the patient’s hemodynamic status, the mechanism of injury
(blunt or penetrating), and the potential for significant associated injuries. Although
each modality has added to the quality of care in trauma patients, the incidence of negative
and nontherapeutic laparotomies continues to range between 11 and 34% (1,2). Minimal
access surgery (MAS) may lead to prompt diagnosis and therapy, thus decreasing the inci-
dence of unnecessary laparotomies, length of hospital stay, overall costs, and unnecessary
morbidity to the patient.
Patients who present to the emergency department with hemodynamic instability or
clear evidence of significant intra-abdominal injury merit urgent laparotomy. However, the
need for exploratory surgery in the stable patient following either blunt or penetrating
injury remains unclear. Mandatory laparotomy for penetrating trauma leads to a negative
laparotomy rate of up to 37% (1,3). This results from the fact that many stab wounds
never penetrate the peritoneum and 20% of gunshot wounds are tangential, without
intra-abdominal injury. In hemodynamically stable patients, local exploration of stab
81
82 Goldstein and Stylianos
wounds revealing fascial penetration leads to a 50% negative laparotomy rate (4); whereas,
positive DPL leads to unnecessary laparotomy rates of 20 – 37% (5), the use of abdominal
CT following stab wounds has helped to reduce the nontherapuetic laparotomy rate of
18% (4).
In blunt abdominal trauma, DPL has been the standard for diagnosis for more than
three decades. DPL is a sensitive, safe, and inexpensive procedure, which can be done
promptly in the emergency department under local anesthesia. The accuracy of DPL
.95%. However, this high sensitivity has led to nontherapeutic laparotomies following
blunt trauma in 13 –27% of cases (5). Many positive lavages reflect minor bleeding
from the liver or spleen, which could be managed nonoperatively. This is particularly
true in children, in whom nonoperative management of solid organ injury, even in the pre-
sence of free intraperitoneal blood, is often successful. In addition, DPL is unreliable in
diagnosing injuries to the diaphragm or retroperitoneum. Abdominal CT offers the advan-
tage of specific anatomic definition of the site of bleeding, as well as a clear view of the
retroperitoneum. However, visualization of injuries to the diaphragm, hollow viscera, and
pancreas remains a limitation.
2. ROLE OF MINIMAL ACCESS SURGERY
The precise role of MAS in trauma has yet to be defined. Prompt and accurate MAS could
contribute significantly to the care of trauma patients by decreasing the rate of negative
and nontherapeutic laparotomies (i.e., operations where the injuries identified can be
managed equally well nonoperatively). Another role for MAS is in the diagnosis of inju-
ries to the diaphragm and hollow viscera, organs traditionally difficult to assess without
open exploratory surgery. Finally, as instrumentation improves and experience accumu-
lates, the role of MAS could evolve not only as a diagnostic tool, but also as a potential
therapeutic modality. Multiple studies have been reported by examining the role of
MAS in the workup of the trauma patient. Herein, we review several large prospective
studies evaluating MAS in both blunt and penetrating trauma victims. Note that all of
these studies have involved adult trauma patients. The literature concerning MAS for pedi-
atric trauma is limited to small case reports, which will be summarized briefly.
In 1993, Fabian et al. (6) reported a prospective analysis of 182 abdominal trauma
patients; 90% of whom suffered penetrating wounds. Hemodynamically stable stab wound
patients with violation of the anterior fascia by local wound exploration were candidates
for study, as were individuals with gunshot wounds thought to be tangential to the abdomi-
nal wall. These patients would traditionally have undergone laparotomy, but first
underwent MAS. Laparotomy was avoided in 55% of the penetrating injury patients by
identifying no peritoneal violation by laparoscopy. Those undergoing negative MAS
had significantly fewer complications and shorter hospital stays than a historical cohort
following negative laparotomy.
In another prospective study, Salvino et al. (7) compared the use of MAS versus
DPL in 75 patients with blunt or penetrating trauma and found MAS to be especially
useful in the assessment of stab wounds. Diaphragm lacerations were diagnosed laparos-
copically in three patients with normal DPL findings. These patients were taken to
laparotomy for repair of the diaphragm. Moreover, MAS was successfully performed
under local anesthesia in the emergency department in 93% of the patients, significantly
reducing the time and resources required for the procedure. Among the blunt trauma
patients, MAS offered no advantage over DPL as a primary assessment tool.
MAS in Pediatric Trauma 83
In 1995, Carey et al. (2) reported on 35 blunt and penetrating trauma patients, all
meeting criteria for exploratory laparotomy. In this group, MAS had 100% sensitivity
and 88% specificity in determining the need for therapeutic laparotomy. Nontherapeutic
laparotomy was avoided in 68% of the patients. Another prospective study by Brandt
et al. (4) showed that MAS was 100% accurate in determining the need for therapeutic
laparotomy following blunt or penetrating trauma in 21 patients. Sosa et al. (8) prospec-
tively studied 121 patients with gunshot wounds and no obvious signs of peritoneal
penetration and found that MAS had 100% sensitivity and 99% specificity in determining
peritoneal penetration and need for laparotomy. Most importantly, MAS had a 100% nega-
tive predictive value; there were no missed injuries.
In a collective review of 11 reports totaling 355 blunt injury patients, the sensitivity
and specificity of MAS for predicting the need for therapeutic laparotomy was 94% and
98%, respectively (9). Following positive DPL or CT scan, MAS was especially useful
in reducing nontherapeutic laparotomies by establishing whether bleeding had stopped
or solid organ injury could be managed nonoperatively.
The enthusiasm and early success of MAS in abdominal trauma patients must be
balanced by the risk of missed injuries. Elliott et al. (10) prospectively studied 47 trauma
patients, all undergoing MAS prior to planned laparotomy. Laparoscopy had 96% sensi-
tivity and 100% specificity in determining the need for laparotomy; however, only 57%
of the injuries found at laparotomy were seen through the laparoscope. The majority of
missed injuries were to hollow viscera. This study confirms the value of MAS in determin-
ing the need for open surgery, but raises concerns about using laparoscopy alone as a
therapeutic modality.
Several groups have reported their experience with MAS in small numbers of
injured children. Chen et al. (11) used laparoscopy to evaluate six children (two blunt
and four penetrating injuries) and thoracoscopy in two children. The authors accurately
identified all injuries using MAS, avoided laparotomy in four patients, and successfully
repaired diaphragm lacerations in two children. There were no complications. VanderKolk
et al. (12) performed laparoscopy in four children with suspected seat belt injury, on the
basis of CT findings of free fluid or mesenteric thickening without solid organ injury.
Intestinal perforation is one of the injuries associated with lap belt injury, and one for
which CT scan is unreliable. These authors identified contusions of the intestine, gastric
perforation, and mesenteric laceration treated with laparoscopic clips. They reported no
missed injuries and no morbidity with the use of MAS. One case report describes the suc-
cessful use of MAS for identification and repair of a jejunal perforation in a 4-year-old
with a lap belt injury (13). Hasegawa et al. (14) reported the feasibility and safety of
MAS in five children with persistent abdominal pain after blunt trauma. They successfully
diagnosed injuries to the duodenum, pancreas, and spleen in three patients who sub-
sequently underwent therapeutic laparotomy.
Laparoscopy has also proven to have a role in the identification of suspected injuries
to the diaphragm in both penetrating and blunt trauma (7,15,16). In a prospective study of
75 trauma patients evaluated by both DPL and MAS, 23 patients had negative DPL results.
Of these, 20 were successfully managed nonsurgically and three had surgery for diaphrag-
matic lacerations identified by MAS and missed by DPL (7). Diaphragmatic lacerations
are notoriously difficult to ruleout with conventional imaging. When clinical suspicion
of an injury is high, laparoscopy is an excellent tool for definitive diagnosis.
Several conclusions about the role of MAS in trauma can be reached, on the basis of
the studies discussed earlier (Fig. 6.1). Laparoscopy can play a significant role in reducing
the rate of unnecessary laparotomies. In patients with penetrating injuries to the abdomen,
mandatory laparotomy for fascial penetration is no longer necessary. Diagnostic MAS can
Penetrating abdominal trauma
Local wound exploration to assess fascial penetration

+ –
–
MAS to assess peritoneal Nonoperative management
violation
+
Laparotomy
Blunt abdominal trauma
~Significant or unexplained peritoneal fluid

~Suspicion of diaphragmatic rupture
~Concerning exam despite normal imaging
+ _
Observation MAS Laparotomy
Figure 6.1 Algorithm for the use of MAS in the assessment of the hemodynamically stable pedi-
atric trauma patient.
be used as a primary method to accurately identify peritoneal penetration and associated

intra-abdominal injury, thereby accurately predicting the need for therapeutic laparotomy.
For blunt trauma victims, such as hemodynamically stable children following lap belt inju-
ries, or other crush injury to the abdomen with positive findings on DPL and/or CT scan,
laparoscopy can serve as an important diagnostic adjunct prior to planned laparotomy.
This algorithm may diminish the incidence of nontherapeutic laparotomies by identifying
patients with solid organ injuries that can be safely managed without operation and also
accurately diagnosing hollow visceral injury.
The question of whether laparoscopy can be used in the treatment of traumatic inju-
ries remains unanswered. To be used therapeutically, MAS must be capable of diagnosing
all injuries needing repair. However, MAS is reported to have low sensitivity (,50%) for
the identification of perforation of hollow viscera (10). This sensitivity will vary greatly
among surgeons, depending on individual experience with running the bowel laparosco-
pically. In addition, the use of higher resolution video equipment and newer instrumenta-
tion will facilitate a more thorough and reliable look at all the viscera. At the present time,
aside from the occasional case report, there are no data available to support the routine use
of therapeutic laparoscopy in trauma.
3. TECHNIQUE OF TRAUMA LAPAROSCOPY
The child is positioned supine and belted securely to the bed. Following placement of naso-
gastric and urinary catheters, a 3 – 5 mm trocar is placed transumbilically using either the
closed or open technique. The abdomen is then insufflated with carbon dioxide to a pressure
of 8 – 15 mm Hg, depending on the size of the patient. At this point, close communication
with the anesthesiologist is critical, as both hemodynamic compromise and tension
pneumothorax or pneumomediastinum may occur. If hemodynamic instability develops,
the insufflation pressure can be decreased and volume status re-assessed. Rarely, a thora-
costomy tube may be necessary or conversion to an open procedure.
Pneumoperitoneum is well tolerated in healthy subjects, carbon dioxide insufflation
in hemodynamically compromised trauma patients can cause vascular compression with
metabolic acidosis, increased airway pressures, hypoxemia, and respiratory acidosis.
The metabolic and hemodynamic impact of pneumoperitoneum was recently studied in
a controlled hemorrhage rat model (17). As the amount of hemorrhage increased, the
safe pneumoperitoneum pressure decreased. Excessive pressures led to metabolic acidosis
and hypotension. The trauma surgeon and anesthesiologist must be aware of the potential
ill effects of CO2 pneumoperitoneum in these patients.
A 3, 5, or 10 mm 308 laparoscope is then inserted and a thorough inspection of the
peritoneal cavity performed. The parietal peritoneum is examined for any signs of pene-
trating injury. Note should be made of free fluid (blood, succus entericus, bile) in the per-
itoneum, especially in the pelvis and paracolic gutters. Intraperitoneal blood needs to be
thoroughly cleared to avoid missing any significant injuries. Two additional ports are
placed under direct vision in the right and left mid-abdomen for use of a suction/irrigation
device, retractors, and atraumatic graspers to examine the bowel. A systematic inspection
of all the abdominal contents is then undertaken. Sequentially, rotating the bed from
Trendelenburg to reverse Trendelenburg, and from right to left, is critical to allow all
quadrants to be thoroughly inspected. The posterior surface of the diaphragm can be
hard to visualize, although steep reverse Trendelenburg with use of a 308 scope can facili-
tate this. The lesser sac is accessed via a clear area through the gastrocolic ligament. If an
entrance wound suggests possible retroperitoneal injury, then the colon is mobilized and
rotated medially for visualization. Thorough exploration of the entire small bowel, the
posterior surface of the colon, and the retroperitoneal organs can be difficult, with the
potential for missed injuries in these areas (10).
One should bear in mind during MAS that the goal is to determine the need for lapar-
otomy. Therefore, the presence of significant ongoing bleeding, intraperitoneal intestinal
contents, or any injury requiring laparotomy eliminates the need for further laparoscopic
inspection (9). There is currently no prospective evidence to support the safety of thera-
peutic laparoscopic procedures in pediatric trauma, although technology and expertise
are accumulating.
4. THE ROLE OF THORACOSCOPY IN THORACIC TRAUMA
Thoracic injury directly accounts for 25% of trauma-related deaths and is second only to
head injury in causing pediatric trauma deaths (18). Although the indications for emer-
gency thoracotomy in adults are clear, hemodynamically stable patients who are initially
observed may have significant sequelae of missed injuries. Similarly, most children with
thoracic trauma do not need thoracotomy; yet earlier diagnosis and treatment of those
patients with significant injury would improve outcome. Much as the role of video-assisted
thoracic surgery (VATS) is continually expanding in elective surgical conditions so too is
it the role of VATS in the diagnosis and treatment of the trauma patient. Graeber and
Jones (19) have summarized the details of VATS equipment and techniques in a recent
review.
The management of patients with penetrating thoracic wounds who are hemo-
dynamically stable may be subjective and imprecise. Jones et al. (20) re-introduced
thoracoscopy for the evaluation of stable patients with penetrating thoracic wounds and
persistent hemorrhage. Thirty-six patients had rigid thoracoscopy in the operating room
using local anesthesia. The authors reported that management of 44% of their patients was
modified as a result of the thoracoscopic findings.
The widespread use of CT has better defined thoracic fluid collections that
frequently persist after trauma. Yet, the indications for evacuation of these persistent col-
lections are unclear. Heniford et al. (21) recently reported the use of VATS in 25 patients
(15 penetrating and 10 blunt) with a retained thoracic collection defined as any persistent
intrathoracic material, infected or not, that was unable to be drained by a chest tube within
72 h. The findings included hemothorax in 19 patients and empyema in six. Patients were
more likely to have sterile hemothoraces and shorter hospital stay, if VATS evacuation
was performed within 7 days of injury. Patients with delayed VATS were more likely
to have empyema and require conversion to open thoracotomy for adequate drainage
and decortication. Sosa et al. (22) reported an 89% success rate (24 of 27 patients) in evac-
uating residual hemothorax or empyema after injury.
Villavincencio et al. (23) reviewed 28 studies with a combined total of more than
500 patients undergoing VATS after trauma. Diagnostic VATS was used primarily for
continued chest tube bleeding, suspected pericardial penetration, and evaluation of the
hemidiaphragm. Thoracoscopy was found to be accurate in 98% (188 of 191 patients)
patients for diagnosis of diaphragm injury. Prospective studies evaluating patients with
anterior thoracoabdominal wounds have confirmed the accuracy of thoracoscopy in iden-
tifying diaphragm injury. The therapeutic indications for VATS included control of per-
sistent chest tube bleeding and evacuation of retained intrathoracic collections. The
success rate of VATS was 90% (89 of 99 patients) for evacuation of hemothorax, 86%
(19 of 22 patients) in the evacuation of empyemas, and 82% (33 of 40 patients) in control-
ling chest tube hemorrhage. The authors concluded that unnecessary thoracotomy or
celiotomy was avoided in 323 of 514 (62%) patients because of VATS findings and inter-
ventions. Risks included procedure-related complications in 11 of 514 (2%) patients and a
missed injury rate of 0.8% (four of 471 patients).
Uribe et al. (24) prospectively evaluated the benefit of thoracoscopy in 28 patients
with penetrating thoracoabdominal wounds. All patients were hemodynamically stable,
had no indications for emergency celiotomy, and demonstrated thoracic injury on chest
radiography or physical examination. All thoracoscopy procedures were performed in the
operating room under general anesthesia. Diaphragmatic injury was confirmed in nine
(32%) of 28 patients, and all were repaired at celiotomy. Eight of these nine patients had
associated intra-abdominal injuries requiring repair including one colonic and three
gastric injuries. These patients had prompt abdominal exploration because of the thoraco-
scopic findings. In addition, 19 patients were spared exploratory celiotomy. There were no
procedure-related complications. Thoracoscopy appears to be particularly useful in patients
treated at centers that mandate celiotomy for penetrating thoracoabdominal wounds. Our
recommendation includes initial observation and proper monitoring of asymptomatic
patients with thoracoabdominal wounds followed by VATS in those at high risk for dia-
phragm penetration, if issues such as a full stomach or alcohol/drugs would be less
likely to complicate the anesthetic/surgical procedure. Oschner et al. (25), in a prospective
evaluation of 14 patients with penetrating thoracoabdominal trauma, also found thoraco-
scopy to be very sensitive and specific in the diagnosis of diaphragmatic injury.
5. SUMMARY
Trauma remains the leading cause of death in children. An expeditious and accurate
assessment of a patient’s injuries is critical for ensuring the best possible outcome.
MAS has been shown to be a safe, effective, and potentially cost-saving means of evalu-
ating abdominal and thoracic trauma with the potential to decrease the incidence of
unnecessary open explorations and to minimize the occurrence of delayed diagnoses.
The American Pediatric Surgical Association (APSA) Center for Outcomes and
Clinical Trials has established a Trauma Study Group including more than 50 pediatric
trauma centers. A multi-center, prospective trial concerning the role of MAS in trauma
coordinated by APSA would be ideal in answering specific questions in an expeditious
manner and could attract extramural funding.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Supported in part by the Arnold P Gold Foundation.
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7
Minimal Access Surgery for
Pediatric Cancer
J. Ted Gerstle
Division of Surgery, Hospital for Sick Children and Faculty of Medicine,
Andrea Hayes-Jordan
University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
1. Introduction 89
2. Thoracoscopic Lung Biopsy 91
3. Thoracoscopic Mediastinal Biopsies 92
3.1. Future Possibilities 93
3.2. Complications of Thoracoscopic Procedures for Malignancy 94
3.2.1. Port Site Recurrence 94
3.2.2. Repeat Thoracoscopy 94
4. Laparoscopic Biopsy for Diagnosis 95
5. Laparoscopic Exploration for a Second-Look Operation 95
6. Laparoscopic Oophoropexy 96
7. Laparoscopic Adrenalectomy 96
8. Laparoscopic Retroperitoneal Lymph Node Sampling 97
8.1. Complications of Laparoscopic Procedures for Malignancy 98
8.1.1. Port Site Recurrence 98
9. Randomized Clinical Trials 98
10. Summary 98
References 99
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of thoracoscopic and laparoscopic procedures in children has been broadened to
include their use in the diagnosis and treatment of malignancies. In adult surgery, the use
of minimal access surgery (MAS) is included in almost all malignancies. In pediatric
malignancies, solid viscus tumors are more common than hollow viscus tumors. The
size of solid viscus malignancies in children limits the use of therapeutic MAS. Therefore,
minimally invasive diagnostic procedures are more common in children than therapeutic
procedures for malignancy.
89
90 Gerstle and Hayes-Jordan
Current diagnostic and therapeutic procedures include:
1. thoracoscopic lung biopsies,

2. thoracoscopic mediastinal biopsies,
3. laparoscopic biopsy for diagnosis,
4. laparoscopic exploration for a “second look”,
5. laparoscopic oophoropexy,
6. laparoscopic adrenalectomy, and
7. laparoscopic retroperitoneal lymph node sampling.
Although there may be other topics which may be relevant to the role of MAS in
children with cancer, it was the authors’ intent to limit the scope to this chapter to
those topics where evidence-based information existed in the English literature.
Prior to considering MAS for pediatric cancer, the potential short-term and long-term
benefits must be reviewed. The short-term benefits are similar to many procedures in MAS
(e.g., less pain, shorter recovery period, etc.). In cancer, however, it is the long-term ben-
efits that are more important, specifically recurrence rates and survival. There has been a
significant amount of basic science that has been carried out to investigate the role of
MAS and its potential to either positively or negatively alter the outcome of patients
with cancer. It is worth reviewing this topic briefly to justify the role of MAS in cancer
in children using basic science information before proceeding on with a discussion of
clinical studies.
Basic science investigators have used animal models to demonstrate two major ways
that surgery alters tumor growth. The first way involves observations made about the direct
effects of surgery upon tumor growth. Some investigators have shown that open laparot-
omy is associated with accelerated tumor growth and others have demonstrated that open
laparotomy results in an increased rate of metastatic tumor formation (1 – 5); all of these
studies were compared to sham anesthesia control groups. Other investigators of examined
this direct effect in rodent models of laparoscopy, focusing upon the role of CO2 pneumo-
peritoneum (1,6 – 10). All of these investigators have demonstrated an increase in the
incidence of metastases and tumor size; however, these increases were smaller than
those observed with open laparotomy.
The second way involves observations made about the indirect effects of surgery
upon tumor growth. Open laparotomy has been shown to decrease tumor cell apoptosis
and to increase tumor cell proliferation rates (11,12). Some investigators have postulated
the existence of laparotomy-related plasma soluble factors to explain these observations
(13,14). It has also been noted that open surgery leads to a period of immunosuppression
in animal models and human studies. Changes in immunosuppression were assessed with
various measurements, including serum cytokine levels, lymphocyte proliferation rates,
delayed-type hypersensitivity response rates, and neutrophil function (15 – 18). Changes
in these levels have been similarly assessed in laparoscopic procedures. Many authors
have shown significantly less immunosuppression with laparoscopy when compared
with laparotomy in rodent models and human studies (19 – 25). In some of these
studies, the changes in immunosuppression were brief and were only noted in the early
postoperative period.
The findings of the direct and indirect effects of laparoscopy upon tumor growth
compared to open laparotomy support the potential role of MAS in the treatment of chil-
dren with cancer. There is good basic science data to suggest that MAS may confer a
survival benefit upon those children needing surgery for cancer compared to those under-
going open surgical procedures. It seems, therefore, appropriate to consider the current
MAS for Pediatric Cancer 91
diagnostic and therapeutic MAS procedures in children with cancer in the remainder of
this chapter.
2. THORACOSCOPIC LUNG BIOPSY
The first use of thoracoscopy in children was reported by Rodgers et al. (26). Equipment
was modified for small biopsies in pediatric patients to evaluate various intrathoracic
lesions and perform limited evaluations of empyema (26,27). In 1990s, more advanced
procedures were performed in children (28 –31). Now thoracoscopy in infants and
children is becoming routine for benign and malignant lesions.
Waldhausen et al. (32) published a study which reviewed their experience with
MAS and clinical decision-making with pediatric cancer patients. Forty-seven children
underwent thoracoscopy for tissue diagnosis of a newly-discovered mass for the evaluation
of a residual mass or new lesion found during surveillance studies. Forty of the lesions
were pulmonary and seven were mediastinal. In ten of the pulmonary lesions, computed
topography (CT)-guided needle localization was required as the lesions were too deep
within the lung parenchyma or too small to be seen. Four of the procedures (9%) were con-
verted to open thoracotomies because of an inability to visualize the lesion. Two of the
patients (4%) had a complication including parenchymal injury during port access and a
pneumothorax after chest tube removal. Importantly, there were no incorrect decisions
made on the basis of the tissue from the procedures (100% accuracy). The investigators
thought that the benefits of the thoracoscopic procedure were (1) alleviating the need
for open thoracotomy and thus avoiding the associated morbidity of this procedure, (2)
hastening of the recovery time, and (3) improved visualization of the pleural surfaces.
Limitations where thoracoscopy was not useful included (1) medial-located pulmonary
lesions (where CT-guided needle localization could not be used), (2) children who had
uncorrectable coagulopathies, and (3) children in whom an ipsilateral peumothorax
could not be created safely. Overall, thoracoscopy was felt to be accurate and safe. The
study did not report any port site recurrences. In addition to obtaining a diagnosis of a sus-
picious pulmonary lesion with thoracoscopy, a percutaneous approach can be used.
Lesions, which are 1.5 cm in diameter, can be safely and accurately biopsied percuta-
neously using image guidance (33). Some investigators feel that thoracoscopic lung
biopsy (TLB) in children should be used in cases in which the percutaneous biopsy has
been inaccurate or when peripheral or pleural based lesions are ,5 mm in diameter.
In a study from our institution (34), TLB was compared to percutaneous lung biopsy
(PLB) in children. A total of 28 TLB and 35 PLB were retrospectively reviewed. Over
80% of these biopsies were done for the evaluation of possible metastatic disease. All
TLB yielded adequate tissue; however, in 20% (7/35) of the PLB patients, the amount
of tissue obtained was inadequate for diagnosis. In five of these patients who required
repeat biopsies a diagnosis of metastatic disease was made. This is in contradistinction
to the 100% accuracy rate obtained with TLB.
Eight patients (28%) required conversion to a thoracotomy after TLB was unsuc-
cessful. Reasons for conversion included: (1) the lesions could not be identified, (2) adhe-
sions were too dense, (3) adequate tissue was not able to be sampled, and (4) the lesions
needed to be completely resected for therapeutic reasons. Although morbidity was listed as
18% in the TLB group, it pertained only to five cases of prolonged air leak, all of which
resolved. No patient undergoing PLB required a chest tube or had a significant pneu-
mothorax or hemothorax. There was no morbidity from PLB. This study re-emphasized
the conclusions of Waldhausen et al. including the high accuracy of TLB and its low
complication rate. A significant weakness of the study was its retrospective status; as such,
it could draw few if any conclusions in the comparison of TLB to PLB.
Other studies have examined length of hospital stay, including time requirement for
chest tube drainage. Rothenberg (35) found in 88 thoracoscopies in children with benign
and malignant conditions that the average hospital stay was 1.1 days coincident with
length of chest tube placement. In a study by Fan et al. (36) comparing open to thoraco-
scopic and transbronchial biopsy in pediatric patients, they found that the duration of an
indwelling chest tube in TLB was 0 –30 h and the median hospital stay was 36 h. In the
later study, interstitial lung disease only was included.
In summary, on the basis of these studies, a few conclusions can be made. First, thor-
acoascopic biopsies are accurate, have a low complication rate and appear to have a faster
rate of recovery. Secondly, the initial approach to a pulmonary lesion may be with a per-
cutaneous approach where the biopsy is for diagnostic purposes and the lesion is .5 mm
in diameter. Thirdly, in the case of a percutaneous biopsy, there is a relatively high chance
that a second biopsy may have to be performed to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Although
thoracoscopy is effective for diagnostic purposes, its role in the therapeutic realm remains
untested. Presently, there is no role for thoracoscopic surgery in the treatment of children
requiring pulmonary resections for multiple metastatic lesions, including osteogenic
sarcoma and peripheral nerve sheath tumors. In these tumors, it is imperative that all palp-
able lesions be removed. There is no means to locate these lesions such that thoracoscopy
can be effective; they are often missed on CT scan imaging (37) and only noted on direct
palpation. As the precise excision of these metastatic lesions will directly influence the
patient’s survival, they should always be addressed with a thoracotomy.
3. THORACOSCOPIC MEDIASTINAL BIOPSIES
More than 50% of all childhood lymphocytic lymphoma present with an anterior mediast-
inal mass (38). Greater than one-third of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) presents with
primary disease in the mediastinum (38). Thoracoscopy has been found to be very accurate
in diagnosing mediastinal masses (32,39 –41). Many studies confirm the diagnostic accu-
racy and low morbidity of thoracoscopy for diagnosis of mediastinal masses in children. In
Waldhausen’s series of 62 minimally invasive procedures in children, seven patients had
biopsies for or resections of mediastinal masses. There were no major complications and
all biopsies were diagnostic (32).
Cirino et al. (40) reviewed thoracoscopic management of mediastinal tumors in
adults and children. Between 1983 and 1999, 73 patients underwent thoracoscopy for
the treatment of mediastinal masses. Thirty-three were diagnostic and 40 were therapeutic.
The age range was 2– 81 years (11 patients were ,12 years of age). The airway manage-
ment of all children required bronchial blockers or double-lumen endotracheal tubes.
Definitive histological diagnosis was obtained in all cases. The diagnoses obtained
included NHL, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, seminoma, malignant thymoma, teratoma, inoper-
able schwannoma, normal thymus, and lung cancer. The tumors were located throughout
the mediastineum: 18 tumors (24.6%) in the anteriosuperior mediastinum, 28 tumors
(38.3%) in the middle mediastinum, and 27 tumors (37.1%) in the posterior mediastinum.
Four patients had superior vena caval syndrome and two were dyspneic.
Conversion to thoracotomy was necessary in nine patients: four of these necessitated
thoracotomy due to technical difficulties and the other five required thoracotomy for
therapeutic reasons. No patient required conversion because of bleeding. Overall, compli-
cations occurred in 9.6% of patients. No tumor implants were noted at trocar sites with a
follow-up of 80 + 42 months (range 1 –186 months); 85% of patients were satisfied with
the cosmetic result. Four patients (5.4%) died within 30 days after the diagnostic
procedure secondary to their primary disease.
In an earlier experience, Dmitriev and Sigal (41) reviewed thoracoscopic surgery in
the management of mediastinal masses. Twenty-eight patients aged 3– 71 years were
assessed and treated between 1993 and 1994. Four patients had signs of vena cava com-
pression and all procedures were performed with single-lung ventilation. Thoracoscopy
was diagnostic in 14 cases and therapeutic in 14 cases. In cases of malignant lymphoma,
frozen-section examination yielded definitive diagnosis in all cases. One case was con-
verted to an open thoracotomy for therapeutic resection, when malignancy was suspected.
Benign lesions were all completely resected thoracoscopically. One patient required open
thoracotomy when electrosurgical damage to the aorta occurred during excision of a
neuroma.
At St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Rao (40) reviewed thoracoscopy in pedi-
atric cancer patients. From 1991 to 1995, 64 patients underwent biopsy: 42 pulmonary
masses, 11 mediastinal masses, and 11 underwent biopsy for leukemic pulmonary
infiltrates. Two of eleven patients who underwent mediastinal biopsy required conversion
to an open procedure because of insufficient tissue. Overall, 90% of patient diagnoses were
successful, although 11 patients required conversion to an open procedure.
In the pediatric patients in these series, thoracoscopic biopsy of mediastinal masses
was safe and effective (32,38,40,41). Thoracoscopic mediastinal biopsy is contraindicated,
however, in children in whom carinal and subcarinal compression from the anterior med-
iastinal mass can be demonstrated. For these situations, percutaneous biopsy with local
anesthesia only or 24 h of intravenous steroids are recommended (42 –45). Alternatively,
a Chamberlain procedure in a semiupright position under local anesthesia, with spon-
taneous ventilation, can be helpful in patients in whom a needle diagnosis for Hodgkin’s
disease (HD) is unable to be obtained (43). A single case has been reported in which
radiation was administered to a limited area of the tumor before the initial biopsy was per-
formed. A diagnosis was established on the basis of tissue from the shielded area after the
main mass had decreased in size (46). To minimize morbidity and mortality in those chil-
dren undergoing a biopsy of a mediastinal mass the following have been recommended: a
tracheal diameter of at least 50% of normal and a peak expiratory flow rates of at least 50%
of predicted value (43). Deviation from these standards may result in loss of the airway
or hemodynamic collapse while undergoing induction for general anesthesia with
subsequent mortality.
In reviewing the role of thoracoscopy in the diagnosis of mediastinal masses, it is
important to note that there have been no studies comparing percutaneous biopsies of med-
iastinal masses to thoracoscopic biopsy in children. This is clearly a study that needs to be
undertaken in the future.
3.1. Future Possibilities

Thoracoscopic resection of mediastinal masses in children has been limited. However,
there have been reports of resection of benign neurogenic tumors of the posterior medias-
tinum in adults and a few children (47,48). In a study from Hong Kong, 23 patients
between 1990 and 1998 underwent video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) for resection
of posterior neurogenic tumors (48). Age ranged from 14 months to 70 years and operation
time from 30 to 120 min. Four patients required conversion to open thoracotomy to allow
for complete tumor resection. Tumor size ranged 0.7– 13 cm in diameter. Median hospital
stay was 2 days (range 1– 9) and median chest tube time was 1 day (range 1 –4). Seven
minor complications occurred. Diagnoses included Schwannoma (11), Neurofibroma (8),

Granular cell (1), Ganglioneuroma (1), Ganglioneuroblasotoma (1), and Neuroblastoma
(1). No patient had elevated hormones suspicious for malignancy.
Thoracoscopic resection of suspected benign neurogenic tumors appears to be safe
and effective in adults. In the future, this modality should be considered in children in the
management of benign, posterior neurogenic tumors; its safety and effectiveness will have
to be confirmed by careful study.
3.2. Complications of Thoracoscopic Procedures for Malignancy

3.2.1. Port Site Recurrence
Port site recurrences after thoracoscopic procedure for malignancy have been reported in
one case report of an 18-year-old (49) and two pediatric patients (51). The 18-year-old
female presented with pulmonary metastasis from osteogenic sarcoma two years after
local control of the tumor. Four months after a standard wedge biopsy of two pulmonary
lesions, a mass at the site of the posterior thoracoscopic port was identified. Resection of
this area revealed osteogenic sarcoma. In the authors’ experience (in a not yet published
report), two patients were treated at St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital who had port
site recurrences. One patient had a locally aggressive and subsequently metastatic pleur-
opulmonary blastoma and the other had a malignant thymoma (50). Both patients were
referred after tumors had ruptured at the first thoracoscopically attempted diagnostic
biopsy. Of note both of these tumors are chemo-radio-resistant and both of these patients
died of metastatic disease despite very aggressive local surgical excision, chemotherapy
and radiotherapy.
At thoracoscopy caution should be exercised when the mediastinal or pulmonary
mass does not appear to be limited to the anteriosuperior mediastinum or does not
appear typical of lymphoma. Tumors of mesenchymal origin (such as leiomyoma, rhabdo-
myosarcoma, extraosseous Ewing’s, epitheliod sarcoma, and undifferentiated sarcoma) or
thymomas may be difficult to completely resect because of invasion into critical neighbor-
ing structures (51). In the case of these tumors, the presence of microscopic residual
disease may necessitate radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy (51).
3.2.2. Repeat Thoracoscopy

Thoracoscopic operations on re-operated chests have been studied in adults and children
by Yim et al. (52). From 1992 to 1996, 2477 patients underwent VATS. Forty patients
aged 9 –78 years had prior thoracotomy (22 patients), VATS (17 patients) and one
median sternotomy. Four of the twenty two patients who underwent an initial thoracotomy
procedure and 12 of the 17 patients who underwent an initial VATS procedure had benign
disease. Median hospital stay was 5.1 + 3.2 days (range 0 – 17). There was no mortality or
intraoperative complications. Two patients required conversion to thoracotomy and one
patient required a 2-unit blood transfusion. Although adhesions were noted in all patients,
in only two patients (5%) was it necessary to abandon the procedure. Operative techniques
included avoiding old port sites and entering the pleura using a “clamp and finger” tech-
nique (as in placement of a chest drain). A pleural space was created by gentle blunt finger
dissection before insertion of the port.
Of the 40 re-operative VATS procedures, only six were pulmonary wedge resections
done to exclude metastasis or recurrent malignancy; of these, one required conversion to
thoracotomy compared to 1 of 15 which required conversion to a thoracotomy when
re-operative VATS was done for a benign condition. This suggests that re-operative
thoracoscopy done for the evaluation of recurrent pulmonary malignancy should be

approached with caution. The authors concluded that VATS on re-operated chests was
feasible and not associated with a higher morbidity even though it may be technically
more difficult.
Results in children should be similar although this has not been well studied. Only
two patients in this study (ages 9 and 15) were children; both children had repeat wedge
resections for metastatic sarcoma. There have been no formal studies in the English
literature examining the role of re-operative thoracoscopy in pediatric cancer.
4. LAPAROSCOPIC BIOPSY FOR DIAGNOSIS
Minimal access surgery has been found to be an ideal way to obtain biopsy specimens in
children with cancer (32,39). This is the most common indication for laparoscopic
operations in pediatric malignancy. Liver biopsies, kidney biopsies, and biopsies of
indeterminate masses have been safely and accurately carried out in children (32,39,53).
The difference in accuracy and morbidity in laparoscopic vs. percutaneous image-
guided biopsy in children with malignancy has not been comparatively studied. In the
study by Saenz, 93 minimal access procedures performed between 1990 and 1997 were
analyzed. Laparoscopic liver biopsy (21), diagnostic laparoscopy (4), cholecystectomy
(4), oophoropexy (3), and kidney biopsy (1) were included. There were two complica-
tions after laparoscopy (4%) and six patients (13%) required conversion to an open
procedure (39).
Laparoscopic or open biopsy of hepatoblastoma, neuroblastoma, or Wilms’ tumor
using a cup forceps, despite thrombocytopenia in some patients, does not necessitate a
blood transfusion (39); however, it is for this concern of potential hemorrhage that
percutaneous image-guided core biopsy have been preferred for these and other intra-
abdominal malignancies. A prospective study comparing these two modalities has not
yet been completed but is necessary to determine any differences in complications or
diagnostic accuracy between laparoscopic and percutaneous biopsy of intra-abdominal
masses.
In 1990, a study compared CT lymphography and staging laparotomy in children
with Hodgkin’s disease and found that laparotomy affected the stage of the disease in
37% of cases (46). Laparoscopy can be used in Hodgkin’s disease both before and after
neoadjuvant or adjuvant therapy to assess extent of disease. The use of laparoscopy
for this indication is probably limited as the quality of CT scan imaging has become so
accurate in the staging of this disease (54).
5. LAPAROSCOPIC EXPLORATION FOR A

SECOND-LOOK OPERATION
Peritoneal metastasis to the anterior and lateral abdominal wall can often be missed by CT
and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). As such, laparoscopy has been found to be ben-
eficial in some second-look procedures (32,39). Waldhausen et al. describes six patients
who underwent second-look operations using laparoscopy (32). Five patients had a diag-
nosis of lymphoma and one had a diagnosis of germ cell tumor. There are no studies that
specifically examine the role of second-look operations in children with cancer. Because
of this, it role remains presently undefined.
6. LAPAROSCOPIC OOPHOROPEXY
Long-term survival of patients with HD emphasizes the importance of anticipating and

preventing long-term complications of the treatment of HD. Abdominal radiation in an
inverted “y” field produces a high dose of radiation to the unprotected ovaries. This
may result in loss of ovarian function. The severity of the loss is related to age of the
patient and the amount of gonadal exposure (55,56). Loss of ovarian function may
result in menopausal symptoms and is associated with osteoporosis. In prepubertal girls,
secondary sexual characteristics may not develop (55,56). Oophoropexy can spare
ovarian function in many cases and has been recommended since the 1960s as a means
of preserving ovarian function (57).
Oophoropexy is done by placing the ovaries in the midline, preferably behind the
uterus and out of the radiation field. Hemoclips are placed at the final site of the ovaries
so that their position can be verified radiographically. Before laparoscopy, the advantage
of oophoropexy was studied (57). Between 1970 and 1984, 17 women underwent ovarian
translocation. There were six complications including salpingo-oophorectomy and ovarian
cysts, and endometriosis; all procedures were done as outpatients. Eight of these seventeen
became pregnant. Two of the pregnancies resulted in spontaneous abortion. Of the six
near- or full-term pregnancies, five were uneventful. One mother delivered at 32 weeks
gestational age.
More recently, laparoscopic oophoropexy (LO) has replaced the open technique.
Williams et al. (58) reviewed the outcome of 12 patients (age 21 –36) who underwent
LO after pelvic irradiation for HD between 1989 and 1995. Two were excluded from
analysis because of death and a second malignancy. Of 10 women who underwent LO
for HD, five had evidence of normal ovarian function. Two of the five required repeat
oophoropexy at 5 and 6 months. Of those five, four underwent successful pregnancies
and one underwent hysterectomy for abnormal bleeding. Of the five women who had
premature ovarian failure after LO, four underwent six or more cycles of chemotherapy
and one received 3500 cGy boost to her pelvic primary site. Therefore in cases of
advanced HD in which multiple courses of chemotherapy are required, permanent loss
of ovarian function is nearly certain. In stage I or II HD, LO prior to pelvic irradiation
yields excellent results in the preservation of ovarian function with minimal increased
risk of recurrent HD (58).
Although many centers are performing LO in pediatric patients with HD, long-term
results are not available. Presumably, results in the pediatric population will be as good or
better than in adult women because of younger age of the ovaries at the time of oophoropexy.
Technically, one can sew the ovaries individually to the posterior surface of the
uterus or sew them to each other posterior to the uterus. It is unclear which method
results in better fixation of the ovaries. With either method, hemoclips on the ovaries at
the site of the oophoropexy are necessary to monitor possible migration.
7. LAPAROSCOPIC ADRENALECTOMY
Laparoscopic adrenalectomy in children has been reported in benign and malignant

diseases such as ganglioneuroma, pheochromocytoma, and neuroblastoma (59). Mirallie
et al. reported a limited group of six children undergoing laparoscopic adrenalectomy
for various benign diagnoses as ganglioneuroma, paraganglioma and pheochromocytoma,
and malignant diseases as neuroblastoma and pheochromocytoma with lymph node
involvement.
Another study specifically focused upon laparoscopic resection of early stage

neuroblastomas. Yamamoto et al. (60) published a small series of children who had
their neuroblastoma detected by mass screening techniques. Their selection criteria
were very strict, limiting their series to only three eligible patients. All patients had (1)
stage I disease, (2) a lesion which measured ,20 mm in diameter, (3) slightly increased
vanillylmandelic acid of homovanillic acid, and (4) normal serum markers of lactate
dehydrogenase, neuron-specific enolase and ferritin. In addition, the resected specimens
all had favorable pathologic features, including no N-myc amplification, aneuploid
DNA pattern and favorable Shimada classification. There were no complications and
all of the patients were alive with no evidence of recurrence at a follow-up of 17 – 22
months.
It is difficult to draw many conclusions about the role laparoscopic adrenalectomy in
the management of adrenal malignancy based on these two small series. Specifically, the
pathologic behavior of neuroblastomas detected on mass screening is unique compared to
those that are noted on clinical assessment. Those detected on mass screening have a very
high overall survival rate of 97%; this includes a number of tumors (27%) which are
advanced-stage neuroblastomas (61). Such superior clinical results are the exception
among most other neuroblastomas and not indicative of their behavior. The generalizabil-
ity of laparoscopic adrenalectomy for the management of neuroblastomas cannot be made
with this study; the applicability of this technique remains to be determined for those
neuroblastomas that are clinically detected.
8. LAPAROSCOPIC RETROPERITONEAL LYMPH

NODE SAMPLING
Juvenile yolk sac carcinoma is the most common testicular neoplasm in childhood. In
adulthood, pure yolk sac tumor of the testes is very rare. The juvenile type presents
before 2 years of age and demonstrates metastatic disease in ,20% of cases. Metastases
rarely develop only to the retroperitoneum and therefore, these infants require chemother-
apy rather than retroperitoneal lymph node dissection (62).
Nonseminomatous testicular carcinoma can occur in the late teen years. In 25– 30%
of patients retroperitoneal metastasis are present that were not diagnosed with imaging
techniques (63). In one of the largest studies, Janetschek reviewed the long-term
outcome and efficacy of laparoscopic retroperitoneal lymph node dissection (LRLND)
for clinical stage I nonseminomatous testicular carcinoma. Seventy-three consecutive
patients between 1992 and 1999 underwent LRLND. Patient’s age ranged from 15 to
51 years. Mean operative time was 228 min in the most recent 28 cases. Conversion
rate to open procedure was 2.7%. Mean hospital stay was 3.3 days. In the last 44 patients,
there was one minor (2.3%) and no major postoperative complications and the ability to
have normal ejaculation was preserved in all patients. Mean blood loss was 156 mL
(range 10 –350 mL). There was one retroperitoneal relapse due to false-negative histologi-
cal findings, but there were no other relapses within a follow-up of 43.3 months. This com-
pares favorably to a relapse rate of 10% in other studies of stage I lesions done in an open
fashion (63).
Other authors have reported successful LRLND in adults (64,65) but none have been
reported to date in children. These reports show a shorter hospital stay, increased blood
loss in the early portion of the learning curve and a conversion rate of 10% or less.
There has been no increase in relapse rates seen using the laparoscopic approach although
no controlled randomized studies are available in the English literature.
8.1. Complications of Laparoscopic Procedures for Malignancy

8.1.1. Port Site Recurrence
A number of studies have tried to address this question from a basic science point of
view, utilizing porcine and murine models (66,67). Yamaguchi et al. (67) showed that
the intraperitoneal concentration of hyaluronic acid was significantly higher after CO2
pneumoperitoneum, compared to open laparotomy. This rise in hyaluronic acid was
felt to be associated with port-site metastases. Schneider et al. (66) examined ways of
minimizing the incidence of port-site metastases. They found that they could signifi-
cantly reduce the incidence of these metastases by improving the quality of their
surgical technique, including such protective measures as trocar fixation, prevention of
gas leaks, rinsing of instruments with povidine-iodine, minilaparotomy protection,
rinsing of trocars before removal, peritoneal closure, and rinsing of all wounds with
povidine-iodine.
9. RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIALS
A limitation of all of the studies involving the clinical application of MAS for the manage-
ment of children with cancer is their design. Specifically, none of them are randomized
trials and therefore suffer from the innate weaknesses of nonrandomized studies. To
address this concern, in 1996 multi-institutional, cooperative group, randomized trials
were developed through the surgical sections of the Children’s Cancer Group (CCG)
and the Pediatric Oncology Group (POG). Unfortunately, the trials were closed 2 years
after they started because of a lack of patient accrual. These failures illustrate a number
of major problems in trying to study MAS in pediatric cancer management and trying
to determine its optimal use. A study was published which critically examined these
trials and their failures in an attempt to prevent them in the future (68). Using a question-
naire, the authors polled the surgeons and their institutions involved in the CCG and the
POG. They made a number of significant observations. These included: (1) ,25% of
the potential protocols were submitted for IRB approval, (2) 40% of surgeons were
not actively performing MAS at their institutions, (3) not all surgeons received the
study protocols in a timely fashion, (4) almost 50% of surgeons did not know who
would submit the protocol for IRB approval, and (5) a preconceived surgeon bias for
either MAS or traditional open approach. These issues strike at a recurrent theme in clini-
cal studies in surgery. McLeod (69) has noted that surgeons have traditionally placed more
emphasis upon case series than on objective data, as can be obtained in a randomized con-
trolled trial. As such, few randomized controlled trials have been completed in surgery.
This is potentially a fatal flaw which will prevent the appropriate study of MAS in pedi-
atric cancer. It is clear that surgeons are going to have to change the way they do business,
if MAS in pediatric cancer is going to move forward and improve the quality of care of
these children.
10. SUMMARY
MAS in the diagnosis of children with cancer is safe, effective, and accurate and is com-
parable to open surgical techniques. There is very good basic science data which suggests
that MAS may cause less tumor growth and metastases and less immunosuppression, com-
pared to open laparotomy. There has been a significant problem with trying to translate
these basic science observations into successful randomized, controlled trials. It is clear
that some prospective trials are necessary to determine the diagnostic accuracy and out-
comes of laparoscopic and thoracoscopic techniques in children with cancer. These
trials need to examine long-term patient survival, which should not be compromised for
the current, perceived short-term benefits of MAS.
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8
Complications of Pediatric Minimal
Access Surgery
Paul W. Wales
1. Introduction 104
2. General Complications 104
2.1. Access 104
2.1.1. Open vs. Closed Laparoscopy 105
2.1.2. Vascular Injuries 106
2.1.3. Bowel Injuries 106
2.1.4. Bladder Injuries 107
2.2. Pneumoperitoneum 107
2.2.1. Insufflation Gases 107
2.2.2. Gas Embolism 108
2.2.3. Pneumothorax 108
2.2.4. Other 109
2.3. Cardiopulmonary 109
2.3.1. Carbon Dioxide Pneumoperitoneum 109
2.3.2. Intraabdominal Pressure 110
2.3.3. Body Position 110
2.3.4. Evidence from the Hospital for Sick Children 111
2.4. Other 112
2.4.1. Wound Complications 112
2.4.2. Positioning 113
2.4.3. The Risk to the Surgeon 113
3. Energy Sources 114
3.1. Electrocoagulation 114
3.2. Harmonic Scalpel 114
4. Complications of Thoracoscopy 115
5. Complications of Retroperitoneoscopy 115
5.1. Hypercapnia 116
5.2. Surgical Emphysema 116
5.3. Gas Embolism 116
5.4. Tension Pneumothorax 116
5.5. Access Failure 116
103
104 Wales
5.6. Peritoneal Perforation 117

5.7. Bleeding/Vascular Injury 117
6. Reducing the Chance of Complications 117
7. Conclusion 118
References 118
1. INTRODUCTION
Minimal access surgery (MAS) requires creation of a working space, the insertion of a
telescope for visualization and additional ports for therapeutic instrumentation. Since
the early 1990s, the number and variety of minimal access procedures performed by pedi-
atric surgeons has grown exponentially. More advanced procedures have become feasible
with the major advances in miniaturized video equipment and instrumentation. MAS is
now firmly established in the armamentarium of modern pediatric surgical practice. In
the United States, .80% of pediatric surgeons perform MAS (1).
Enthusiasm for MAS must be tempered; however, by an appreciation for its compli-
cations and limitations. As Tam stated, MAS only provides an alternative method of per-
forming the same operation as open (1). No additional lives are saved. The benefits are
measured in terms of quality of life. Current literature details reports of minimal access
approaches to traditional open operations. Few procedures have been critically evaluated
in a prospective randomized controlled trial, but initial studies suggest better outcomes
secondary to reduced hospitalization and earlier return to normal activity.
Despite the adoption of MAS by pediatric surgeons, most literature reporting compli-
cations originates from the older gynecology literature (2). Pediatric patients are particu-
larly susceptible to complications due to their thin abdominal wall, proximity of organs
to the surface, and their square abdomen resulting in an intraabdominal liver, spleen, and
bladder (3). The overall mortality rate from MAS in children has been quoted at 0.1%,
and the complication rate at 1– 2%, but this is age and procedure dependent (3 – 5). The
Italian society of videosurgery in infancy (SIVI) reported an overall complication rate of
4.6% in 1689 minimal access procedures (6). In 574 pediatric laparoscopic procedures
reported by Chen et al., the conversion rate was 2.6% and the complication rate was 2%
(5). All of the intraoperative complications were early in the author’s experience.
Complications of MAS can be divided into three categories: general complications
common to all MAS procedures, energy source complications, and procedure-specific
complications (7). This chapter will review general complications and the complications
related to energy sources. Procedure-specific complications will be discussed in sub-
sequent chapters. A discussion of complications specific to thoracoscopy and retro-
peritoneoscopy is also included, and the chapter concludes with measures to reduce
complications. Most of the evidence presented is drawn from the gynecology literature
because it is the most comprehensive. Data from both the general surgery and pediatric
surgery literature will be presented when available.
2. GENERAL COMPLICATIONS
2.1. Access
MAS requires obtaining access to a body cavity (i.e., abdomen or chest) and creation of
a working space. This section will focus primarily on access complications during
Complications of Pediatric MAS 105
abdominal surgery. Visceral injury during abdominal access and creation of pneumoper-
itoneum is divisible into vascular, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary injuries (2). Overall,
these are rare events, but they are a major reason for morbidity, mortality, and conversion
to an open approach.
2.1.1. Open vs. Closed Laparoscopy

Abdominal access may be obtained by the insertion of a cannula under direct vision (open)
or blindly into the abdomen (closed). There are four methods to create pneumoperitoneum:
(1) blind Veress needle insertion, followed by blind insertion of a primary trocar, (2) blind
insertion of a primary trocar without prior Veress needle insertion or establishment of
pneumoperitoneum, (3) open insertion of a cannula without pneumoperitoneum, (4) the
use of an optical trocar with or without pneumoperitoneum. Each technique has its propo-
nents and major injuries have been reported with all of them (8 – 13).
Veress needle insertion with pneumoperitoneum and subsequent blind trocar
insertion is the most common technique employed. The Veress needle consists of a
blunt-tipped spring loaded inner stylet and sharp outer needle. The stylet retracts during
passage of the needle through abdominal layers. The stylet does not lock once it protrudes,
therefore, it can penetrate intraabdominal structures because the stylet will again retract on
contact.
Proponents of this approach claim the pneumoperitoneum creates a space between
the organs and the abdominal wall decreasing the risk of injury; however, 50% of major
vascular or intestinal injuries occur with the Veress needle technique (14). There is enough
literature to suggest that pneumoperitoneum does not prevent major visceral injury. The
distended abdomen is difficult to grasp and to elevate during trocar insertion and the
pressure of the pneumoperitoneum is not sufficient to resist trocar forces and prevent
contact with underlying viscera (15,16). In a large Japanese series of 15,279 laparoscopic
procedures, 156 (1.02%) needles and trocar complications were reported (17). The inci-
dence of major vascular injury was 10/156 (0.07%) and gastrointestinal injuries occurred
in 11/156 (0.07%). The authors concluded open access techniques were superior.
Direct trocar insertion without prior pneumoperitoneum avoids the difficulty of
grasping and elevating an abdominal wall made tense with insufflated gas. Subcutaneous
emphysema is also prevented. The trocar has a safety shield with a sharp tip. The shield
automatically locks once the peritoneal cavity is entered to prevent visceral injury.
Three randomized controlled trials with a total of 664 patients have evaluated Veress
needle access to the direct trocar (8,9,18). No advantage to the direct trocar technique
has been found. Subcutaneous emphysema was seen in the Veress needle group. The only
major complication (vascular injury) was in the direct trocar group.
Open laparoscopy requires a tiny abdominal incision, usually at the umbilicus. Inser-
tion of the primary trocar under direct vision increases the certainty of the pneumoperito-
neum and allows correct anatomical repair of the fascial defect. Theoretically, open access
should decrease the risk of visceral injury to zero, but injuries have still been reported,
albeit considerably less. Penfield (12) reported a complication rate of 0.2% and a bowel
injury rate of 0.06% in 10,840 open laparoscopic procedures. The mechanism for visceral
injury is often poor visualization and the need for blunt dissection with a finger or an
instrument to enter the peritoneal cavity (2).
The optical trocar was introduced in 1993 by Melzer et al. (19) in Germany. An
endoscope is inserted into the trocar, therefore, the fascia is cut under direct vision. Man-
ufacturers have each developed their own version of the optical trocar. Olympus (“Optical
scalpel”, Melville, NY) requires a special scope and cannula. United States Surgical
106 Wales
Corporation (“Visiport”, Norwalk, CT) created a hollow cannula with a transparent tip. A
10 mm camera is inserted to the end and a stainless steel blade is triggered to protrude
1 mm. Ethicon (“Optiview”, Endo-Surgery Inc., Cincinnati, OH) employs a nonbladed
obturator with a clear tip that comes to a point. There are no published controlled trials
of these trocars.
2.1.2. Vascular Injuries

Vascular injuries are a major cause of mortality (15%), second to anaesthetic compli-
cations (20). They are most common after insertion of the Veress needle or the primary
trocar after insufflation (21). The reason is the close proximity of the anterior abdominal
wall to retroperitoneal vascular structures (usually ,2 cm). The distal aorta and right
common iliac artery are the most vulnerable (2). Injuries may be recognized by the
presence of hemoperitoneum or retroperitoneal hematoma. The patient may also exhibit
systemic signs such as hypotension, tachycardia, or an increase in ETCO2 from emboliza-
tion of CO2 gas.
Levinson published the first report of vascular injury in 1974 (22). MacDonald et al.
(23) published the first review of 400 cases in 1978 and reported the incidence of major
vascular injury at 0.5%.
In the gynecology literature, vascular injuries occurred in 0.26% of cases in both a
large Canadian series (n ¼ 136,997) and a American series (n ¼ 37,000) (14,15). Two
large French retrospective studies reported a smaller incidence of vascular trauma
(0.02 –0.04%) (24,25). Major vascular injury has been reported in 0.03% of laparoscopic
cholecystectomies and 0.03% of laparoscopic hernia repairs (26 –28).
The true incidence of vascular injury is probably higher than what is reported
because many injuries are not reported, omitted or miscoded in retrospective reviews. It
is also possible that series from experienced surgeons underestimate the rate of vascular
morbidity and the figures are not generalizable to all surgeons.
The factors responsible for major vascular injury include surgeon inexperience,
failure to sharpen the trocar, failure to elevate the abdominal wall, perpendicular insertion
of the trocar/needle rather than into the pelvis, forceful thrust, and inadequate incision
size (2).
Minor vascular injuries represent damage to mesenteric, omental or abdominal wall
vasculature (inferior epigastric artery). These injuries are often the reason for conversion,
transfusion, or re-operation. Minor vascular trauma occurred in 0.7% of laparoscopic
hernias (n ¼ 10,837) (26 – 28) and 2/362 (0.5%) laparoscopic fundoplications (29).
Cutting trocars are more likely to cut an abdominal wall vessel, whereas conical
trocars push the vessel aside (30). Flute injuries in the side of arteries continue to bleed
as the vessel cannot spasm.
Safe placement of secondary trocars can be achieved by insertion of the cannula
under direct vision with transillumination of the abdominal wall to visualize the vascula-
ture, the use of small trocars, an adequate abdominal incision, and not angling the trocar
towards the midline (2). Bleeding from an abdominal wall vessel can be controlled by
applying direct pressure with the cannula, ligation of the blood vessel (laparoscopically
or open), or by tamponade with a foley catheter. All trocar sites should be inspected
after the cannulas are removed to ensure hemostasis.
2.1.3. Bowel Injuries

Intestinal injuries are the third cause of death after vascular injury and anaesthetic compli-
cations (20). They often go initially unrecognized and the delay can lead to significant
morbidity and medico-legal action. One-third of injuries occur during access (50% from
the umbilical trocar and 17% from the secondary trocar) (25) and two-thirds are secondary
to dissection, electrocoagulation, or bowel grasping (31).
The gynecology literature contains many large studies from several countries that
provide an estimate of intestinal injury. A series of 37,000 gynecological laparoscopies
from the US reported a bowel injury rate of 0.16% (14). This is consistent with the
injury rate of 0.18% in a Canadian series (n ¼ 136,997 laparoscopies) (15) and 0.16%
in a French study (n ¼ 29,966) (31).
Bowel injury occurred in 0.05 –0.3% of adult laparoscopic cholecystectomies
(32 –35). The incidence is as high as 0.66% in laparoscopic fundoplication, but this data
includes injury to the esophagus and stomach which are being directly manipulated (2).
Fewer reports exist in the pediatric surgical literature. The rate of intestinal
injury secondary to trocar access is 1– 7% in operations for cryptorchidism (20).
Valla et al. (36) reported two intestinal injuries in 465 childhood appendectomies and
Chen et al. (5) presented two esophagotomies (0.3%) in 574 laparoscopic procedures.
2.1.4. Bladder Injuries

Bladder injuries occur during insertion of a suprapubic trocar over a distended bladder.
Hence, the bladder should be drained prior to cannula insertion. This is especially relevant
in pediatric surgery where the bladder is an intraabdominal organ due to the shallow
pelvis. An injury may be detected by gaseous distension of the urometer bag during the
operation or by instillation of indigo carmine into the bladder in more subtle cases (37).
A Canadian survey of gynecologists reported eight bladder injuries in 136,997
laparoscopic procedures. Four occurred with the Veress needle, two with the primary
trocar, and two with the secondary trocar (15). In laparoscopic hernia repair, at
least nine reports of bladder injury exist secondary to dissection or electrocoagulation
(26 –28,38 – 43).
Three to five millimeter dome injuries should resolve with an indwelling catheter for
7 – 10 days (44). Larger defects require two layer closure and an indwelling catheter.
2.2. Pneumoperitoneum
2.2.1. Insufflation Gases
Carbon dioxide is the most commonly used gas to create a working space for MAS.
Nitrous oxide and helium have also been evaluated.
Carbon dioxide has the benefit of being rapidly absorbed because of its high blood
solubility. This results in fast resolution of the pneumoperitoneum and a low risk of gas
embolism. It is also odorless, does not support combustion and is inexpensive (45,46).
The disadvantage of CO2 is hypercapnea, acidosis, and peritoneal irritation from the
conversion of CO2 to carbonic acid.
Helium does not lead to hypercapnea, but its poor solubility increases the risk of gas
embolism (47).
Helium, CO2, and an abdominal lifting device were evaluated in a rat study by
Hazebroek et al (48). Brown Norway rats received either helium or CO2 at an intraabdom-
inal pressure (IAP) of 6 or 12 mmHg for 120 min. A fifth group of rats received an
abdominal lifter to create working space. Rats randomized to CO2 insufflation at both 6
and 12 mmHg showed significant acidemia and hypercapnea. Rats in the helium and
abdominal lifter group had no change in serum pH or CO2 . Neither the abdominal pressure
(AP) nor gas type affected the mean arterial pressure.
108 Wales
Nitrous oxide induces less peritoneal irritation than CO2 , is also inexpensive and has
both analgesic and anaesthetic properties. Nitrous oxide is slightly less soluble than CO2 ,
but the major concern over its use has been its combustibility. Combustion only occurs in
the presence of volatile gases such as hydrogen or methane. These gases are present in the
colon and are generated by bacteria. They are not located in other regions of the intestinal
tract unless bacterial overgrowth is present (46). The quantity of hydrogen and methane
gas can be decreased with a preoperative bowel cleansing that uses nonfermentable sub-
strates (magnesium citrate, polyethylene glycol). The fear over combustibility is actually
based on limited evidence such as two case reports from Sri Lanka and Egypt (49,50). In
both of these cases, combustion occurred after all electrical current had stopped, therefore,
it is unlikely ignition of combustible gas with laparoscopic electrosurgical devices took
place. As a result, Tsereteli et al. (46) conducted a prospective randomized double-
blinded study comparing nitrous oxide and CO2 pneumoperitoneum (CDP) for laparo-
scopy. Patients receiving CDP (n ¼ 51) demonstrated an increase in the mean ETCO2
level despite an increase in minute ventilation. Nitrous oxide patients (n ¼ 52) suffered
less pain at 2 h, 4 h, and 1 day postoperatively based on mean scores from a 10 point
visual analog scale. Despite the subjective difference in pain with NO2 , there was no
difference in postoperative narcotic or Toradol use. There were no complications in either
group. The authors concluded that NO2 should replace CO2 as the first choice for gas insuf-
flation, but recognized the difficulty in overcoming the fear over NO2 safety.
2.2.2. Gas Embolism

Gas embolism is a rare, but potentially lethal complication. The incidence of gas embolism
is hard to determine. With the use of transesophageal echocardiography (TEE), gas embo-
lism has been detected in 6 –69% of patients undergoing laparoscopic procedures, but
these were clinically insignificant. Gas enters the blood stream when a Veress needle or
trocar punctures a blood vessel, a tension pneumothorax forces air into an injured
vessel or by the venturi effect across an open blood vessel (45). Consequences depend
on the amount, rate, and nature of the gas (51). Canine studies have demonstrated that
large air boluses (3 – 8 cc/kg) cause an “air-lock” with obstruction of the right atrium
and ventricle. A slow infusion of gas (0.3 cc/kg per min) can be absorbed across the alveo-
lar membrane without untoward effect. Higher infusion rates cause bubbles to lodge in the
pulmonary arterioles. This results in clumping of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, platelet
aggregation, and initiation of the coagulation cascade. Release of inflammatory mediators
causes pulmonary vasoconstriction, bronchospasm, and right heart failure (52). Portal
venous gas embolism can lead to release of emboli into the hepatic portal circulation
and result in delayed manifestations (53).
Patients may manifest abrupt oxygen desaturation, cyanosis, hypotension, and a
“millwheel” murmur. Patients who are able to shunt from right to left through a septal
defect, patent foramen ovale or patent ductus arteriosus are at risk of a paradoxical
embolus and a cerebrovascular accident. The immediate treatment is to stop insufflation
of gas and release the pneumoperitoneum. The patient is placed in the left lateral decubitus
position with steep Trendelenburg and the patient is hyperventilated to promote CO2
removal. The air within the right atrium or ventricle can be aspirated through a central
venous catheter (7).
2.2.3. Pneumothorax
Pneumothorax during MAS may result in abrupt oxygen desaturation and elevated peak
airway pressures. Patients are at risk of tension pneumothorax due to the high pressures
involved. Patients require the insertion of a large bore angiocath into the thoracic space
and the insertion of a chest tube.
The etiology may represent dissection of peritoneal gas into the mediastinum via
tissue planes or a diaphragmatic defect. Air can breach the mediastinal pleura posterior
to the root of the heart (54,55). Perforation of the falciform by a trocar may also permit
gas to enter the mediatinum through the caval orifice. Dissection in the esophageal
hiatus during a fundoplication or Heller myotomy can cause pneumomediastinum or pneu-
mothorax. In addition, pneumothorax from barotrauma or rupture of congenital bullae may
occur secondary to elevated ventilation pressures induced by the IAP.
2.2.4. Other
Pneumoperitoneum may also result in other complications such as subcutaneous
emphysema (0.4%) (usually a result of improper placement of the Veress needle), bradyar-
rhythmias (0.01%) (that are vagally mediated and occur with peritoneal stretching from
rapid insufflation), postoperative shoulder pain (0.04%) (as CO2 is metabolized to carbo-
nic acid causing peritoneal irritation), and hypothermia (if gases are not warmed) (1,56).
2.3. Cardiopulmonary
The physiologic effects of CDP, IAP and body position on the hemodynamics of infants
and children are not well known. The cardiovascular effects of pneumoperitoneum in
adults are better understood and include increased MAP and systemic vascular resistance
(SVR) (57 – 59), increased afterload and right and left ventricular filling pressures
(60 –62), increased end-tidal CO2 (57,61), and decreased cardiac index (CI) (58,59).
Cardiopulmonary physiology in infants and children is not simply a smaller version
of adult physiology. Children represent evolving systems with age-dependent maturation.
Much of the literature presents conflicting conclusions. The results are confounded by the
anesthetic technique, surgical technique and stimulation, the participants’s fluid status,
cardiovascular physiology, and co-morbid disease (61). In addition, the methods chosen
to measure cardiac function will influence the reliability of results. Type II statistical
error secondary to small sample size is also a factor.
2.3.1. Carbon Dioxide Pneumoperitoneum

The systemic absorption of gas from pneumoperitoneum is dependent on its solubility, the
magnitude of the IAP, and the duration of surgery (45). Hypercarbia has a direct action on
the cardiovascular system and an indirect action through the sympathetic nervous system.
The CO2 effects that may act as stressors on a patient’s physiologic reserve include acid-
emia, tachycardia, catechol release, decreased threshold for arrhythmias, and increased
sensitivity to vagal stimulation (63,64). Manifestations include tachycardia, arrhythmia,
increased cardiac output, and elevated pulmonary and SVR (65).
The factors accounting for hypercarbia include absorption across the peritoneum
and the change in respiration and cardiac output induced by elevated IAP. Diminished dia-
phragmatic excursion results in smaller lung volumes, lower functional residual capacity,
and ventilation – perfusion mismatch. These respiratory changes may be exacerbated by
the Trendelenburg position (45). Adult studies suggest an increase in minute ventilation
of 15– 30% is required to compensate for hypercarbia (61). In a study involving
laparoscopy in 65 neonates between 2 and 30 days of life, all patients developed hyper-
carbia (mean CO2: 52.8 + 6.21 mmHg) when fixed minute ventilation was used.
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Minute ventilation had to be increased 30 – 40% to keep the ETCO2 normal when an IAP
of 8 mmHg was used (66).
Carbon dioxide is buffered and is absorbed into muscle and bone, however, it will be
gradually excreted postoperatively which results in increased ventilation requirements
after surgery. This may be detrimental to the patient if they are unable to increase
their minute ventilation due to residual anaesthetics, narcotics, or poor diaphragmatic
excursion (67).
2.3.2. Intraabdominal Pressure

Elevated IAP effects hemodynamics by altering SVR, venous return, and myocardial per-
formance (45). The effect on venous return and cardiac output depends on the magnitude
of the IAP. When IAP is ,20 mmHg, venous return increases because of the augmented
blood return from the splanchnic circulation. At an IAP .20 mmHg, venous return is
impaired resulting in a drop in preload and an increase in SVR. As a result, cardiac
output drops, but the MAP may remain constant because of the rise in SVR (45,68).
The rise in central filling pressures with pneumoperitoneum reflects to some extent,
the transmission of the elevated IAP to the thorax (68). The question is whether the
increased filling pressures are a true reflection of the volume status of the patient or
whether the pressures represent visceral pressure on the diaphragm. In a canine exper-
iment, intrathoracic pressure was measured with an intrapleural catheter. At high IAP
(20, 30, and 40 mmHg), a substantial rise in intrathoracic pressure was seen that paralleled
the rise in central venous pressure (CVP). Hence, when elevated filling pressures are
witnessed on a patient during surgery, caution must be used in interpreting the results
and taking action on a number that may not accurately reflect changes in filling
volume. CVP and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure should not be used as indices of
filling conditions during pneumoperitoneum. When intensive monitoring is needed,
TEE is more accurate (69).
There is growing data regarding the maximum IAP for paediatric MAS. Sakka
et al. (70) evaluated the effect of IAP (6 and 12 mmHg) on hemodynamics in eight
children aged 2 –6 years. All patients were ASA I and had ETCO2 held constant with
adjustment of the minute ventilation. TEE was used to evaluate cardiac function. They
found no change in hemodynamics at 6 mmHg, but a 13% drop in CI at a pressure of
12 mmHg. They concluded that healthy children could tolerate MAS at 12 mmHg, but
children with underlying cardiopulmonary disease may need more invasive monitoring.
Gueugniaud et al. (71) reached a similar conclusion in a study involving 12 ASA I children
aged 6 –30 months. At an IAP of 10 mmHg and constant ETCO2, the authors found a 30%
decrease in cardiac output, but there were no negative consequences.
2.3.3. Body Position

During MAS, patients are positioned to produce gravitational displacement of the viscera
away from the operative site (45). Intuitively, changes in body position should effect
hemodynamics, but the literature is very inconsistent. Odeberg et al. (61) evaluated the
effect of IAP (0 and 11 –13 mmHg) and body position (Trendelenburg and reverse-
Trendelenburg) on the hemodynamics of 11 adults. They discovered that ventricular
filling pressures and mean pulmonary airway pressures depend on body position and
reflect the influence of gravity. For patients in the Trendelenburg position, there was an
increase in preload and afterload suggesting an additive effect between pneum-
operitoneum and body position. When patients were placed in reverse-Trendelenburg,
they demonstrated an increase in afterload, but normal filling pressures. Here, the
influence of position counteracted the increased filling pressures otherwise seen during
pneumoperitoneum.
In a porcine model comparing CO2 and helium pneumoperitoneum to open surgery
or an abdominal lifter, Horvath et al. (68) reported that when animals in the abdominal
lifter group were placed in Trendelenburg, they displayed a twofold increase in caval
pressure (68). The authors concluded that position alone can increase IAP without
pneumoperitoneum.
It is possible the effect of body position varies with patient age. Fujimoto et al. (66),
presented a series of laparoscopic procedures in neonates and concluded that body position
had no effect on the degree of hypercapnea at an IAP of 8 mmHg.
2.3.4. Evidence from the Hospital for Sick Children

Recently, a prospective randomized controlled trial was performed at our institution to
evaluate the effects of CO2 levels, body position, and IAP on hemodynamic parameters
of infants (,12 months). A total of 16 infants were randomized to a normocarbic
(ETCO2 , 38 mmHg) or a permissive hypercarbic (ETCO2 up to 60 mmHg) group.
Any infant receiving laparoscopy within the first year of life was eligible for enrollment,
but children with congenital heart disease, lung disease, altered fluid balance, emergency
surgery, history of prematurity, or history of cardiac medication were excluded.
All patients received a standardized anaesthetic technique with rocuronium
(0.6 mg/kg per hr), fentanyl (1 mg/kg per hr), sevoflurane (3 –6% induction), and
isoflurane (1% maintenance). Monitoring included ETCO2 , noninvasive blood pressure,
ECG, SaO2, respiratory rate, peak airway pressure, gastric balloon catheter for pressure
verification, and a TEE probe.
A 9 mm paediatric TEE probe was inserted transorally. The data was videotaped and
evaluated by a blinded cardiologist. Data was analyzed using multiple linear regression to
account for the complex interrelationship between variables.
Baseline measurements were taken with an IAP of 0 mmHg and in three different
body positions: horizontal (08), Trendelenburg (108), and reverse-Trendelenburg (158).
The IAP was increased to 10 mmHg and then to 15 mmHg and the cardiopulmonary
measurements were repeated.
There were eight patients in each group and the groups were similar with respect to
age, sex, and weight (Table 8.1). End-tidal CO2 was significantly higher in the hypercarbic
group. Cardiac workload is determined by changes in preload, afterload, contractility, and
heart rate. An increase in any of these will increase myocardial work and oxygen
consumption. The hemodynamic effects of laparoscopy are summarized in Table 8.2.
Position had no effect at all on hemodynamics. This finding is contradictory to data
generated from studies involving older children and adults. It may reflect immaturity of the
autonomic nervous system as infants spend their time horizontal or crawling. They lack
the hemodynamic response to upright positioning (72).
IAP of 0 and 10 mmHg had no effect on hemodynamics. At a pressure of 15 mmHg,
however, preload increased due to an increase in venous return from the splanchnic bed.
Contractility increased likely due to optimal stretching of myocardial fibers (Starling’s
forces). This translated into increased cardiac output. On the basis of our data an IAP
of 10 mmHg is optimal for infants to avoid increased myocardial oxygen consumption.
Normocarbia did not alter cardiopulmonary function. Minute ventilation needed
to increase 15– 30% to maintain the ETCO2 at normal levels. Hypercarbia had the
largest effect on hemodynamics and the greatest impact on myocardial work. Carbon
Dioxide acts directly on the heart and indirectly through the sympathetic nervous
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Table 8.1 Patient Demographics
Normocarbic Hypercarbic
(n ¼ 8) (n ¼ 8)
Age (months) 3.7 + 0.9 3.6 + 1.5

Sex (M:F) 7:1 7:1
Weight (kg) 6.5 + 1.0 5.3 + 1.0
Mean AWP (mmHg) 18.5 + 4.8 20.5 + 4.0
Respiratory rate 20 + 6 20 + 5
ETCO2 (mmHg) 36.8 + 2.5 42.6 + 8.0

p , 0.01.
Note: AWP, air-way pressure.
system. Hypercarbia causes tachycardia that raises cardiac output (CO ¼ HR SV).
Rapid heart rate allows less ventricular filling time and a resulting drop in preload.
Carbon dioxide also causes peripheral vasodilation that decreases peripheral resistance
and MAP. The drop in MAP reduces outflow resistance (afterload) as demonstrated by
a decrease in wall stress. Contractility rises to compensate for the decreased afterload
and also by a direct stimulatory effect of CO2 on the heart. There may be maturational
factors at play that make the immature heart of the infant more sensitive to changes in
afterload. The vigorous changes in contractility appear to dampen as a child ages.
All infants tolerated laparoscopy without difficulty, but caution is needed when
treating children with co-morbid disease or diminished cardiac reserve. Patients with
co-morbid disease may benefit from laparoscopic surgery because it is less invasive and
promotes a rapid recovery. However, laparoscopic surgery may cause significant physio-
logic disturbances. Improved understanding of the potential problems will allow appropri-
ate anaesthetic and surgical management to improve safety.
2.4. Other
2.4.1. Wound Complications
Wound infections are less common after MAS and have a reported incidence of 0.4– 2%
(33). The most commonly infected port sites include the umbilical trocar site (because the
skin is more contaminated with bacteria to begin with) and any trocar site where an
inflamed organ is removed from. Systemic sepsis secondary to a port site infection is
very rare (0.08%) (73). Good skin preparation, prophylactic antibiotics, and the use of a
specimen bag to remove an organ are all measures to help minimize the risk of wound
infection.
Table 8.2 Effect of Laparoscopy on Hemodynamics
Preload Contractility Afterload HR MAP CI
Position $ $ $ $ $ $
Pressure " " $ $ " "
Normocarbia $ $ $ $ $ $
Hypercarbia # " # " # "
Note: " and # indicate p , 0.01; $ indicates p . 0.01.

Trocar site hernias occur in 0.77– 3% of all laparoscopic procedures (74,75). Chen
et al. (5) reported hernias in 2/574 (0.3%) laparoscopic cases and Plaus reported trocar
hernias in 4/110 (3.6%) laparoscopic cholecystectomies (76). It is standard to close all
10 and 12 mm trocar sites to prevent hernia formation, however, trocar hernias have
been reported at 5 mm port sites in small children. Many surgeons now routinely close
5 mm fascial defects.
Laparoscopic surgery has the advantage of producing fewer adhesions, however,
postoperative bowel obstruction may still occur. The incidence of bowel obstruction
was 0.14 –0.77% in two large series of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (74). Cadiere
et al. (77) noted a single case of bowel obstruction after 156 paediatric Nissen fundoplica-
tions and Thom Lobe’s group reported obstruction in 2/574 laparoscopic procedures, but
in both series the follow-up was brief (5). Trocar sites are the most common location for
bowel obstructions to occur after laparoscopic surgery. Outward pressure as cannulas are
removed permit entrapment of small bowel at port sites. This is facilitated by the high IAP
relative to atmospheric pressure (2). To decrease the chance of bowel entrapment, port
sites should be removed under direct vision, cannulas should not be removed with their
valve open, and the abdominal wall should be shaken to allow bowel to drop away (2).
2.4.2. Positioning
During MAS, patients are positioned to produce gravitational displacement of the viscera
away from the surgical site. The principles to prevent injuries secondary to poor position-
ing are similar to open surgery. Operative time may be increased early in a surgeon’s
experience and as more complex minimal access procedures are attempted. Therefore,
patients could be at higher risk of pressure injuries or neuropraxias if positioning and
padding are inadequate.
2.4.3. The Risk to the Surgeon

All surgeons are at risk of exposure to blood-borne infections (HIV, Hepatitis B and C).
The overall risk is low, but needle sticks or splashing of body fluids onto mucous mem-
branes (eyes, nose, and mouth) or open skin wounds can lead to seroconversion. MAS
has at least the theoretical advantage of decreasing the likelihood of accidental exposure
to blood products. In open general surgery, glove perforation occurs in 20 – 30% of cases.
Seventy-six percent of these perforations occur during wound closure (78,79).
No data comparing the relative risk of accidental body fluid exposure following
MAS or open surgery is available. In theory, the risk is lower with the smaller incisions
and fewer instruments on the operating field, however, there may still be potential for
transmission of infectious agents during decompression of the pneumoperitoneum.
MAS often requires the insertion of trocars into fixed locations that can result in sur-
geons having to operate or hold a camera in uncomfortable positions for prolonged periods
of time. Berguer et al. (80) surveyed members of Society of American Gastrointestinal and
Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) and found of 149 responders, 8– 12% of surgeons experi-
enced frequent neck and back pain after laparoscopic procedures (80). The same authors
also assessed muscular workload using an ergonomics workstation comparing a hemostat
to a laparoscopic grasper. The laparoscopic grasper was associated with greater total and
peak muscle effort in the forearm and thumb muscles.
An ergonomic evaluation of surgeons’ axial skeleton and upper extremity move-
ments during laparoscopic surgery compared with open surgery concluded that laparo-
scopy was associated with more static posture of the neck and trunk and more frequent
awkward movements of the upper extremity (81). Many reports also exist of digital
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nerve injuries and of repetitive-use injuries in laparoscopy (82 –85). Ergonomic changes to
the operating room environment (such as dedicated endosurgical suites or robotics) and
instrument design should help decrease physical stress.
3. ENERGY SOURCES
Energy sources are used for dissection, mobilization, and coagulation of tissues. In
addition to equipment failure, these instruments can cause complications at a reported
incidence of 1 – 2/1000 operations (86). The majority of injuries are unrecognized at
the time and may present 3– 7 days later. Electrocoagulation and the harmonic scalpel
are the two most common energy sources used in MAS.
3.1. Electrocoagulation
Electrocoagulation forms a coagulum by heating tissues to denature protein. Electrons are
transferred to the tissue, resulting in the excitation of the electron orbitals of molecules. As
the electrons return to the resting state, heat is given off, which dessicates and burns
tissues. Heat increases the tissue temperature to .1508C, which is much .50– 608C
the coagulation temperature of protein.
The amount of heat produced by current is inversely proportional to the electrode
surface area. With monopolar cautery, one electrode is large (ground-plate) and the
other one is small. The small electrode controls the current density. Current enters via
the active electrode and exits by the return electrode. There is greater penetration of
current density which is effective for hemostasis, but it is also more prone to compli-
cations. Bipolar cautery is considered safer because the current flows between two
forceps localizing the tissue effect. Each electrode has the same surface area, therefore,
only the tissue between them is damaged. Bipolar cautery functions at a lower current,
which decreases nerve and muscle stimulation and prevents arcing, but it makes a
poorer dissector.
The flow of electric current is along the path of least resistance. This characteristic is
what leads to complications. There are three types of electrosurgical injuries: direct coup-
ling, capacitance coupling, and insulation failure (87,88).
Direct coupling results from inadvertent contact between a viscus and a metal probe
that is touching the activated electrode. This may go undetected. Capacitance coupling
occurs when a cannula with a metal sheath becomes charged, but it is covered by a
plastic guard that prevents its discharge through the abdominal wall. The charged metal
releases energy when it contacts a viscus. Insulation failure permits passage of energy
to the abdominal wall or a viscus. This is seen in older instruments with worn insulation.
3.2. Harmonic Scalpel

The mechanism of protein denaturing is different with the harmonic scalpel. A vibrating
blade moves 80 mm in distance 55,000 times per second. Protein is denatured as hydrogen
bonds break from the transfer of mechanical energy (vibrational) to the tissue. Tissue
becomes “welded” together. Blood vessels are sealed by coaptive coagulation.
The advantages are the production of less heat (,808C) resulting in a cooler blade.
Tissue becomes dessicated, but there is no burn, char, smoke, or odor. There is no risk of
electrical injury because no current flows through the patient. In addition, there is no risk
of remote injury because cutting and coagulation only occur between the blades when they
are activated and in pressured contact with tissue.
4. COMPLICATIONS OF THORACOSCOPY
Jacobaeus introduced thoracoscopy almost a century ago (89), but it was not until the
invention of improved instrumentation over the last decade that thoracoscopy became
popular. Traditionally, thoracoscopy was used to treat empyema, lung blebs, and
perform lung biopsies. Today, resection of mediastinal masses, tracheoesophageal
fistula repair, and anatomic lung resections are a few of the more complex procedures
being performed.
The contraindications to thoracoscopy are similar to that of laparoscopy, but also
includes patients who are unable to tolerate single lung ventilation or have had extensive
pleurodesis (90).
Overall, thoracoscopy is well tolerated. The mortality rate is between 0.8% and
1.0% and is usually related to the underlying condition. Hemorrhage (0.3 –0.8%), pro-
longed respiratory failure requiring ventilation (3.3%), gas embolus (1%), bronchopleural
fistula/air leak, and conversion to open thoracotomy (7 –16.5%) are also relatively
uncommon events (90,91). The general complications discussed earlier also apply here,
but there are a few complications specific to thoracoscopy.
To permit visualization and create a working space, most thoracoscopic procedures
require ispilateral lung collapse. This can be achieved in several ways. Low flow, low
pressure CO2 is effective, but may induce hypothermia and tension pneumothorax, as a
result of displacement of the very mobile mediastinum (4,5). Selective lung ventilation
accomplished by mainstem bronchial intubation of the contralateral lung may cause bron-
chial injury from a relatively large endotracheal tube. Bronchial blockers (i.e., Fogarty
catheter) placed when the patient is supine often become dislodged when the patient is
repositioned and need to be re-checked prior to beginning the procedure. Double lumen
endotracheal tubes can be difficult to insert. All these techniques are prone to failure
and can cause premature lung re-expansion (92).
Thoracoscopic suctioning induces negative pressure and may lead to mediastinal
displacement or lung re-expansion. An air entry vent can minimize this problem (45).
Monopolar electrocautery may arc to the vagus nerve and induce cardiac arrhythmias or
to the phrenic nerve and lead to diaphragmatic dysfunction. Inadvertent contact of any
energy source with lung or the diaphragm may cause a pneumothorax or diaphragmatic
hernia, respectively (92). Proper positioning and padding is important to avoid pressure
or nerve injuries.
5. COMPLICATIONS OF RETROPERITONEOSCOPY
The urinary tract resides in the retroperitoneal space. It is desirable to approach the kidney
posteriorly via an extraperitoneal route, to avoid potential complications that may arise
from the transperitoneal approach (56). Like all MAS, the use of retroperitoneoscopy
has dramatically increased over the last decade. In a survey of 24 urologic centres, 28%
of urologic endoscopic procedures were performed retroperitoneoscopically in 1993,
compared with 51% of cases in 1996 (93). In spite of this, retroperitoneoscopy has the
disadvantages of a smaller working space, crowding of instruments, and a lack of anatomic
landmarks.
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The relative contraindications to retroperitoneal endoscopic surgery include (1) pre-

vious extraperitoneal surgery because adhesions may prevent surgical access by impairing
CO2 insufflation; (2) malignant renal tumors; (3) renal trauma because the perinephric
hematoma absorbs much of the light and impairs visualization; and (4) xanthogranuloma-
tous pyelonephritis or pyonephrosis with prior nephrostomy drainage because the whole
perinephric space may be frozen and inaccessible (56).
Yeung (56) recently provided a nice summary of retroperitoneoscopy-specific
complications.
5.1. Hypercapnia
The exact physiologic effect of CO2 pneumoretroperitoneum is unknown. Wolf et al. (94)
found greater absorption of CO2 during retroperitoneoscopy and a higher risk for
pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum. Mandressi et al. (95) found no difference in
CO2 levels and no side effects from retroperitoneal CO2 insufflation. Presently, there is
a comparative trial being performed at our institution to determine the physiologic
effects of intraperitoneal MAS with retroperitoneal urologic MAS. Hopefully, this study
will provide answers to some of the persistent questions.
5.2. Surgical Emphysema

During retroperitoneal MAS, a port may slip back into an intermuscular or subcutaneous
plane. Emphysema is harmless if mild or well localized; however, extensive emphy-
sema can hinder port insertion and sometimes leads to open conversion. In addition,
pneumothorax or pneumomediastinum can develop.
5.3. Gas Embolism

This may result from placement of the Veress needle directly into a major vessel, or from
the opening up of small veins in the retroperitoneal space during insufflation. The risk is
likely greater if high insufflation pressures and fast flow rates are used. Fortunately, this an
extremely rare complication.
5.4. Tension Pneumothorax

Development of the retroperitoneal working space may cause accidental disruption of the
parietal pleura. Tension pneumothorax may evolve quickly if fast flow rates and high
insufflation pressures are being used.
5.5. Access Failure

This is more common with retroperitoneal MAS. Failure to develop the working space can
occur in patients with a history of previous surgery, pyonephrosis, and xanthogranuloma-
tous pyelonephritis. Intermuscular balloon dissection may occur if the dilatation device is
placed between layers of musculature rather than in the retroperitoneum. Development of
the working space in the wrong plane can produce a complete loss of surgical orientation
and lead to conversion.
5.6. Peritoneal Perforation

Perforation of the peritoneum permits CO2 to enter the peritoneal cavity, diminishing the
retroperitoneal working space and visibility. Insertion of the posterior trocar causes less
indentation of the bulkier flank muscles than transperitoneal MAS; hence, it is more diffi-
cult to judge the exact site of trocar entry. This increases the risk of peritoneal perforation.
Small perforations can be closed with a purse-string suture. The pneumoperitoneum can be
decompressed by Veress needle insertion under video guidance, or if the perforation is
large, the hole can be enlarged to create a single working space. The intraabdominal
organs should also be inspected to exclude any iatrogenic injury.
5.7. Bleeding/Vascular Injury

Excessive bleeding during MAS renal surgery is usually from tears to the renal vein or one
of its branches, or from an accessory or polar renal artery. The combination of light
absorption from blood and a small working space increases the risk of complications.
In the small series of pediatric urologic retroperitoneal operations published by
El-Ghoneimi et al. (96) two of eight partial nephrectomies required open conversion
because of bleeding from polar arteries.
6. REDUCING THE CHANCE OF COMPLICATIONS
MAS requires the acquisition of new skills. It is true; therefore, that more complications
may be anticipated early in a surgeon’s experience. This is not the rule; however, as
Calvete et al. (97) determined when they found an equal distribution of complications
between junior and senior surgeons. This finding may reflect more complex cases being
attempted by more experienced surgeons. To prevent injury, a surgeon must be able to
perform the operation and be aware of where and when problems may arise. Attendance
at MAS courses and/or mentoring by a more experienced colleague should be encouraged.
It is important to remember that when an experienced surgeon performs an operation for
the first time, they too are considered inexperienced.
Complications secondary to equipment failure should be preventable. With increas-
ingly complex instrumentation, the chance of malfunction exists and this is sometimes
unavoidable. It is ideal; however, to discover problems before the operation commences,
but this requires operating room personnel who are adequately trained. Surgical staff
should be comfortable with both assembly and disassembly of all equipment. With new
equipment, education should take place before it is used on a patient and the salesperson
should be available to help troubleshoot. To change the culture in the operating room, sur-
geons may need to educate staff about why a particular technique is beneficial for patients
to increase awareness and understanding (92). Integrated surgical suites may help to
minimize many of the problems encountered with equipment set-up.
Complete preoperative evaluation and sound indications for surgery are obvious
measures to reduce complications. The same contraindications to MAS also apply to
open surgery. Patient-related factors, such as illness severity, coagulopathy, hemody-
namics, nutritional status, and immunosuppresion, need to be optimized preoperatively,
if possible. In addition, close communication with the anaesthetist needs to be maintained
throughout the procedure.
As Lobe has stated, a close collaborative relationship with industry is important to
ensure the needs of the surgeon are being addressed (92). This is especially true during the
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research and development phase of new instrumentation. It is the responsibility of the

surgeon to notify the company when complications arise.
7. CONCLUSION
The advantages of MAS include less postoperative pain and wound complications, shorter
hospitalization, faster return to activities, and better cosmesis. Modern technology has
vastly improved the safety and efficacy of MAS and the availability of smaller instruments
have expanded the application of this modality to children and infants (5). The literature is
filled with enthusiastic reports of technical triumphs, but proponents of MAS must remem-
ber that it is still invasive with occasional technical mishaps. Surgeons need to acquire the
necessary skills and training to minimize morbidity.
Advances in pediatric surgery often follow those made in adult general surgery.
With the recent explosion of MAS in children, pediatric surgeons have the responsibility
to objectively evaluate their patient outcomes with properly conducted prospective
controlled trials. As we are all aware, infants and children are not small adults and we
should no longer rely on data extrapolated from adult studies. MAS has been a tremendous
advance in pediatric surgery with the potential to improve the lives of some of our smallest
patients. Improved technology with careful application and evaluation should continue to
lead to improved results.
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Specific Disease and Procedures in
Pediatric General Surgery
9
Minimal Access Surgical Approaches
to Childhood Hepatobiliary and
Pancreatic Disorders
Sanjeev Dutta
Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Stanford, California, USA
1. Biliary System 126

1.1. Cholecystectomy 126
1.2. Choledocholithiasis 126
1.3. Approach to the Jaundiced Infant 127
1.4. Laparoscopic Cholangiography 128
1.5. ERCP and MRCP 128
1.6. Percutaneous Cholangiography 129
1.7. Biliary Atresia 129
1.8. Choledochal Cyst 130
2. Pancreas 130
2.1. Pancreatic Pseudocyst 130
2.2. Laparoscopic Pancreatectomy 131
3. Liver 132
3.1. Laparoscopic Hepatectomy 132
3.2. Staging Laparoscopy 132
3.3. Hydatid Cyst 133
References 133
Pediatric surgical experience in minimal access hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgery has
been limited. This is partly due to the generally advanced laparoscopic skills necessary to
undertake many of the operations, a factor that will be remedied as pediatric surgeons gain
expertise in these techniques. A second factor is the limitations in instrumentation that
most pediatric centers are faced with. The complexity of the hepatobiliary and pancreatic
anatomy, together with the relatively small working space in children, requires smaller
instrumentation and more advanced technology that may be unavailable to the pediatric
surgeon. It is likely that tools, such as the surgical robot, will greatly increase the facility
125
126 Dutta
with which minimal access hepatobiliary surgery can be performed. Furthermore, the
development of radiologically guided procedures as an alternate form of minimal
access surgery may obviate the need to perform some laparoscopic procedures.
Despite the obvious challenges, a number of surgeons have utilized minimal access
techniques for hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgical diseases. This chapter reviews the
literature on the approaches that are currently used to treat pediatric hepatobiliary and
pancreatic surgical disorders.
1. BILIARY SYSTEM
1.1. Cholecystectomy
One of the first minimally invasive operations to be performed in children, as in adults,
was cholecystectomy. The safety and efficacy of this procedure in the pediatric population
is well established (1). A common cause of cholelithiasis in children is hemolysis second-
ary to sickle cell disease and other hemoglobinopathies (2 –4). Because of their significant
co-morbidity, the complexity of perioperative and intraoperative care of sickle cell
patients is considerably greater than that of the general population.
Postoperative acute chest crisis is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in
these patients. This and other problems have led surgeons to limit cholecystectomy to
asymptomatic patients only (5). With laparoscopy as a less invasive modality, it was
assumed that the incidence of chest crisis would decrease, and hence the indications for
cholecystectomy in children with sickle cell disease were widened to include those with
asymptomatic cholelithiasis. More recently, however, the literature suggests that laparo-
scopy does not decrease the incidence of acute chest crisis when compared with open
approaches (6). For this reason, operations on sickle cell patients, such as laparoscopic
cholecystectomy, should be performed at a tertiary care pediatric center with expertise
in these complex patients. The management of asymptomatic gallstones in these children
remains controversial.
1.2. Choledocholithiasis
The prevalence of choledocholithiasis is increased in patients with sickle cell disease
(25%) (4) when compared with the general population (10%) (7). The pediatric surgeon
must have a high degree of suspicion for the presence of common duct stones based on
details of the history (pale stools, dark urine, pancreatitis) or laboratory investigations
(elevated transaminases, conjugated hyperbilirubinemia, elevated alkaline phospatase,
hyperamylasemia), although it is not uncommon for these features to be normal despite
the presence of stones in the duct. Furthermore, the sensitivity of ultrasound for detecting
choledocholithiasis is at best 55% (8).
The surgeon managing a child with choledocholithiasis must decide whether the
child needs imaging of the bile duct and whether exploration of the bile duct should be
carried out concurrent with the laparoscopic cholecystectomy or at another time. Although
most surgeons will take a selective approach for investigating the bile duct in patients with
idiopathic gallstones (9), routine cholangiography is recommended for children with
hemoglobinopathies (10).
A number of minimal access techniques have been developed to manage suspected
common duct stones in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy, including pre-
operative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), laparoscopic common
duct exploration, postoperative ERCP, and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography
MAS for Childhood Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Disorders 127
(MRCP). There is controversy over which modality is most appropriate, and their use is sub-
jected to surgeon preference (1). Preoperative ERCP þ/2 sphincterotomy has the benefit of
reducing the need for intraoperative cholangiogram or duct exploration. If preoperative
ERCP is unsuccessful, the surgeon is then prepared to perform imaging and exploration
of the duct. Using this approach, however, some patients are subjected to an unnecessary
ERCP. Intraoperative cholangiogram to confirm the presence of stones followed by laparo-
scopic duct exploration is another option. Although the feasibility (11) and efficacy (12) of
laparoscopic duct exploration in children have been established, the procedure is technically
very challenging and limited to surgeons with advanced laparoscopic skills and tools. A
third option is to perform intraoperative cholangiogram and follow with ERCP þ/2
sphincterotomy for patients with large ductal stones that cannot be washed into the duode-
num at the time of cholecystectomy. The benefit is that some patients will be saved an
unnecessary ERCP and its inherent morbidity (13). However, laparoscopic cholangiography
has false-positive rates as high as 25% (12) and, if postoperative ERCP is unsuccessful, the
patient will be subjected to a third operative procedure (open duct exploration) to remove
the stones.
Although choice of management strategy depends in great part on available exper-
tise, some strategies have economic benefits over others. Using decision modeling to
determine the cost effectiveness of the various approaches, Urbach et al. (14) determined
in adults that the most cost-effective strategy was to perform laparoscopic common duct
exploration at the time of cholecystectomy. In the absence of such expertise, selective
postoperative ERCP following intraoperative cholangiogram was preferred to routine
preoperative ERCP unless there was a very high suspicion of ductal stones. Preoperative
ERCP was, however, slightly more effective than laparoscopic duct exploration in pre-
venting residual duct stones but this did not justify the cost disadvantage. In a randomized
study, when comparing laparoscopic duct exploration with postoperative ERCP, the
laparoscopic approach was as effective as the endoscopic approach in clearing the duct.
Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography is a noninvasive alternative to
diagnostic ERCP. In patients with a medium to high suspicion of common duct stones,
MRCP has been shown to have a 85 –100% sensitivity and 96% specificity (15 – 17),
particularly for stones .5 mm. This modality, however, is subject to variations in insti-
tutional experience, requires anesthetic or sedation in children and, unlike ERCP, has no
therapeutic utility.
1.3. Approach to the Jaundiced Infant

When an infant presents with jaundice and when conjugated hyperbilirubinemia is con-
firmed, it is necessary to rule out surgical causes such as biliary atresia or choledochal
cyst. The initial investigations include ultrasound to look for abnormalities of the gall-
bladder and bile ducts, 99mTcHIDA scan to assess excretory function, and occasionally a
liver biopsy to assess hepatic architecture. Although these investigations may lend
support to a diagnosis of biliary atresia, they may also be positive in other conditions
causing cholestasis. HIDA scan, for example, may be false-positive in the cases of bile
duct paucity (Alagille’s syndrome), alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, cystic fibrosis, and
neonatal hepatitis (18). To confirm the diagnosis, a cholangiogram is typically per-
formed through a small right subcostal incision. If the cholangiogram shows open
ducts, the drainage procedure is abandoned and the patient is closed, otherwise the
incision is enlarged for a biliary drainage procedure. Four distinct minimal access
methods have emerged for definitive diagnosis of biliary atresia: laparoscopic cholan-
giogram, ERCP, MRI cholangiography, and percutaneous image-guided cholangiography.
128 Dutta
Of note, all of these methods, while potentially avoiding a laparotomy, require general
anesthesia.
1.4. Laparoscopic Cholangiography

In 1971, Gans and Berci (19) were the first to allude to the use of laparoscopy as a diag-
nostic tool for the jaundiced infant in their review article that set the stage for pediatric
laparoendoscopy. They noted that in addition to liver biopsy, laparoscopic tools could
potentially be used to inject the gallbladder with radioopaque material to visualize the
biliary tree. They followed in 1973 with a description of four infants in whom they
used laparoscopy to visualize the gallbladder and liver (20). In the absence of a gallblad-
der, they converted to an open procedure. In the presence of a shrunken gallbladder, they
obtained a liver biopsy to rule out neonatal hepatitis. Once again, they suggested that a
transhepatic cholecystodochogram could help in defining the ductal architecture, but did
not actually report on its use. In 1977, Leape and Ramenofsky (21) described laparoscopy
in four infants suspected of having biliary atresia in whom three were found to have an
atretic gallbladder. A fourth patient had a distended gallbladder, percutaneous puncture
revealed white bile, and cholangiography failed to show filling of the hepatic duct. In
1980, Hirsig and Rickham (22) described the use of laparoscopic cholangiogram in three
patients using a fine trocar to puncture the gallbladder directly, followed by placement
of a catheter through the trocar. Biliary atresia was excluded in all three infants.
These initial reports have led to two larger series of laparoscopic assessment of infant
jaundice. In the first, Hay et al. (23) used the technique in 33 patients over a period of
4 years. All patients had nonexcretory HIDA scans. In the 12 patients in whom a gallbladder
was visualized, an 18Fr cannula was passed transcutaneously and transhepatically to enter
the gallbladder by way of the gallbladder fossa. A cholangiogram showed patent bile ducts
in all patients, although two of the patients had hypoplastic ducts. Results of the cholangio-
gram then determined whether patients went on to percutaneous liver biopsy or laparotomy
with portoenterostomy. The mean operative time was 15 min for laparoscopy and
cholangiogram and 25 min for liver biopsy.
In a second study, Senyuz et al. (24) performed laparoscopy on 24 jaundiced infants.
Gallbladders were present in 17 patients who then underwent transcutaneous cholecysto-
cholangiogram directly into the gallbladder using a 16Fr cannula. Ten of these patients had
filling of the proximal and distal ducts, and a needle liver biospy was carried out. Bile duct
filling was not seen in seven patients, all of whom were confirmed to have atretic ducts at
laparotomy and underwent a portoenterostomy. At laparoscopy, seven patients were found
to have a totally atretic gallbladder, and these infants also underwent portoenterostomy for
biliary atresia.
Laparoscopy appears to provide a useful adjunct to the investigational armamentar-
ium for the jaundiced infant, facilitating both evaluation of the bile ducts and liver biopsy.
As an added benefit, the same anesthetic can be used to perform laparoscopic portoenter-
ostomy (discussed subsequently) by the surgeon who wishes to attempt such a procedure.
1.5. ERCP and MRCP

ERCP has been described as an alternate approach to the jaundiced infant, which poten-
tially avoids the need to enter the peritoneal cavity (25). In one series (26), the procedural
completion rate was 86%, and all patients who did not have visualization of the common
bile duct at ERCP were confirmed to have biliary atresia at laparotomy. The procedure
required general anesthetic and scope time ranged from 30 to 60 min. MRCP offers the
least invasive assessment of the bile ducts. The procedure has been shown to be feasible in
infants (27) with a high diagnostic accuracy (28).
There are a number of limitations to both ERCP and MRCP at the present time.
ERCP in children can be quite challenging given the low lumen-to-tube diameter ratio
and difficulty in cannulating the papilla. MRCP is limited by availability of this technology
and expertise in performing the imaging. Furthermore, patient movement as a result of
inadequate sedation, respiration, and bowel peristalsis can significantly affect the
quality of the study. Neither modality provides for an option to biopsy the liver, which
would necessitate a second procedure.
1.6. Percutaneous Cholangiography

Initial attempts at percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography met with poor success due
to the lack of intrahepatic ductal dilatation in infants with biliary atresia (29,30). This
approach has been supplanted with ultrasound-guided percutaneous cholecystocholangio-
graphy. In the first report of the application of this technique in jaundiced infants, Treem
et al. (31) used an anterior transcutaneous, transhepatic approach to enter the gallbladder
neck with a 22-guage needle. The liver parenchyma served to tamponade the bile leak
from the gallbladder. A cholecystocholangiogram was performed under fluoroscopy in
this manner in four infants ranging in age from 4 to 10 weeks and in weight from 2.1
to 6.5 kg. One patient was confirmed to have biliary atresia and went on to portoenterost-
omy. The remaining patients had good filling of their ducts and went on to diagnoses of
intrahepatic ductal paucity, neonatal hepatitis, and pigment gallstones from bacterial
cholangitis.
The experience at our own institution (Peter Chait, personal correspondence) has
consisted of 19 infants mean age of 8.3 weeks and mean weight of 4.0 kg. Eight of the
patients had atretic ducts, whereas 11 had patent ducts. When compared with open cholan-
giogram, percutaneous cholecystocholangiogram took significantly less anesthetic time
(mean of 95 min when compared with 154 min) and the infants took significantly less
time to regain full feeds (1.3 vs. 2.5 days). Liver biopsies were performed simultaneously,
and no complications were encountered.
1.7. Biliary Atresia

When a diagnosis of biliary atresia is confirmed, early and expeditious surgical manage-
ment is necessary to avoid progression of hepatic fibrosis. This involves prompt diagnosis
followed by resection of the atretic bile duct system and Roux-en-Y portoenterostomy to
provide a biliary drainage conduit for the microscopic biliary radicles at the hilar plate.
This operation, first developed by Kasai and Suzuki (32), is traditionally performed
through a wide subcostal incision. Although technically challenging, attempts have
been made to perform this operation laparoscopically.
Esteves et al. (33) reported two successful cases of laparoscopic hilar dissection and
portoenterostomy. The Roux limb was created extracorporeally through an umbilical
incision. Dissection was carried out using a specially designed laparoscopic monopolar
fine needle cautery. The anastomosis was created using 5 –0 polyglactin sutures tied
both intra- and extracorporeally. Potential benefits to a laparoscopic approach include
the avoidance of a large and painful incision, high magnification view of the hilar dissec-
tion, and avoidance of excessive scar tissue, which may later interfere with hepatic
transplant.
130 Dutta
1.8. Choledochal Cyst

Choledochal cysts may present in infancy with obstructive jaundice, acholic stools, and
hepatomegaly or later in childhood with abdominal pain, palpable mass, and jaundice.
The vast majority (90%) of choledochal cysts are saccular or fusiform dilatations of the
extrahepatic biliary duct (34). Surgical management has evolved, and optimal manage-
ment currently consists of cyst resection with a biliary enteric drainage procedure using
a Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy.
There are only a few reports of a laparoscopic approach to type I choledochal cyst,
and these were in adolescent or in adult patients (35 – 38). This is not surprising given the
dense anatomy and unforgiving dissection of the portal region, as well as difficulties with
adequate exposure. After cyst resection using a combination of sharp and blunt
dissection, as well as endostaplers, a stapled or sutured retrocolic Roux limb is con-
structed. The Roux limb can be made intracorporeally with endostaplers and suturing or
by way of a minilaparotomy. Dissection is made more difficult if previous biliary
procedures, such as cholecystectomy, have been done or if there have been previous
bouts of cholangitis. It is likely that the technical difficulty of this procedure would be
magnified in the smaller working space of a more typical pediatric patient. Nevertheless,
the feasibility of biliary surgery has been demonstrated, and technological advances,
such as the surgical robot, will serve to decrease the difficulty of this and similar pro-
cedures (39,40).
Laparoscopic resection of the much rarer type II or diverticular cyst has also been
described (41). A combination of blunt and sharp dissection was used to excise the
cyst. A clear channel connecting the cyst to the bile duct was not found, and intraoperative
cholangiography did not demonstrate a leak. In situations where there is a true connection
to the bile duct, it would be necessary to place an endoscopic loop suture at the base of the
cyst prior to excision or, if the cyst is already excised, to suture the resultant defect without
causing ductal narrowing.
2. PANCREAS
2.1. Pancreatic Pseudocyst
Pancreatic pseudocysts in children are usually the result of pancreatic trauma. Some of
these lesions resolve spontaneously and do not recur, and therefore there should be an
initial trial of monitoring with serial ultrasound to look for resolution. In a minority of
cases, pseudocysts become large, symptomatic, and persistent. These persisent cysts
may be associated with significant pancreatic ductal disruption and stricture (communi-
cating pseudocyst).
Before management of persistent pseudocysts can be initiated, it is important to
obtain clear anatomic delineation of the disease. Contrast enhanced CT scan of the
abdomen shows the structural relations of the cyst. Management of a pseudocyst that is
intimate to the duodenum or in the pancreatic tail differs from the much more common
mid-body lesion. A distal lesion may necessitate a distal pancreatic resection with or
without splenic preservation. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography may be
necessary if a disruption and/or proximal stricture of the pancreatic duct is expected. A
communicating pseudocyst with a proximal pancreatic duct stricture may form a persistent
fistula when drained.
Surgical management has classically involved some type of internal drainage pro-
cedure such as cystgastrostomy or Roux-en-Y cystjejunostomy, and requires that the
cyst be large and thick walled. Minimal access approaches to management of pseudocysts
include laparoscopic, endoscopic, or image-guided modalities. Endoscopic management is
best suited for lesser sac lesions that are intimate to the posterior gastric wall and are amen-
able to catheter drainage into the stomach. Image-guided therapy utilizes percutaneous
drains to treat the cysts.
Some authors have advocated percutaneous drainage as a first line therapy for
pseudocysts in the pediatric population when conservative management has failed (42).
External percutaneous drainage has been shown to be safe and effective (43,44) in chil-
dren, although the failure rate in some adult series with long-term follow-up is reported
as 78% (either failed to resolve or recurred) (45). In making this comparison, it is import-
ant to note the difference in etiology of pseudocyst between young and old, with adults
suffering primarily from alcoholic or gallstone pancreatitis and children from traumatic
or infectious pancreatitis. In the case of a pseudocyst associated with pancreatic transec-
tion, such a procedure runs the risk of creating an external pancreatic fistula. There are
data, however, to suggest that transection injuries may resolve with conservative manage-
ment, including nasogastric decompression, total parenteral nutrition, octreotide, and
percutaneous pseudocyst drainage (46). A second risk of drainage is that of introducing
infection into the cyst, which is associated mainly with prolonged duration of catheter
drainage (47). Percutaneous drainage does not allow for biopsy of the cyst, although
this is of minimal concern in the pediatric population.
Park and Heniford (48) give a thorough description of the options in laparoscopic
management of pseudocysts. These include variations of endoscopic and/or laparoscopic
transgastric cystgastrostomy, as well as laparoscopic cystjejunostomy. Endoscopic drai-
nage involves gastroscopic insertion of a catheter through the posterior gastric wall and
into the cyst. The cyst must be relatively thin walled to allow piercing. The procedure
is limited by the inability to clear necrotic debris, catheter blockage and dislodgement,
bleeding, and cyst infection due to inadequate drainage (49).
2.2. Laparoscopic Pancreatectomy

Indications for pancreatectomy in children are limited. In infants, persistent hyper-
insulinemic hypoglycemia of infancy (PHHI) sometimes necessitates near-total pancreatic
resection for control of hypoglycemia. In older children, acute traumatic transection,
insulinoma, and the relatively rare cystic neoplasm may be indications for resection.
Persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia of infancy presents with irritability and
seizure. Lack of early treatment can result in permanent brain damage, and failure of
medical management with agents, such as diazoxide, glucagon, and octreotide, neces-
sitates pancreatic resection. Surgical management has involved 95% pancreatectomy,
leaving a rim of pancreatic tissue abutting the second part of the duodenum, although
focal disease defined by preoperative pancreatic venous sampling may be amenable to
lesser resections (50). In older children, differentiation must be made from insulinoma.
Laparoscopic pancreatic resection is feasible (51) and has been attempted for this indi-
cation (52). This case study, however, limited the extent of resection from the pancreatic
tail to the mesenteric vessels, and the patient subsequently required an open near-total
pancreatectomy. This speaks to the difficulty of laparoscopically resecting pancreas in
the vicinity of the common bile duct and superior mesenteric vessels. It is foreseeable
that pancreatic venous sampling in conjunction with laparoscopic ultrasound may allow
for identification of distal focal disease or insulinoma that are more suitable for laparo-
scopic distal pancreatectomy or enucleation (53).
132 Dutta
Blunt traumatic transection of the pancreas has also been treated with laparoscopic
distal pancreatectomy in a child, with good results (54). There are some, however, that
promote a nonoperative approach to such injuries (55).
3. LIVER
3.1. Laparoscopic Hepatectomy
There is very little in the literature on laparoscopic resection of liver lesions in infants and
children. This is not surprising as primary liver tumors comprise ,3% of tumors seen in
children, of which less than one-third are benign (56). Hepatocellular carcinoma and hepa-
toblastoma account for 90% of malignant tumors, whereas benign tumors consist mainly
of vascular lesions such as hemangioma and hemangioendothelioma.
Only those hemangiomas causing significant pain or disability should be considered
for resection. Laparoscopic resection of hemangioma has been reported in the adult litera-
ture. In a multicenter European experience (57), 13 patients with hemangiomas ranging in
size from 2 to 14 cm underwent laparoscopic resection. Of these, six patients had wedge
resection, three had segmentectomy, one had left lateral segmentectomy, and three had
major hepatectomy. A five trocar approach was used, and the tumor was localized using
laparoscopic ultrasound. Dissection was carried out using an ultrasonic dissector or crush-
ing forceps. Intraparenchymal hemostasis was maintained using clips, electrocautery, and
vascular staplers. Argon beam coagulator was also used on some patients to coagulate the
raw surface. None of the patients required blood transfusion. The specimens were some-
times crushed for removal with an endobag and this did not hinder pathologic identifi-
cation. In this report, the authors suggested that lesions adjacent to the hepatic veins or
the cavohepatic junction and those centrally or posteriorly located in the right lobe may
not be good candidates for resection as laparoscopic hepatic mobilization and control of
large intrahepatic vessels are difficult to attain.
Treatment of hepatic hemangioendothelioma consists mainly of steroids (58) or che-
motherapy (59), with surgery reserved for intractable cardiac failure or coagulopathy (60).
When pharmacologic treatment of hemangioendothelioma fails, minimally invasive
therapy includes hepatic artery embolization (61), but laparoscopic approaches to
resection have not been attempted because of the significant risk of bleeding.
Other lesions that are potentially resectable laparoscopically include symptomatic
hamartomas and congenital cysts. Simultaneous resection using ultrasonic dissector of a
3 cm diameter congenital cyst with repair of a Morgagni hernia in a 5-month-old infant
has been reported (62). In general, unroofing and/or marsupialization of these cysts are
possible laparoscopically, and complete resection is probably not necessary. To date,
there are no reports of laparoscopic resection of malignant pediatric liver lesions.
3.2. Staging Laparoscopy

Laparoscopy for hepatic evaluation in cases of intraabdominal malignancy appears to be a
very useful technique. In conjunction with laparoscopic ultrasound, thorough investigation
of the liver can be conducted to determine the presence and extent of hepatic metastases
and biopsies taken. This information can be vital for further operative planning and help
guide adjuvant therapy. In adult patients with hepatocellular carcinoma, use of staging
laparoscopy with laparoscopic ultrasonography helped avoid exploratory laparotomy in
.60% of patients with unresectable disease (63). This increased the resectability rate at
laparotomy from 74% to 88%. The procedure was less accurate than laparotomy for
assessing the presence of tumor thrombi and extent of invasion into adjacent organs. The
angle and direction of laparoscopic ultrasound was limited by port placement, particularly
when dealing with bulky tumors .10 cm in diameter. Procedural morbidity was negli-
gible. The safety and efficacy of laparoscopic liver biopsy for the diagnosis and evaluation
of pediatric malignancies have also been established (64).
3.3. Hydatid Cyst

Hydatid cyst disease of the liver is endemic in many parts of the world including Mediter-
ranean countries, the Baltics, South America, Australia, and the Middle East (65).
Although uncommon in North America (apart from Northern Canada), the prevalence
of the disease is likely to rise with increasing immigration from endemic areas.
The laparoscopic management of this disease is now well described (66 –68). The
general technique involves injection of a scoliocidal agent under laparoscopic visualiza-
tion followed by aspiration of cyst contents and wall, with meticulous attention to the pre-
vention of spillage. To avoid this risk of uncontrolled spillage during laparoscopy, Bickel
et al. (69) have recommended the use of transparent cannulas measuring up to 30 mm that
can be placed transabdominally and into the cyst under laparoscopic visualization through
which controlled cyst aspiration can be performed.
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10
Laparoscopic Splenectomy
Frederick J. Rescorla
Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis,
Indiana, USA
1. Technical Factors and Conversion Rates 138

2. Accessory Spleen Detection 141
3. Operative Time 142
4. Pain 142
5. Length of Stay 143
6. Cost 143
7. Complications and Long-Term Sequelae 144
8. Conclusions 146
References 146
The laparoscopic technique for splenectomy has ascended to a prominent, and at some
institutions, preferred technique since the initial report of Delaitre and Maignien (1).
Frequently cited advantages of laparoscopic splenectomy (LS) include decreased pain,
less occurrence of intestinal ileus, shortened hospital stay, and improved cosmesis. The
disadvantages identified include longer operative times, a steep learning curve, and
difficult splenic removal in cases of splenomegaly. Some authors have also questioned
the efficacy of accessory spleen detection with the laparoscopic technique and the potential
for splenosis if capsular disruption occurs (2,3).
Unfortunately, the data on LS comes primarily from case reports, large single and
multiinstitutional series, and case controlled series. There are no prospective randomized
trials. In many of the case controlled series, open splenectomy (OS) predominates in the
early portion of the time period and LS over the later time period, thus, raising questions
about comparisons of pain control techniques and length of stay. As with other procedures,
surgeons have eliminated practices such as the routine use of nasogastric tubes and lengthy
periods of withholding oral intake after many open procedures, thus, decreasing the length
of stay for open procedures during the same time period that laparoscopic procedures have
become more popular.
137
138 Rescorla
This chapter evaluates the existing data concerning LS and OS and provides the reader
with an evidence based approach to issues regarding splenectomy including technical
factors, operative time, conversion rates, detection of accessory spleens, pain medication
usage, length of stay, operative complications, and late sequelae. Adult series are cited selec-
tively; however, all comparative data comes exclusively from pediatric series.
1. TECHNICAL FACTORS AND CONVERSION RATES
The technique of LS has evolved over the past 10 years and during this time various
modifications and instruments have been utilized (Table 10.1). This particular technique
may affect the efficacy of the procedure, conversion rate, occurrence of capsular disruption,
and the detection of accessory spleens. Splenectomy in children is usually required for her-
editary spherocytosis, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), sickle cell disease, and
other less common conditions including lymphoma. In addition, the laparoscopic approach
has been utilized for the excision of splenic cysts, splenopexy for wandering spleens, and
partial splenectomy for trauma (4 – 6). Although splenomegaly is often noted with heredi-
tary spherocytosis and sickle cell anemia, the spleens are still typically smaller than that of
adults with splenomegaly and are usually removable with the standard devices.
Splenic artery embolization was widely utilized in the initial reports (7) in order to
lessen blood loss and decrease splenic size; however, it has been associated with pain,
abscess, and retroperitoneal necrosis (8). Complications related to embolization in one
study occurred in 5 of 26 patients (9), and others (10) have found that it did not lower
the risk of bleeding or transfusion requirement in their patients. Poulin et al. (9) in an
update, currently recommends splenic artery embolization for spleens between 20 and
30 cm in length and OS for spleens .30 cm, although others only utilize it in spleens
.25 cm (8). The splenic artery may also be ligated through the lesser sac in case of
splenomegaly and some authors feel this is as effective as embolization (11). Embolization
has not been widely utilized in children because even the largest spleens usually fit in the
retrieval bag.
Table 10.1 Reported Adjuncts for LS
Splenic artery embolization

Approach
Anterior
Lateral
Wall-lifting device
Immobilization with suction cup retractor
Hand-assisted procedures
Clip appliers
Endoscopic linear staplers
Ultrasonic dissectora
Removal techniques
Endocatch II bagb
Liposucker
Accessory incision
Splenic coring
a
Ultrasonic Harmonic Scalpel, Ethicon Endo-
surgery, Inc., Cincinnati, OH.
b
United States Surgical Corp, Norwalk, CT.
Laparoscopic Splenectomy 139
The anterior approach was initially utilized at several institutions; however, most
currently utilize a lateral approach with three to four trocars as depicted in Fig. 10.1
(12). Gossot et al. (13) describe the evolution of their technique from an anterior approach
to a hand assisted and then to a lateral approach identifying advantages of less blood loss
and shorter operative time with the lateral approach. Poulin et al. (9) also noted that the
change from an anterior to a lateral approach allowed them to avoid splenic artery
embolization in most instances.
With the introduction of mini-laparoscopic instruments, it is possible to reduce the
trocar size to 2– 3 mm at the sites where retractors and dissecting forceps are utilized
(Fig. 10.1). Yuan and Yu (14) reported utilizing one, 12 mm umbilical port (for camera,
endoscopic stapler, and retrieval bag) and three, 2 mm ports (for retraction, dissection,
and for the 2 mm camera). The author’s institution has found the 3 mm instruments
more useful than the 2 mm instruments which appear to lack the ability to elevate the
spleen and retract adjacent structures. If the camera is at the umbilical site and ultrasonic
dissector or clip applier are utilized, a 5 mm trocar is needed at one site, usually the left
lower quadrant. The introduction of the ultrasonic scalpel (Ultracision Harmonic
Scalpel, Ethicon Endosurgery, Inc., Cincinnati, OH) has been one of the most important
technical advances and the 5 mm diameter size allows it pass through a smaller trocar
than the original device. This allows division of splenic ligaments and small vessels
(short gastrics) without the need for introducing clip appliers and scissors, thus decreasing
operative time.
The diameter of the EndoCatch II device (United States Surgical Corp, Norwalk,
CT) is 15 mm and a similar sized umbilical trocar allows splenic removal and “hides”
Figure 10.1 The lateral approach with a common location of trocars. The author utilizes a 3
or 5 mm trocar at the upper midline sites (2) and (3), a 5 mm at trocar (4), and a 10, 12, or
15 mm umbilical trocar at the umbilicus (1).
140 Rescorla
most of the largest incision in the umbilicus. This bag has a diameter of 13 cm (5 in.) and
depth of 23 cm (9 in.) allowing removal of most pediatric spleens. Smaller spleens will fit
in the bags which are packaged in 10 mm devices (Endopouch, Ethicon Endosurgery, Inc.,
Cincinnati, OH), allowing a smaller umbilical port. The authors institution has not found it
necessary to “double bag” the spleen; however, some institutions have experienced bag
disruption and currently utilize a second bag. (15) Esposito et al. (16) reported 4 cases
of bag rupture out of 46 cases, although the type of bag was not specified. Various tech-
niques have been utilized to assist spleen fragmentation and removal from the bag, includ-
ing introduction of a finger, ring forceps, morcellator, or use of a liposucker (17). In
addition, Hebra et al. (18) described a technique in cases of splenomegaly of coring out
the spleen prior to placement in the bag.
Other operative adjuncts have included the use of a wall-lifting device with wires to
provide exposure and avoid pneumoperitoneum (19), an atraumatic suction cup grasper to
manipulate the spleen (20), an umbilical tape to elevate and immobilize the hilum (21),
and an accessory incision to remove the spleen or to allow a hand-assisted procedure in
cases of splenomegaly (22 – 23). An accessory incision has not been widely utilized in chil-
dren and would likely neutralize the positive effect of less pain medication, improved
cosmesis, and shorter length of stay associated with LS. Gigot et al. (24) noted that the
addition of this incision in adults prolonged the hospital stay when compared with those
without an accessory incision (7.9 + 5.1 days vs. 4.7 + 2.8 days, p , 0.03).
The technical aspect of some studies raise serious questions about the application of
LS. Sandoval et al. (25) in a series of 11 cases reported one child with sickle cell anemia
who underwent a splenectomy and cholecystectomy with addition of a left lower quadrant
incision to remove a 558 gm spleen. The procedure took 295 min and the child was
hospitalized for 5 days because of atelectasis. Patton et al. (26) performed a laparoscopic
cholecystectomy and splenectomy with a procedural time of 12 h. These patients may
have been better served with an open procedure.
Conversion rates are generally lower in pediatric series than in adult series
(Table 10.2), although several recent large adult series have a very low conversion rate.
Conversion is most frequently required for bleeding or splenomegaly. Several series
have noted higher conversion rates in their initial experience. Yee et al. (31) in a series
of adults and children converted 4 of their initial 11 (36%) but none of their next 14.
Parks et al. (8) in the largest reported series converted 3 of their initial 40 (7.5%) but
only 2 in the next 163 (1.2%). These rates are lower than those of most adult series
which include larger spleens associated with malignancy. Berman et al. (32) noted a
Table 10.2 Accessory Spleen Detection and Conversion Rates of Several Large Pediatric and
Adult Series
Accessory Conversion
Series Year Peds/adult N spleen (%) rate (%)
Gigot et al. (24) 1995 Adult 50 14 10

Friedman et al. (7) 1997 Adult 63 19 7
Katkhouda et al. (27) 1998 Adult 103 17 3.9
Minkes et al. (28) 2000 Peds 35 29 2.8
Park et al. (8) 2000 Both 203 12 3
Walsh et al. (29) 2001 Both 150 — 1.3
Esposito et al. (16) 2001 Peds 54 13 1.9
Rescorla et al. (30) 2002 Peds 112 17 2.7
conversion rate of 41% in adults with malignancy compared with a 3% conversion rate in
benign conditions.
2. ACCESSORY SPLEEN DETECTION
Table 10.2 provides the accessory detection rates in several large series of both adult and
pediatric LS, whereas Table 10.3 provides the comparative rates of accessory spleen
detection in pediatric series with OS and LS. As noted, the detection rates are comparable
in most series and the cumulative percentage of the comparative series are not statistically
different. Accessory spleens have been missed with both OS and LS leading to failure of
resolution or recurrence of thrombocytopenia in ITP and in hereditary spherocytosis of
recurrent anemia. Walters et al. (38) reported recurrence of ITP 5 years after splenectomy
in a woman with a missed accessory spleen.
Missed accessory spleens may achieve large size in cases of hereditary spherocyto-
sis and present clinically after an initial response to splenectomy. Crawford et al. (39)
reported a 31 year interval in a man with hereditary spherocytosis and recurrent
anemia. The mass which appeared most consistent with a splenic remnant was 12 cm in
its largest dimension and weighed 359 gm. The laparoscopic removal of missed accessory
spleens has been reported with good success by several authors (40 – 41).
Some authors have questioned the ability of laparoscopy to detect accessory spleens.
Taragona et al. (3) reported the details of 9 patients who failed to improve out of a group of
48 consecutive LS with an initial accessory spleen detection rate of 12.5%. The nine fail-
ures underwent heat damaged red blood cell scintigraphy with the detection of residual
splenic function in three. Computed tomography (CT) scans confirmed accessory
spleens in two, and in the other, scintigraphy demonstrated multiple hot spots in
the splenic fossa which the CT confirmed as splenic implants. This latter patient had
required conversion to open surgery and may have had splenic capsular disruption.
None of the three, however, had confirmatory surgical exploration to excise the residual
splenic tissue.
Gigot et al. (2) identified residual splenic function in 9 of 18 patients after LS despite
an operative accessory spleen detection rate of 41%. Only three of these had a clinical
recurrence and only one underwent exploration with removal of an accessory spleen.
They also noted that the rate of residual splenic tissue was 75% in those with capsular
disruption vs. 36% in those without parenchymal injuries.
Table 10.3 Comparative Data of Pediatric LS and OS
Accessory spleen OR time Length of

(%) (min) stay
Series N(OS/LS) OS LS OS LS OS LS
Farah et al. (33) 20/16 25 0 96 138 4.9 3.6

Waldhausen and Tapper (34) 10/10 20 20 90 211 3.3 2.6
Moores et al. (35) 20/12 35 50 84 173 4.7 3.3
Rescorla et al. (36) 32/50 25 18 83 115 2.5 1.4
Reddy et al. (37) 29/16 7 6 168 237 3.0 1.3
Minkes et al. (38) 17/35 12 29 — — 4.0 1.8
Total 26/128 28/139
(20.3) (20.2)
142 Rescorla
Several authors initially utilized preoperative scans including CT and scintigraphy

to detect accessory spleens; however, these tests have been abandoned by most.
Katkhouda et al. (27) performed routine preoperative CT scans on their initial 32 patients
and detected only two of seven (28.6%) accessory spleens and therefore abandoned the
practice. Gigot et al. (2) noted that a careful laparoscopic exam yielded a higher rate of
accessory spleen detection than combined preoperative CT and damaged red blood cell
scans. Despite the failure of several studies to demonstrate effective preoperative acces-
sory spleen detection, some authors recommend use of preoperative scans (16,42)
although they fail to provide evidence of its value. In addition, some have utilized
intraoperative scintigraphy for localization and the confirmation of complete excision of
accessory spleens (43).
Although it is difficult to determine an acceptable rate of accessory spleen detection,
some series had low numbers. Morris et al. (42) identified one accessory spleen in 16 LS
(6%) performed in adults with ITP. Two presented with recurrent thrombocytopenia and
after radionuclide scans identified accessory spleens, underwent successful laparoscopic
removal. The technique in which splenectomy is performed may also affect the detection
rate. A technique which divides the short gastric and hilar vessels together (31), with
several applications of the stapling device, without opening the lesser sac, may miss
accessory spleens located in this area. The available data would suggest that a careful
laparoscopic exam is equal to an open laparotomy for the detection of accessory spleens.
3. OPERATIVE TIME
Nearly every study has demonstrated increased operative time for the laparoscopic
technique (Table 10.3) and several have noted decreased operative time with increasing
surgeon’s experience. Gigot et al. (24) noted that operative time for surgeons performing
their first 10 LS averaged 214 min, whereas after this, averaged 165 min. Rege and Joehl
(44) demonstrated the learning curve in a teaching environment with increased success
(95% vs. 65%), shorter operative time (97 vs. 195 min), and shorter LOS (1.5 vs. 2.5
days) associated with increased experience as well as technical advances such as the
increased use of the ultrasonic scalpel and a change to the lateral position. A pediatric
series of 112 LSs noted shorter operative time (98 vs. 115 min) in their first 50 when com-
pared with the remainder of the series ( p ¼ 0.055) (30). This is still longer than the 83 min
for OS reported by the same group (36). Longer operative time results in higher operating
room and anesthesia charges which in most series have been balanced by a shorter length
of stay.
4. PAIN
Relatively few studies report pain medication use, however, most of these demonstrate
lower narcotic use with LS when compared with OS (Table 10.4). The most commonly
reported factor is total narcotic dose and some reports also include the time duration of
intravenous narcotics. This is similar to adults studies (46) which have noted equal
quality of life and adequacy of control of hematologic disease with less pain experienced
by the laparoscopic group. A potential shortcoming of a comparison of pain associated
with LS and OS is that OS predominates in the early portion of the time period of some
studies and may not reflect the use of patient controlled analgesia techniques which
have decreased narcotic use in patients with open procedures.
Table 10.4 Comparative Studies of Narcotic Use with LS and OS in Children
Morphine equivalent dose (mg/kg)
Series Year N(LS/OS) LS OS
Moores et al. (35) 1995 12/20 0.66 0.79 NSD

Beanes et al. (45) 1995 7/14 0.34 0.40 NSD
Curran et al. (15) 1998 7/7 0.18 0.8 p , 0.05
Rescorla et al. (36) 1998 50/32 0.239 0.48 p ¼ 0.006
Reddy et al. (37) 2001 16/29 0.15 1.5 p , 0.001
Note: NSD, no significant difference.
5. LENGTH OF STAY
Nearly every study has identified a shorter length of stay for LS when compared with OS
(Table 10.3). Length of stay contains significant variability and the length of stay for LS in
some series is longer than the length of stay for OS in other series. Shimomatsuya and
Horiuchi (47) in an adult series from Japan had an 8.9 day length of stay with laparoscopic
and 15.2 day with OS, clearly higher than most other series. Geiger et al. (48) performed
OS through a muscle, splitting lateral incision in 39 children with an average operative
time of 98 min, and an average LOS of 2.7 days. This length of stay is less than that of
LS in some pediatric series (Table 10.3), although it is similar to the 2.5 day stay reported
by the author’s institution in 32 open splenectomies (36). In that series a comparative case
controlled study noted a statistically significant shorter length of stay with LS.
The underlying diagnosis also appears to affect the hospital stay. Donini et al. (49)
noted shorter stays in patients with ITP and Hodgkins compared with other hematologic
diagnoses. A study from the author’s institution noted a longer length of stay in children
with sickle cell disease compared with ITP or spherocytosis (2.5 vs. 1.4 days) (36). This
difference may be related to splenic size as well as the effect of the primary disorder on
other organ systems such as the occurrence of acute chest syndrome in sickle cell
disease. The benefits of laparoscopy also exist with splenomegaly. Berman et al. (32) in
an adult series noted shorter stay for LS vs. OS (4 vs. 6 days) in patients with splenomegaly
related to malignancy.
Although adult series report length of stay data, back to work time is not reported.
An unreported effect of surgery in children is the return to the child’s full activity as well
as the effect of the child’s period of home rehabilitation on the ability of parents to return
to work. Full activity is difficult to define in children as return to full activity in a 1 year old
is different than that of a 10 year old, where return to school could be considered analogous
to adult series reporting return to work. One pediatric series (34) noted children with LS
returned to full activity 1– 5 weeks faster than those with the open procedure. They also
noted that parents who had undergone splenectomy themselves felt that the laparoscopic
procedure was better than their own OS and if given a choice would choose laparoscopy.
6. COST
Evaluation of cost data is difficult because of the differences in various hospital methods of
calculating cost and charges. Most studies which break down the cost note higher operat-
ive expenses for laparoscopy balanced by lower costs related to a shorter length of stay.
144 Rescorla
Table 10.5 Comparative Studies of Cost in LS and OS
Peds cost
Series Year N(LS/OS) LS (US dollars) OS (US dollars) p-Value
Janu et al. (50) 1996 14/47 7,223 4,081 ,0.05

Farah et al. (33) 1997 16/20 13,410 14,405
Waldhausen and 1997 10/10 13,033 7,106
Tapper (34)
Curran et al. (15) 1998 7/7 10,899 8,275
Rescorla et al. (36) 1998 50/32 5,713 6,566
Reddy et al. (37) 2001 16/29 4,950 5,400
Table 10.5 lists pediatric series with comparative cost data. As noted, there is no clear cost
savings for either procedure. Waldhausen and Tapper (34) had the greatest discrepancy
reported in cost and in their series, the operative cost of laparoscopy was over three
times than that of open, perhaps because of the relatively long operative time (211 min)
in this early experience. Although procedure cost is an important factor, as the cost is
not clearly higher for LS, it is probably not an important factor in deciding the method
of splenectomy.
7. COMPLICATIONS AND LONG-TERM SEQUELAE
Perhaps the most significant aspect of a comparative study is the evaluation of compli-
cations. Clavien et al. (51) presented a classification system of surgical complications in
an attempt to stratify the severity of complications and allow comparative analysis
(Table 10.6). Tables 10.7A and B report the complications for pediatric series of LS
and OS from 1995 – 2002. As seen in Table 10.7C, there is no statistical difference
between the rate of Grade I and Grade II or total complications between OS and LS.
One potential limitation of this could be under-reporting of Grade I complications
which would include atelectasis, gastric distention requiring nasogastric tube, and fever
with temperatures .38.58C on two consecutive days, although under-reporting should
equally affect both groups. These results are similar to adult series. Targarona et al.
(57) in a group of 122 LSs had a complication rate of 18% with all Clavien type I
and II. Forty-three percent of their complications were technically related. Espert (58)
had a complication rate of 16% with laparoscopic and 28% with OS (NSD). Friedman
et al. (7) in the largest comparative adult series (63 LS, 74 OS) noted an equivalent rate
of Grade I and II complications (5 – 9%) between OS and LS but higher Grade III (4%
vs. 0%) and Grade IV (3% vs. 0%) in OS compared with LS.
Table 10.6 Clavien Classification of Surgical Complications
Grade I Minor, complication resolves spontaneously or with minor bedside procedure

Grade II Potentially life threatening, usually require intervention. Iatrogenic injuries.
Complications resulting in doubling of hospital stay
Grade III Residual or lasting disability. Iatrogenic organ resection
Grade IV Death as a result of the complication
Table 10.7 Complications Associated with LS, OS, and Comparison of Cumulative Complication
Rate
Clavien grade
Series Year N I II III IV
(A) LS
Beanes et al. (45) 1995 7 1 1 0 0
Moores et al. (35) 1995 12 1 0 0 0
Yoshida et al. (52) 1995 8 0 0 0 0
Fitzgerald et al. (12) 1996 18 0 1 0 0
Janu et al. (50) 1996 14 0 1 0 0
Esposito et al. (53) 1997 8 0 0 0 0
Farah et al. (33) 1997 16 1 4 0 0
Schleef et al. (21) 1997 11 0 0 0 0
Waldhausen and Tapper (34) 1997 10 0 0 0 0
Curran et al. (15) 1998 7 0 1 0 0
Liu et al. (54) 2000 11 3 0 0 0
Minkes et al. (28) 2000 35 0 3 0 0
Park et al. (55) 2000 59 0 3 0 0
Reddy et al. (37) 2001 16 0 1 0 0
Rescorla et al. (30) 2002 112 4 8 0 0
Total 344 10 (2.9%) 23 (6.7%) 0 0

(B) OS
Beanes et al. (45) 1995 14 0 2 0 0
Moores et al. (35) 1995 20 1 1 0 0
Yoshida et al. (52) 1995 11 0 0 0 0
Janu et al. (50) 1996 47 6 1 0 0
Esposito et al. (53) 1997 8 1 0 0 0
Farah et al. (33) 1997 20 1 5 0 0
Waldhausen and Tapper (34) 1997 10 0 0 0 0
Curran et al. (15) 1998 7 0 0 0 0
Geiger et al. (48) 1998 39 0 1 0 0
Rescorla et al. (36) 1998 32 1 0 0 0
Al-Salem (56) 1999 115 7 5 0 0
Minkes et al. (28) 2000 17 0 1 0 0
Reddy et al. (37) 2001 29 1 2 0 0
Total 369 18 (4.9%) 18 (4.9%) 0 0
(C) Comparison of cumulative complication rate
Open N ¼ 369 Laparoscopic N ¼ 344 p-Value
Grade I 18 10 0.18
Grade II 18 23 0.30
Total I and II 36 33 0.94
Although there have been no Grade III or IV complications in the pediatric laparo-
scopic series reported to date, there have been serious complications in adult reports.
Bernard et al. (59) in a series of 20 patients had two serious complications: one death
from intraoperative hemorrhage and one delayed the presentation of a diaphragmatic
hernia and gastric perforation. Although most splenectomies in children are performed
146 Rescorla
for benign conditions, adults often have lymphoma, myelodysplastic syndrome, leukemia,
or HIV associated thrombocytopenia, a fact which undoubtedly affects morbidity and mor-
tality. The operative complications in adults with OS are also significant and appear
related to the disease process. A recent report (60) of 83 OSs in adults noted a direct cor-
relation between splenic weight and blood loss. They observed a postoperative compli-
cation rate of 27% and mortality of 6%; however, in patients with myelofibrosis there
was a 50% complication rate and a 21% mortality rate. This is similar to a somewhat
earlier series of 142 OSs in adults noting a 22% complication rate and 6% mortality
rate (61). Berman et al. (32) in a multiinstitutional review reported 22 patients undergoing
LS for malignancy observed longer operative time (conversion rate, 41%); however, noted
similar morbidity, mortality, and transfusion requirements compared with OS. They also
noted shorter length of stay (4 vs. 6 days) with laparoscopy. Few reports directly address
splenomegaly in children. In North America, splenomegaly is usually associated with
spherocytosis and sickle cell anemia, whereas, in other parts of the world thalassemia is
a much more common cause. Al-Salem (56) in a recent report of 115 children undergoing
OS included 20 with massive splenomegaly (1000 g) and noted no mortality; however,
there was a higher morbidity (10%) with massive splenomegaly compared with a 6.3%
rate for splenomegaly.
8. CONCLUSIONS
The available evidence in the literature, although limited, indicates that LS is comparable
to OS for control of disease including detection of accessory spleens. A careful search
must be made for accessory spleens and capsular disruption must not occur. The operative
time for LS is longer than that for OS and, although decreasing with increased experience,
is not equivalent to OS. The complication rate for LS is low and comparable to the low rate
for OS. Although most studies have not evaluated procedural pain, of those patients eval-
uated in comparative studies, less narcotic use has been observed with the laparoscopic
technique. LS is associated with a shorter length of stay than OS. There is insufficient
data available to draw conclusions about return to full activity; however, one could
infer that this is improved because of shorter hospital stay and decreased pain medication
usage. The cosmetic appearance is improved in LS compared with OS, although this
subjective factor has not been studied in any fashion. The laparoscopic technique has
been validated as an acceptable approach for splenectomy and in many aspects is superior
to the open technique.
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44. Rege RV, Joehl RJ. A learning curve for laparoscopic splenectomy at an academic institution.
J Surg Res 1999; 81:27– 32.
45. Beanes S, Emil S, Kosi M, Applebaum H, Atkinson J. A comparison of laparoscopic versus
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46. Velanovich V, Shurafa MS. Clinical and quality of life outcomes of laparoscopic and open
splenectomy for haematological diseases. Eur J Surg 2001; 167:23 – 28.
47. Shimomatsuya T, Horiuchi T. Laparoscopic splenectomy for treatment of patients with
idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Comparison with open splenectomy. Surg Endosc
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48. Geiger JD, Dinh VV, Teitelbaum DH, Lelli JL, Harmon CM, Hirschl RB, Polley TZ,
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49. Donini A, Baccarani U, Terrosu G, Corno V, Ermacora A, Pasqualucci A, Bresadola F. Laparo-
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50. Janu PG, Rogers DA, Lobe TE. A comparison of laparoscopic and traditional open splenect-
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51. Clavien PA, Sanabria JR, Strasberg SM. Proposed classification of complications of surgery
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11
Laparoscopic Adrenalectomy in Children:
An Outcomes Analysis
Mark L. Wulkan
Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
1. Introduction 151
2. Technical Considerations 151
3. Adult Experience 153
4. Pediatric Experience 153
5. Conclusion 155
References 155
1. INTRODUCTION
Laparoscopic adrenalectomy has been adopted as the standard of care in adults and is
becoming a standard of care in children. It was first described by Gagner in 1992 (1).
Since then, there have been several comparisons between open and laparoscopic adrena-
lectomy in adults (2 – 16). These studies are all retrospective or case –control studies.
There are no prospective randomized studies. Despite this limitation, they show that
patients undergoing laparoscopic adrenalectomy benefit from decreased hospital stay,
less pain, less morbidity, faster return to activities, and decreased overall costs. Currently,
there are not many studies in children; although two of the earlier studies include a few
pediatric patients (2,16). The studies in children (17 – 20) show similar results to those
of the adults.
2. TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The unique anatomy of the adrenal gland lends it to multiple operative approaches. This
complicates direct comparison of the various techniques. Traditional open approaches are
anterior transperitoneal, flank transperitoneal, flank retroperitoneal, and posterior retroper-
itoneal. Each approach has its unique advantages. The flank and posterior approaches are
151
152 Wulkan
generally less invasive; however, the anterior approach provides generous exposure for
malignancies and large tumors. Likewise, these four approaches may be used laparosco-
pically. There are no comparisons of all of these techniques in one study. The differences
in pain, hospital stay, cost, and morbidity among the three open approaches are greater
than the differences among the laparoscopic approaches, though there are no comparisons
among the various laparoscopic approaches in children.
The author prefers to use a modified lateral transperitoneal approach. This technique
provides generous exposure of the adrenal gland and the peritoneal contents. The patient is
placed in a modified lateral decubitus position. The distance between the iliac crest and the
costal margin is increased either by placing a rolled blanket under the operative side or by
flexing the table (Fig. 11.1). The advantage of this technique is that you may easily manip-
ulate the patient during the procedure from a true lateral position to the supine position.
The right adrenal is approached using four trocars: umbilical, mid-clavicular, anterior axil-
lary, and mid-epigastric. A fifth trocar may be needed for retraction. The mid-epigastric
port is used for a liver retractor. The camera is placed in the mid-clavicular port, and
the surgeon operates through the anterior axillary and umbilical ports. The adrenal is
approached after mobilizing the duodenum and the right lobe of the liver. The vena
cava is identified, and the adrenal vein can be easily isolated and ligated with clips or
impedance feedback bipolar electrocautery device (Ligasure, Valleylab, CA, USA).
Once the vein is ligated, the gland is dissected medially to laterally, dividing the remaining
vessels with clips or electrocautery.
The modified lateral approach to the left gland is performed with three or four
trocars. After an initial trocar is placed in the umbilicus, trocars are placed in the mid-
clavicular and anterior axillary lines. The camera is then moved to the mid-clavicular
trocar. A fourth trocar may be placed in the mid-epigastrum for retraction, if necessary.
The splenic flexure of the colon is mobilized. The inferior pole of the spleen is then
freed from its retroperitoneal attachments, and Gerota’s fascia is entered. Larger tumors
Figure 11.1 Modified lateral decubitus position set up by placing a roll under the patient’s
shoulder and hip. (A) Table tilted right resulting in a relatively supine patient position. (B)
Table tilted left resulting in the lateral decubitus position.
Laparoscopic Adrenalectomy in Children 153
will displace the spleen superiorly and anteriorly. It may be necessary to mobilize the
lateral attachments of the spleen in smaller tumors to gain access to the gland. The
spleen and the tail of the pancreas are rotated medially. The key to the dissection is to
exploit the plane between the kidney and the adrenal gland. The posterior and lateral
attachments of adrenal gland are left alone, and the dissection is continued anterior and
inferior to the gland to expose the adrenal vein. The vein is then ligated as mentioned
previously, and the remainder of the adrenal gland dissected free using electrocautery
for hemostasis.
The retroperitoneal approaches to the adrenal glands are described elsewhere (21).
These approaches are best for small tumors. There are theoretical advantages to the retro-
peritoneal approach because of the fact that the peritoneal cavity is not violated. This has
not been substantiated in any outcomes study. Yoneda et al. (22) compared the lateral
transabdominal approach with a posterior retroperitoneal approach in sixteen patients.
The only statistically significant difference he found between the two approaches was a
longer operative time for the retroperitoneal approach (129 vs. 269 min). There were no
differences with respect to blood loss, time to oral intake, or time to ambulation. It does
not appear that there are any clinically relevant benefits to the more technically challen-
ging and longer retroperitoneal approach.
3. ADULT EXPERIENCE
In 1999, a review article by Smith et al. (23) declared laparoscopic adrenalectomy the new
gold standard in adults. As of that time, there had been nearly 600 cases of laparoscopic
adrenalectomy reported in the literature. It is clear from these articles that laparoscopic
adrenalectomy is safe and efficacious in benign disease including pheochromocytoma.
There are little or no data for laparoscopic adrenalectomy for malignant disease. There
are scattered reports of patients with malignant disease treated with laparoscopic resec-
tion; however, there are no long-term results relating to recurrence rates. Most authors
recommend that malignant disease should be resected by an open technique. This may
be different in the pediatric population as it relates to neuroblastoma because of the
biological nature of the disease.
Prior to laparoscopy, the posterior approach to the adrenal glands was gaining favor
as a minimally invasive approach to adrenal disease. In studies comparing open posterior
vs. laparoscopic adrenalectomy, Thompson et al. (12), in a case – control study of 100
patients, and Dudley and Harrison (16), in a retrospective study of 46 patients, demon-
strated a shorter hospital stay in the laparoscopic group although the laparoscopic group
had a longer operative time. Acosta et al. (24), in a study of 59 patients, demonstrated
no significant differences in hospital stay or operative time in patients undergoing unilat-
eral adrenalectomy. They noted significantly longer operative times in patients undergoing
bilateral adrenalectomy. The clinical significance of longer operative times is not clear.
In summary, the adult literature supports laparoscopic adrenalectomy for benign
disease. There are several authors who have removed malignant tumors, although there
is no long-term follow-up.
4. PEDIATRIC EXPERIENCE
Seven published articles were reviewed (17 – 21,25,26). Of the seven articles, four are case
reports. In all, 30 patients are reported (Table 11.1). In this analysis of the pediatric
154 Wulkan
Table 11.1 Summary of Reports of Pediatric Adrenalectomy
Number of Mean age Mean tumor Number

patients (years) size (cm) converted to open
Shanberg et al. (17) 3 NRa 5 1

Pretorius et al. (18) 1 12 4 0
Clements et al. (19) 1 12 4 3.5 0
Schier et al. (20) 1 14 NRa 0
Mirallie et al. (21) 6 9.5 4 2
Radmayr et al. (26) 1 8 NRa 0
Miller et al. (25) 17 9.8 4.8 1
a
NR, not reported.
literature, there were four conversions (12.5%) to open procedures. The reasons for con-
version to an open procedure included poor control of the right renal vein (17), tumor
thrombus in the right renal vein secondary to an adrenal carcinoma (25), and two conver-
sions for difficulty in gaining exposure on the left side. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy was
performed for a variety of diagnoses (Table 11.2). The most common was pheochromocy-
toma (11), and all were cured of their disease. There were four adrenalectomies performed
for malignant disease (three neuroblastomas, one adrenocortical carcinoma). There have
been no local or distant recurrent tumor metastases in those patients with neoplasms.
The postoperative stay for all patients ranged from 1 to 6 days. Most patients were dis-
charged on the second postoperative day. There were no major complications reported.
These studies represent a small number of pediatric patients with a distribution of
disease that is somewhat different from the adult studies although malignant disease
was included. This is likely because of the biological nature of the common pediatric
malignancy of the adrenal gland, neuroblastoma, when compared with adrenal carci-
nomas, which are more common in adults. Localized small neuroblastomas are not inva-
sive, and tumor “spillage” is not an issue. Adult surgeons are also less likely to encounter
ganglioneuromas. It is reasonable to assume that the morbidity of laparoscopic adrenalect-
omy is relatively independent of age for similar diagnoses. It also appears, from both the
adult and the pediatric literature, that the recovery time after laparscopic adrenalectomy is
relatively rapid. Although the number of pediatric patients is small, it seems to follow that
the conclusions of the large adult studies appear to be valid for the pediatric population.
This assumption may not be valid for laparoscopic adrenalectomy for malignancy, as
the nature of pediatric adrenal malignancies is so different from adult adrenal
malignancies.
Table 11.2 Diagnoses (Number) of Pediatric Patients Undergoing Laparoscopic

Adrenalectomy Based on Reported Literature (17 – 21,25,26)
Pheochromocytoma (9)
Ganglioneuroma (9)
Cushing’s disease (6)
Adenoma (5)
Neuroblastoma (1)
Adrenocortical carcinoma (1)
Paraganglioma (1)
Laparoscopic Adrenalectomy in Children 155
5. CONCLUSION
Laparoscopic adrenalectomy appears to have the same benefits in children as it has in

adults. This procedure is becoming the standard of care in children with diseases of the
adrenal gland. It has been successfully demonstrated that laparoscopic techniques may
be used to treat multiple diseases of the adrenal gland in children, including pheochromo-
cytomas and malignancies. It is reasonable to extrapolate from the adult studies that chil-
dren undergoing laparoscopic adrenalectomy have a shorter hospital stay and less
operative morbidity than those who undergo an open procedure. The current pediatric
reports support the conclusions of the adult literature. Long-term results appear to be sat-
isfactory following laparoscopic adrenalectomy in children for a variety of diagnoses,
although more long-term follow-up and outcome analyses are needed to solidify these
conclusions.
REFERENCES
1. Gagner M, Lacroix A, Bolte E. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy in Cushing’s syndrome and

pheochromocytoma. N Engl J Med 1992; 327:1033.
2. Schell SR, Talamini MA, Udelsman R. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy for nonmalignant disease:
improved safety, morbidity, and cost-effectiveness. Surg Endosc 1999; 13:30– 34.
3. Bonjer HJ, Lange JF, Kazemier G, de Herder WW, Steyerbert EW, Bruining HA. Comparison
of three techniques for adrenalectomy. Br J Surg 1997; 84:679.
4. Brunt LM, Doherty GM, Norton JA, Soper NJ, Quasebarth MA, Moley JF. Laparoscopic
adrenalectomy compared to open adrenalectomy for benign adrenal neoplasms. J Am Coll
Surg 1996; 183:1.
5. Ishikawa T, Sowa M, Nagayama M, Nishiguchi Y, Yoshikawa K. Laparoscopic adrenalect-
omy: comparison with the conventional approach. Surg Laparosc Endosc 1997; 7:275.
6. Jacobs JK, Goldstein RE, Geer RJ. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy: a new standard of care. Ann
Surg 1997; 225:495.
7. Linos DA, Stylopoulos N, Boukis M, Souvatzoglou A, Raptis S, Papadimitriou J. Anterior,
posterior, or laparoscopic approach for the management of adrenal diseases? Am J Surg
1997; 173:120.
8. MacGillivary DC, Shichman SJ, Ferrer FA, Malchoff CD. A comparison of open vs.
laparoscopic adrenalectomy. Surg Endosc 1996; 10:987.
9. Nash PA, Leibovitch I, Donohue JP. Adrenalectomy via the dorsal approach: a benchmark for
laparoscopic adrenalectomy. J Urol 1995; 154:1652.
10. Staren ED, Prinz RA. Adrenalectomy in the era of laparoscopy. Surgery 1996; 120:706.
11. Vargas HI, Kavoussi LR, Bartlett DL et al. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy: a new standard of
care. Urology 1997; 49:673.
12. Thompson GB, Grant CS, van Heerden JA et al. Laparoscopic versus open posterior
adrenalectomy: a case – control study of 100 patients. Surgery 1997; 122:1132– 1136.
13. Janetschek G. Surgical options in adrenalectomy: laparoscopic versus open surgery. Curr Opin
Urol 1999; 9:213– 218.
14. Imai T, Kikumori T, Ohiwa M, Mase T, Funahashi H. A case-controlled study of laparoscopic
compared with open lateral adrenalectomy. Am J Surg 1999; 178:50 – 53.
15. Soares RL Jr, Monchik J, Migliori SJ, Amaral JF. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy for benign
adrenal neoplasms. Surg Endosc 1999; 13:40 – 42.
16. Dudley NE, Harrison BJ. Comparison of open posterior versus transperitoneal laparoscopic
adrenalectomy. Br J Surg 1999; 86:656 – 660.
17. Shanberg AM, Sanderson K, Rajpoot D, Duel B. Laparoscopic retroperitoneal renal and
adrenal surgery in children. BJU Int 2001; 87:521 – 524.
156 Wulkan
18. Pretorius M, Rasmussen GE, Holcomb GW. Hemodynamic and catecholamine responses to a
laparoscopic adrenalectomy for pheochromocytoma in a pediatric patient. Anesth Analg 1998;
87:1268 – 1270.
19. Clements RH, Golldstein RE, Holcomb GW III. Laparoscopic left adrenalectomy for
pheochromocytoma in a child. J Pediatr Surg 1999; 34:1408 – 1409.
20. Schier F, Mutter D, Bennek J, Brock D, Hoepffner W. Laparoscopic bilateral adrenalectomy in
a child. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1999; 9:420 –421.
21. Mirallie E, Leclair MD, de Lagausie P et al. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy in children. Surg
Endosc 2001; 15:156 –160.
22. Yoneda K, Shiba E, Watanabe T et al. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy: lateral transabdominal
approach vs. posterior retroperitoneal approach. Biomed Pharmacother 2000; 54(suppl 1):
215– 219.
23. Smith CD, Weber CJ, Amerson JR. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy: new gold standard. World J
Surg 1999; 23:389 –396.
24. Acosta E, Pantoja JP, Gamino R et al. Laparoscopic versus open adrenalectomy in Cushing’s
syndrome and disease. Surgery 1999; 126:1111 – 1116.
25. Miller KA, Albanese C, Harrison M et al. Outcome analysis of pediatric patients undergoing
laparoscopic adrenalectomy. J Pediatr Surg 2002; 37:979– 982.
26. Radmayr C, Neumann H, Bartsch G, Elsner R, Janetschek G. Laparoscopic partial
adrenalectomy for bilateral pheochromocytomas in a boy with von Hippel –Lindau disease.
Eur Urol 2000; 38:344 – 348.
12
Outcomes Following Laparoscopic
Pyloromyotomy for Infantile
Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
Shawn J. Rangel
Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
Craig T. Albanese
1. Literature Review 158

2. Duration of Surgery 158
3. Postoperative Recovery 158
4. Efficacy 160
5. Complications 160
6. Conclusions 162
References 163
Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis (IHPS) is a common surgical condition encountered

in the neonatal period, with an estimated incidence of two to three cases per 1000 live
births (1). The surgical technique of extramucosal pyloromyotomy for the treatment of
IHPS was first described by Ramstedt in 1912 (2). This operation is technically straight-
forward, associated with minimal morbidity, and remains the treatment of choice for IHPS
nearly a century after it was first described. Treatment of IHPS with laparoscopic
pyloromyotomy (LP) was first performed in France nearly 15 years ago, and a number
of surgeons from around the world have since reported their experience using this
approach (3). Proponents of LP have cited improved cosmesis, quicker return to full
feeding, and a shorter hospital stay when compared with open pyloromyotomy (OP)
(4 –6). Although a number of early reports have suggested the superiority of LP over
OP, other studies have found the two approaches to be similar with respect to these out-
comes (7 –10). Furthermore, concerns have been revised regarding the safety of LP, par-
ticularly with the reported increased risk of (unrecognized) mucosal perforation (9,11). At
present, there remain unanswered questions regarding the safety, efficacy, and magnitude
of benefits for LP when compared with the conventional OP approach. The purpose of this
chapter is to clarify outcomes relating to postoperative recovery, efficacy, and compli-
cation rates for LP compared with OP through a review of the available clinical evidence.
157
158 Rangel and Albanese
1. LITERATURE REVIEW
At the conception of this chapter (November, 2004), 10 clinical studies were identified
from the National Library of Medicine’s Pubmed database comparing outcomes
between LP and OP (Table 12.1) (4 – 13). These studies reported collectively on 290
patients who underwent LP and 403 patients who underwent OP. For the purpose of mini-
mizing the influence of selection bias on outcome measures, only studies reporting
comparison data between LP and OP were included in this review (studies reporting on
outcomes of LP or OP alone were excluded). Seven of the 10 clinical reports were retro-
spective cohort studies (7 –13), two were prospective cohort studies (5,6), and only one
study was a randomized clinical trial (4). Outcomes of interest were those pertaining to
operative time, postoperative recovery (time to full feeds and length of hospital stay), effi-
cacy (rates of conversion for the LP group and rates of inadequate pyloromyotomy for
either group), and safety (perioperative and postoperative complications). There were
no significant differences in baseline demographic or electrolyte parameters between
infants treated with LP and those treated with OP in any of these studies. A formal
meta-analysis was not attempted for any outcome measures owing to the heterogeneous
and predominantly retrospective nature of the studies included in this review.
2. DURATION OF SURGERY
The duration of surgery was reported for both groups in all 10 studies, although not all
studies clearly described how this outcome was defined (e.g., total anesthetic time, time
from incision to dressing, etc.). The range of operative duration for LP was 19 –50 min,
whereas the range for OP was 19– 33 min (Table 12.1). Two of the studies found a signifi-
cant difference suggesting LP was the quicker procedure (both studies being prospective,
including the RCT), whereas two other studies found a significant difference favoring the
open approach. The other six studies found no significant difference between the out-
comes. The absolute difference in mean operative time was negligible in most studies,
with only two of the eight studies reporting a difference of .5 min. Interestingly, the col-
lective results from these studies did not suggest a trend of decreased operative time for LP
with either larger experiences (assumption of greater experience with LP) or more contem-
porary experiences (assumption of better equipment to facilitate LP).
3. POSTOPERATIVE RECOVERY
Eight of the 10 studies reported the length of postoperative time before full feedings were
tolerated (Table 12.1). Patients treated with LP were able to tolerate full feedings sooner
than those treated with OP in all eight studies, although a significant difference favoring
LP was found in only two studies (both of these were prospective, including the RCT). The
time to achieve full feeds was quite variable across the eight studies, ranging from 4 to
35 h in the LP group and from 9 to 61 h in the OP group. Despite this apparent heterogen-
eity, there was a consistently small (and likely negligible) difference in the time to achieve
full feeds between groups in each study. A difference of 5 h or less was observed in six of
the eight studies, reporting this outcome (including the RCT).
With respect to postoperative feeding outcomes, any generalizations must be made
in the context of important observations regarding the methodology used in these studies.
Although all eight studies provided adequate details regarding postoperative feeding
LP for IHPS
Table 12.1 Demographic and Perioperative Outcome Data from 10 Clinical Studies Comparing LP and OP for the Treatment of IHPS
Time to full Length of stay Conversion

Patients (n) OR time (min) feeds (h) (h) rate (%)
Study Year Type LP OP LP OP LP OP LP OP LP
Greason et al. (10) 1995 RC 14 11 25 26 19 23 NR NR 0% (0/14)

Scorpio et al. (6) 1995 PC 26 37 29 27 NR NR 41 64 NR
Ford et al. (9) 1997 RC 33 51 41 28 32 41 NR NR 3% (1/33)
Greason (4) 1997 RCT 10 10 19 24 4 9 23 25 0% (0/10)
Bufo et al. (12) 1998 RC 29 125 26 30 14 15 26 34 NR
Sitsen et al. (11) 1998 RC 26 21 32 19 NR NR 70 74 8% (2/26)
Fujimoto et al. (5) 1999 PC 29 30 27 32 35 61 NR NR 3% (1/29)
Campbell et al. (8) 2002 RC 65 52 38 33 19 20 31 28 8% (5/65)
Caceres and Liu (7) 2003 RC 28 28 36 33 24 27 60 62 7% (2/28)
Hall et al. (15) 2004 RC 39 38 50 30 24 26 48 48 8% (3/39)
Note: NR, not reported, Data in bold indicate that a significant difference was found for that outcome in the referenced study ( p , 0.05). Of note, no statistical analysis of outcome
measures was attempted in the study by Ford et al. (9).
159
protocols, there was little, if any, detail given to how protocols were modified when
feeding intolerance was present (or how intolerance was defined for this purpose). Further-
more, there was significant heterogeneity in the postoperative feeding protocols across
different studies. This was not only the case with respect to when and by what modality
feeding would begin, but also how feedings would be advanced over time.
The total length of hospital stay (LOS) was reported for both groups in seven of the
10 studies. The duration of hospitalization was found to be shorter for the LP group in five
of these studies, although this difference was significant in only two studies. For the three
prospective studies, one found a significant difference favoring the LP group, whereas the
other two (including the RCT) did not find a difference in this outcome. In general, differ-
ences in the duration of hospitalization were minimal (and likely clinically negligible),
with most studies reporting differences of 4 h or less between groups. As was the case
with postoperative feeding data, significant variability was observed between studies
with respect to LOS (range for LP: 23– 70 h and range for OP: 28– 74 h).
Several observations regarding the methodology used in these studies must be kept
in mind when drawing conclusions from LOS data. It is noteworthy that none of the studies
clearly described their discharge criteria or who was responsible for determining when
these criteria were met. There likely exists significant heterogeneity between different
centers and over different time periods with respect to such practice patterns, and this
may explain much of the observed variability. Although the number of studies in this
review is relatively few, it was interesting that there appeared to be no correlation
between a quicker return to full feeding and a shorter hospital stay. In both studies report-
ing a significantly shorter period of time to full feeds in the LP group, the total LOS was
not significantly different between groups. Conversely, the length of time to achieve full
feeding was not significantly different between groups in the two studies, demonstrating a
shorter LOS for the LP group.
4. EFFICACY
For the purpose of this review, a pyloromyotomy was considered technically successful
when an interval procedure was not required for inadequate pyloromyotomy. Intraopera-
tive conversion to an open procedure due to a complication or the inability to perform the
operation safely was also considered a technical failure for the LP group. Of the 290
patients who collectively underwent LP in this review, 18 (16%) patients from six different
studies were considered technical failures by these criteria. The individual failure rates for
each of the eight studies reporting efficacy data ranged from 0% to 5%. Of the 18 technical
failures for LP, 14 (5%) were due to intraoperative complications requiring an open con-
version (most commonly due to a mucosal perforation) and four (1%) were due to
inadequate pyloromyotomy. Of the collective 403 patients who underwent OP as initial
treatment, only one patient (0.2%) required a reoperation for inadequate pyloromyotomy.
5. COMPLICATIONS
Data regarding complication rates for LP and OP were available from all 10 studies
(Table 12.2). None of the studies was able to demonstrate a significant difference in
overall complication rates between groups. With respect to intraoperative complications,
mucosal lacerations appeared to be more common in the LP group and serosal lacerations
were more common in the OP group (although neither significantly so). Of the nine
LP for IHPS
Table 12.2 Complication Profiles for 10 Published Studies Comparing LP and OP for the Treatment of IHPS
Perioperative complications Postoperative complications

Mucosal Protracted
Total complications perforation Serosal laceration Inadequate PM emesis Wound infection Other
Study LP OP LP OP LP OP LP OP LP OP LP OP LP OP
Greason et al. (10) 0/14 (0%) 1/11 (9%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Scorpio et al. (6) 1/26 (4%) 3/37 (8%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 NS NS 0 2 1 1
Ford et al. (9) 7/33 (21%) 5/51 (10%) 3 3 0 0 1 1 NR NR 1 1 2 0
Greason (4) 0/10 (0%) 1/10 (10%) 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bufo et al. (12) 1/29 (3%) 4/125 (3%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 NR NR 0 2 1 2
Sitsen et al. (11) 9/26 (35%) 5/21 (24%) 3 2 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 1 0 0
Fujimoto et al. (5) 1/29 (3%) 5/30 (17%) 1 0 0 3 0 0 SD SD 0 2 0 0
Campbell et al. (8) 11/65 (18%) 6/52 (12%) 1 0 0 0 1 0 4 3 3 0 2 3
Caceres and Liu (7) 1/28 (4%) 4/28 (14%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 1 0 0
Hall et al. (13) 6/39 (15%) 10/38 (26%) 1 2 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 4 1 2
Total incidence 37/290 (13%) 42/403 (11%) 9 (3%) 7 (2%) 1 (,1%) 5 (1%) 4 (1%) 1 (,1%) 9 (3%) 9 (2%) 7 (2%) 14 (3%) 7 (2%) 8 (2%)
Note: NR, not reported; Numbers in the column under “protracted emesis” indicate the number of patients in the study who were deemed to have abnormal postoperative emesis (the
criteria for this diagnosis were variable and often ambiguous across studies). SD, a significant difference was found in this study favoring the LP group, although this was based on compar-
ing the proportions of all feedings associated with emesis. NS, reported in the study as “not significant,” although the actual data were not available.
161
duodenal perforations in patients treated with LP, three were not detected intraoperatively.
These patients underwent reoperation following the development of peritonitis, but ulti-
mately did well and suffered no long-term morbidity. All seven of the duodenal perfor-
ations noted in the OP group were detected and managed during the initial procedure.
The overall incidence of perforation was relatively rare, however, occurring in ,3% of
cases in both treatment groups. Inadequate pyloromotomy requiring reoperation was
four times more common in the LP group, although this complication was also a fairly
rare event (occurring in ,1% of cases in both groups).
Postoperative complication profiles were very similar between groups with respect
to wound infections and non-wound related complications (pneumonia and other respira-
tory complications). Of the eight studies reported on postoperative emesis, only one found
a significant difference in favor of the laparoscopic group (5). However, this study com-
pared the overall proportions of feedings associated with any degree of emesis, which may
not in itself be clinically significant. Of the six studies (including the RCT) which exam-
ined postoperative emesis in the context of a clinically relevant endpoint (e.g., delayed
hospitalization or need for further work-up), none found a significant difference
between those treated with LP or with OP. In general, comparing the incidence of clini-
cally relevant emesis between studies was difficult given the variable and often ambiguous
definition of this complication.
6. CONCLUSIONS
From the currently available data, we conclude that both operative approaches appear to
provide a safe and efficacious treatment for IHPS. There appear to be no clinically relevant
differences in operative time, measures of postoperative recovery, or complication profiles
between the two operations. Serious complications such as duodenal perforation were
fairly uncommon in both groups, although it is important to note that all three unrecog-
nized perforations occurred in the LP group. It has been proposed that the loss of tactile
feedback and direct visualization in the laparoscopic environment may increase the risk
of duodenal perforation and at the same time decrease the surgeon’s ability to recognize
this complication when it does occur. This underscores the importance of adequate train-
ing (and mentorship) to successfully negotiate the learning curve for LP.
The importance of experience in achieving satisfactory outcomes for LP was recently
highlighted by van der Bilt et al. (14) in their review of 182 LPs performed over a 9 year
period. Although this was not a study comparing LP with OP (therefore not included in
this review), this study represents the single largest experience of LP to date. The authors
compared 36 LPs performed between 1993 and 1996 with 146 LPs performed between
1996 and 2002. They found a significant difference in complication rates between these
two periods, with the incidence of mucosal perforations decreasing from 8.7% to 0.7%
and the incidence of inadequate pyloromyotomy decreasing from 8.7% to 2.7% over time.
The conclusions of this review mirror those offered by Hall et al. (15) in their recent
meta-analysis of studies comparing LP and OP. Eight of the studies examined in this
review were the focus of their analysis, and they found no statistically significant differ-
ences in operative time or complication rates. They did report a statistically significant
difference favoring the laparoscopic group with respect to time to full feeds and LOS,
although they did not comment on the magnitude of treatment difference for either
outcome. As discussed previously, the absolute difference in these outcomes was negli-
gible in most studies, and a statistical difference, if one exists, does not necessarily trans-
late into a clinically relevant difference. Furthermore, we caution the use of meta-analysis
LP for IHPS 163
for data sets which are predominately retrospective and uncontrolled. Using such tech-
niques to analyze data in which the component studies may already contain significant
bias could potentially provide even less valid conclusions.
On a final note, the results of this review highlight the fact that very little high-
quality evidence exists to base treatment decisions in pediatric surgery. As is the case
for most interventions in our field, the available data are limited to predominantly retro-
spective, single-institutional case-series experiences. From these observations, several
pediatric surgeons have proposed that a formal multiinstitutional randomized trial be
conducted to discern the treatment differences between LP and OP (6,9,15). These differ-
ences, if they do exist, are likely to be quite small and with perhaps little clinical relevance
(e.g., showing a statistical difference in operative time by a few minutes or time to dis-
charge by a few hours). Furthermore, any differences in outcomes such as cost and analge-
sia requirements (which have not been appreciably examined in any study to date) are also
likely to be very small. As such, a formal trial may not be justified from the standpoint of
practicality, and multicenter efforts should probably be conserved for more complex
pediatric surgery anomalies.
REFERENCES
1. Grant GA, McAleer JJ. Incidence of infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. Lancet 1984;
1(8387):1177.
2. Ramstedt C. Zur operation der angeborenen pylorus stenose. Med Klin 1912; 26:1191 – 1192.
3. Alain JL, Grousseau D, Terrier G. Extra-mucosa pylorotomy by laparoscopy. Chir Pediatr
1990; 31(4 – 5):223– 224.
4. Greason KL. A prospective, randomized evaluation of laparoscopic versus open pyloromyo-
tomy in the treatment of infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. Pediatr Endosurg Innov
Tech 1997; 1:175– 179.
5. Fujimoto T, Lane GJ, Segawa O et al. Laparoscopic extramucosal pyloromyotomy versus open
pyloromyotomy for infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis: which is better? J Pediatr Surg
1999; 34(2):370– 372.
6. Scorpio RJ, Tan HL, Hutson JM. Pyloromyotomy: comparison between laparoscopic and open
surgical techniques. J Laparoendosc Surg 1995; 5(2):81 – 84.
7. Caceres M, Liu D. Laparoscopic pyloromyotomy: redefining the advantages of a novel tech-
nique. JSLS 2003; 7(2):123– 127.
8. Campbell BT, McLean K, Barnhart DC et al. A comparison of laparoscopic and open pyloromyo-
tomy at a teaching hospital. J Pediatr Surg 2002; 37(7):1068–1071; discussion 1068–1071.
9. Ford WD, Crameri JA, Holland AJ. The learning curve for laparoscopic pyloromyotomy.
J Pediatr Surg 1997; 32(4):552 –554.
10. Greason KL, Thompson WR, Downey EC, Lo Sasso B. Laparoscopic pyloromyotomy for infan-
tile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis: report of 11 cases. J Pediatr Surg 1995; 30(11):1571– 1574.
11. Sitsen E, Bax NM, van der Zee DC. Is laparoscopic pyloromyotomy superior to open surgery?
Surg Endosc 1998; 12(6):813– 815.
12. Bufo AJ, Merry C, Shah R et al. Laparoscopic pyloromyotomy: a safer technique. Pediatr Surg
Int 1998; 13(4):240– 244.
13. Hall NJ, Ade-Ajayi N, Al-Roubaie J et al. Retrospective comparison of open versus laparo-
scopic pyloromyotomy. Br J Surg 2004; 91(10):1325– 1329.
14. van der Bilt JD, Kramer WL, van der Zee DC, Bax NM. Laparoscopic pyloromyotomy for
hypertrophic pyloric stenosis: impact of experience on the results in 182 cases. Surg Endosc
2004; 18(6):907– 909.
15. Hall NJ, Van Der Zee J, Tan HL, Pierro A. Meta-analysis of laparoscopic versus open
pyloromyotomy. Ann Surg 2004; 240(5):774 –778.
13
Laparoscopic Fundoplication in Infants
and Children
Daniel J. Ostlie and George W. Holcomb III

Children’s Mercy Hospital, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
1. Introduction 165
2. Pathophysiology of GER 166
3. Clinical Manifestations 168
4. Diagnostic Evaluation 169
5. Technique 170
6. Gastrostomy 177
7. Postoperative Management 179
8. Results 182
9. The Children’s Mercy Experience 183
10. Conclusion 186
References 186
1. INTRODUCTION
Since the first laparoscopic fundoplication in 1991 (1), the frequency with which complex
minimally invasive procedures are being performed has increased at an unprecedented
rate. Fortunately, the art of pediatric surgery has kept pace with these surgical techniques
primarily due to the advancements made in smaller operating telescopes and improve-
ments in minimally invasive instruments developed specifically for the body cavities of
infants and children.
Infants and children are commonly affected by symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux
(GER). The ability to differentiate pathologic GER from “physiologic” vomiting in
infancy is sometimes difficult. Pathologic GER can present as a single or as multiple clini-
cal conditions resulting in significant morbidity or possible near-fatal events. Physiologic
vomiting, likely due to an incompetent lower esophageal sphincter (LES) mechanism, is
normal during the first year of life (2). However, physiologic vomiting is a self-limited
165
166 Ostlie and Holcomb
process which usually resolves by 18 months of age and usually does not affect the growth
or development of the infant.
Due to swallowing dysfunction, pediatric patients may require a temporary or
permanent route for enteral nutrition, which is usually accomplished with a gastrostomy.
When these patients are considered high operative or anesthetic risks, or are neurologically
impaired, they should undergo a standard evaluation for GER prior to creation of a gastro-
stomy to assure that there is no need for simultaneous fundoplication.
When pathologic GER exists, laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication (LNF) is effective
in treating children with pathologic GER (3 –6). LNF, with or without concomitant gastro-
stomy, is becoming the preferred surgical approach in infants and children requiring
surgical correction of GER.
2. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF GER
The mechanisms responsible for GER are not completely understood. It has been well
established that prolonged exposure of the esophageal mucosa to gastric acid and other
secretions induces injury. The extent of this damage depends on the susceptibility of
the esophageal mucosa to injury, the length of time the refluxed material is present
within the esophagus, and the volume of acid refluxed into the esophagus. In normal indi-
viduals, an antireflux mechanism exists at the gastroesophageal junction, creating a barrier
to GER and subsequent injury. This barrier is composed of several factors that have been
extensively studied (Table 13.1).
The most important component of this barrier is the LES. Developmentally, the LES
arises from the inner circular muscle layer of the esophagus, which is asymmetrically
thickened in the distal esophagus. This thickened muscle layer creates a high pressure
zone which can be measured manometrically. In addition, this muscular thickening
extends onto the stomach more prominently on the greater than lesser curvature (7).
The phrenoesophageal membrane, arising from the septum transversum of the diaphragm,
and the collar of Heveticus, originating from the oblique muscle fibers, hold the LES in
position. The result is an LES that lies partially in the chest and partially in the
abdomen. This positioning is important for the normal barrier function against GER.
Esophageal manometry can identify this transition (which is known as the respiratory
inversion point) from the thoracic esophagus to the abdominal esophagus.
Table 13.1 Factors Which Provide Protection Against Gastroesophageal Reflux
Barriers to GER Reason for failure
Lower esophageal sphincter Malposition (intrathoracic in location)

# Pressure (,6 mmHg)
# LES length (,2 cm)
# LES abdominal length (,1 cm)
Transient relaxations
Abnormal smooth muscle function
Intra-abdominal esophageal length Short length (,3 cm)
Angle of His More obtuse angle (gastrostomy)
Esophageal motility Inefficient clearance
Poor smooth muscle function (e.g., scleroderma)
Note: GER, gastroesophageal reflux; LES, lower esophageal sphincter.

Laparoscopic Fundoplication 167
The LES is an imperfect valve that creates a pressure gradient in the distal esophagus.
The ability to prevent GER is directly proportional to the LES pressure and its length, pro-
vided that LES relaxation is normal. In one study, LES pressures .30 mmHg prevented
GER as documented by a 24 h pH study, while pressures between 0 and 5 mmHg correlated
with abnormal pH studies in .80% of patients (8). In normal subjects, GER is more likely
to develop if the LES pressure and length fall below the 2.5th percentile, which is 6 mmHg
at the respiratory inversion point or an overall LES length of 2 cm, of which 1 cm is
intra-abdominal GER (9). As noted previously, the LES is relatively fixed across the
esophageal hiatus by its surrounding attachments. Malposition of the LES, which can
occur with a hiatal hernia or abnormal development, results in loss of the protective
function of the LES and GER can occur. Finally, LES relaxation occurs with esophageal
peristalsis initiated by the swallowing mechanism. This relaxation must occur and is
normal. Inappropriate LES relaxations, referred to as transient LES relaxations, have
been shown to occur sporadically, unassociated with the swallowing mechanism. Interest-
ingly, when children with symptoms of GER were studied with pH and manometry simul-
taneously, reflux episodes rarely correlated with decreased LES pressures. Rather, the
majority of reflux episodes occurred during transient LES relaxations, and no reflux epi-
sodes were identified during LES relaxation after swallowing with normal peristaltic
sequence (10,11). There continues to be growing support for identifying these LES relax-
ations as a primary mechanism of GER.
In summary, the barrier function of the LES is imperfect but highly effective. Short
LES length, abnormal smooth muscle function, increased frequency of transient LES
relaxations, and LES location within the chest can contribute individually or in combi-
nation leading to LES failure and GER. Disruption of the LES from a hiatal hernia,
abnormal LES function, or previous esophageal surgery can all lead to poor function
and subsequent GER.
Another barrier to the development of symptoms of GER is the intra-abdominal length
of the esophagus (12). Although no absolute effective intra-abdominal esophageal length has
been identified that prevents GER, correlation between several lengths and GER has been
identified. In one report, an intra-abdominal length of 3–4.5 cm in individuals with normal
abdominal pressure provided LES competency 100% of the time (8). A length of 3 cm
was sufficient in preventing reflux in 64% of individuals, while ,1 cm of intra-abdominal
esophagus resulted in reflux in 81% of patients. This becomes very important when consider-
ing surgical correction for GER. Failure to mobilize adequate esophageal length for intra-
abdominal positioning can lead to less than successful results or recurrent GER.
A third barrier to reflux is the angle of His, which is the angle at which the esophagus
enters the stomach. The usual orientation is that of an acute angle which creates a flap
valve at the gastroesophageal junction. Although the actual functional component of the
angle of His is not well known, it has been shown to provide resistance to GER. Exper-
imentally, when this angle is more obtuse, GER is more prone to develop. Conversely,
accentuation of the angle inhibits GER (13). The ability of the angle of His to prevent
GER may be diminished as a result of abnormal development or may be iatrogenic as
occurs after gastrostomy placement.
The final factor involved in the pathophysiology of GER is the ability of the esopha-
gus to effectively clear luminal contents. When impaired esophageal motility is present as
a result of either abnormal smooth muscle function, impaired vagal stimulation or with
obstruction, gastric acid, which has been refluxed into the esophagus, is not moved caud-
ally into the stomach in a timely manner. This prolonged exposure can lead to esophageal
mucosal injury as well as can potentiate the motility disturbance due to vagal and/or
smooth muscle inflammation or injury.
3. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
There is a great deal of variability in the clinical presentation of GER in infants and
children. The surgeon must be cognizant of the patient’s age and associated medical con-
ditions when considering if the symptomology is a manifestation of pathologic GER. The
frequency of symptoms seen in infants requiring surgical intervention was assessed
recently by Tovar et al. (6) (Table 13.2).
Persistent regurgitation remains the most common symptom of GER of infants (14).
Persistent regurgitation as a result of GER can lead to complications. Significant malnu-
trition and failure to thrive can result from insufficient caloric intake due to vomiting. In
infants, however, vomiting can be “normal.” This benign variant of vomiting, known as
chalasia of infancy, is seen early in life, usually during burping, after feeding, or when
placed in the recumbent position (15). Chalasia of infancy does not interfere with
normal growth or development and rarely leads to other complications. It is a self-
limited process with most infants transitioning to being asymptomatic by 2 years of age
or near the time of initiating solid foods (16). No treatment is indicated in this instance
and no diagnostic evaluation is necessary.
In infants, another presenting symptom is irritability due to pain. Painful esophagitis
can be the result of the acid refluxate. Discomfort leads to crying despite consoling measures
(17,18). Occasionally, small volumes of feeds briefly assists in alleviating pain; however,
this is not a lasting effect (12,13). In contrast to infants, children with pathologic GER
more often present with pain. As in adults, the pain is retrosternal in nature, often described
as heartburn. Long-standing GER with esophagitis can lead to chronic inflammation or even
ulcer formation with eventual scarring and stricture formation. Dysphagia is the end result
due to the narrowed esophageal lumen. Obstructive symptoms and pain are the two most
common associated complaints when an esophageal stricture is present (19,20).
Barrett’s esophagitis is a premalignant condition in which metaplasia occurs in the
esophageal squamous epithelium leading to replacement with columnar epithelium. In
adults, it is thought to be the result of chronic esophageal injury by gastric acid reflux
(21 –23). Fortunately, it is rare in infants and children. However, when it does develop,
serious complications often result. In addition to the increased risk for adenocarcinoma,
50% of these patients will develop stricture and may well develop ulcers (23,24).
Aggressive GER management, along with vigilant long-term surveillance, must be
pursued in an effort to minimize these often difficult and possibly fatal complications.
Respiratory symptoms are commonly seen in infants and children. Delineating the
role of GER as an etiologic entity for ongoing respiratory complaints in these patients
can be difficult because of the variability of the symptoms often seen with other pulmonary
diseases. Chronic cough, wheezing, choking, apnea or near sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS) can all be symptoms attributable to GER. Recurrent bronchitis or pneumonia can
Table 13.2 Frequency of Symptoms

in Children Undergoing Operation (6)
Percentage
Symptom (%)
Regurgitation 81
Pain or dysphagia 30
Respiratory disease 41
Hemorrhage 7
occur from aspiration of refluxate (26 – 29). Acid stimulation within the esophagus causes
vagally mediated laryngospasm and bronchospasm, which clinically presents as apnea or
choking, or mistakenly as asthma (30,31). Esophageal inflammation, as seen with esopha-
gitis, likely enhances this mechanism (32,33). Hemorrhage is uncommonly the presenting
symptom of GER. Esophagitis, gastritis, and ulcer formation can lead to hematochezia or
melana in a small percentage of infants or children (6).
Regardless, the patients’ symptoms remain the most important factor in determining
the surgical treatment of GER. The responsibility lies with the surgeon to evaluate these
symptoms in relation to GER and have an accurate diagnosis prior to offering surgical
intervention.
4. DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION
Once the clinical history raises the suspicion of GER as the etiologic cause of the patient’s
complaints, the diagnostic evaluation should be initiated. Upper gastrointestinal radio-
graphy is the most frequent initial study employed. Evidence for reflux is often seen on
the exam; however, the presence or absence of reflux is an extremely poor indicator of
GER as a cause of the patient’s symptoms. The contrast study is most useful for delineat-
ing the anatomy of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction as well as evaluating eso-
phageal clearance. In addition, it crudely assesses esophageal and gastric motility and can
identify the presence of esophageal strictures or webs. Distal obstruction, such as duodenal
obstruction (web, stenosis), antral web, or malrotation, is also excluded as a cause of the
symptoms.
Twenty-four hour pH monitoring is the gold standard for establishing the diagnosis
of GER, especially in infants and children whose history is unclear. It provides the diag-
nosis of GER in cases where clinical history cannot be obtained or is confusing, such as a
patient presenting with respiratory symptoms only. The study is performed by placing an
electrode 2 –3 cm proximal to the GE junction and measuring the pH in the distal eso-
phagus. Although initially developed in adults, its use in children is now accepted and
invaluable (34,35). The accuracy of the exam is dependent on the cessation of all antireflux
medication. Proton pump inhibitors should be withheld for seven days and histamine
receptor blockers are stopped 48 h prior to the exam. A reflux episode is considered to
have occurred if the esophageal pH is recorded as ,4. Ideally, the exam should occur
over an uninterrupted 24 h period. The pH is continuously monitored via the esophageal
electrode while the patient’s position (upright and supine) and activities (awake, asleep,
eating) are recording simultaneously. The final score is calculated based on the percent
of the total time that the pH was ,4, the total number of reflux episodes, the number
of episodes lasting longer than 5 min, and the longest reflux episode (36,37). A normal
range of values has been established, which is easily reproducible and reliable (38).
Although essential in adults, esophageal manometry is infrequently utilized in the
pediatric population. When employed, the study measures the motility of the esophagus
and the pressure at the LES via a multiport pressure transducer placed in the esophagus
and transversing the LES. The clinical data accumulated in adult patients has revealed
several important points that are likely referable to infants and children with GER.
First, it has been shown that esophageal clearance of refluxed gastric contents is accom-
plished primarily by pharyngeal swallowing rather than by secondary and tertiary peristal-
sis as previously believed (39). In addition, through the use of concomitant 24 h pH study
and esophageal manometry, it has been shown that there is a direct relationship between
worsening esophagitis secondary to GER and deterioration of esophageal motility.
Manometric evaluation has been particularly useful in documenting abnormal distal eso-
phageal motility in infants following repair of esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal
fistula (40). Hopefully, as technology continues to provide more appropriately sized
instruments for sophisticated manometric studies in infants and children, the usefulness
and feasibility of such studies will increase our knowledge of the physiology and abnorm-
alities associated with GER in this population.
Endoscopic evaluation of the esophagus and stomach is occasionally used in the
diagnosis of GER in infants and children. Hematemesis, dysphagia, or irritability in
infants or dysphagia with or without heartburn in children should prompt esophagogastro-
scopy to determine if esophagitis is present. Complications of GER, including ulcer
formation, esophageal stricture, and Barrett’s esophagus, are also diagnosed during endo-
scopic examination. Mucosal biopsy may be necessary to stage the severity of esophagitis
or to histologically exclude dysplasia or malignancy in Barrett’s esophagus (41,42).
The relationship between delayed gastric emptying and GER in infants and children
has been extensively studied and continues to be one of the more controversial aspects of
antireflux surgery. The presence of delayed gastric emptying is assessed preoperatively
using radionucleotide scanning via a technecium-99-labeled meal. Unfortunately, the pre-
sence of delayed gastric emptying preoperatively has not been shown to significantly
improve with the addition of an emptying procedure during the antireflux procedure
(43). In fact, one study evaluating patients with delayed gastric emptying undergoing fun-
doplication showed significantly improved gastric emptying for both solids and liquids
after fundoplication without the addition of an emptying procedure (44). The population
of neurologically impaired patients with GER has been shown to have delayed gastric
emptying more often than neurologically normal children (45,46). Conflicting studies
regarding the benefit and complication rates for these patients undergoing emptying pro-
cedures at the time of their fundoplication have been reported (46 –48).
Currently, our evaluation of GER includes upper gastrointestinal contrast series and
24 h pH monitoring of all patients suspected of having GER. Esophagogastroscopy and
esophageal manometry are employed only when circumstances suggest that the infor-
mation they will provide will dictate changes in the operative management. An example
of this situation is the patient with symptoms of GER but a normal pH study. The presence
of esophagitis or other complications of GER would prompt surgical intervention. We do
not usually employ preoperative gastric emptying studies primarily due to the improve-
ment that has been seen and reported in gastric emptying after fundoplication (44). If
symptoms of delayed gastric emptying persist after antireflux surgery, gastric emptying
studies can be performed with a subsequent emptying procedure if necessary. This scen-
ario has not occurred in our experience.
5. TECHNIQUE
The patient is placed on the operating room (O.R.) table. We utilize a robotic telescopic
device (AESOP, Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA) for operational control of the tele-
scope and attached camera. Because of this usage, we have not found an appropriate
location to secure this device if an infant is placed sideways across the O.R. table in a
fashion similar to that used for a laparoscopic pyloromyotomy. Therefore, both infants
and older children are positioned at the foot of the bed and AESOP is secured to the
table at the level of the patient’s left shoulder. It is placed in 21 tilt toward the foot of
the bed and the lower limit of the robotic device is set. The patient is secured to the oper-
ating room table as the table will be placed in reverse Trendelenburg position for the
operation and the patient’s bladder is emptied using a Crede maneuver. The abdomen is
then prepped and draped from the patient’s nipples to the pubic bone and laterally to
the mid-axillary lines.
The operation is performed in a similar fashion, whether the patient is an infant or an
adolescent. (The primary exception is the use of a 5-mm instrument for elevation of the left
lobe of the liver in the older patient, whereas a 3-mm forceps is satisfactory for this
purpose in an infant.) A 5-mm incision is made in the umbilical skin and the dissection
is carried through the umbilical fascia with the cautery. Using either cautery or blunt dis-
section with a hemostat, the peritoneal cavity is entered and a 5-mm expandable sheath
(U.S. Surgical, Norwalla, CT) is introduced into the abdominal cavity. A 5-mm
cannula with a blunt trocar is then placed through this expandable sheath. The blunt
trocar is removed and pneumoperitoneum is created to a maximum pressure of
15 mmHg (although 8 –10 mmHg may be necessary in certain patients with congenital
heart or respiratory disease). Diagnostic laparoscopy is then performed. We have
adapted a technique in which the instruments are placed through the skin and the abdomi-
nal wall without the use of cannulas, much in the fashion similar to that used for laparo-
scopic pyloromyotomy (Fig. 13.1). Therefore, using a #11 B-P blade (Becton-Dickinson,
Franklin Lakes, NJ), a stab incision is made in the right upper epigastrium through which a
3-mm locking grasping forceps in an infant and a 5-mm locking grasping forceps in an
adolescent is inserted. This instrument is then placed under the left lobe of the liver; it
is attached to the peritoneal side of the diaphragm and secured in placed through the
locking mechanism (Fig. 13.2). This instrument is then attached to the sterile sheets
with a towel clip. Another stab incision with the #11 blade is then made just to the patient’s
right of midline in the upper epigastrium through which a 3-mm atraumatic grasping
forceps is introduced. This forceps is used in the operating surgeon’s left hand for
Figure 13.1 A 5-mm cannula is shown in the umbilicus of a 4-month-old infant. The 3 mm
instruments for the laparoscopic fundoplication have been placed directly through the skin
without cannulas.
Figure 13.2 A grasping forceps is placed under the left lobe of the liver and the left lobe is
elevated anteriorly exposing the esophageal hiatus.
retraction. A similar incision is then made to the patient’s left of the midline almost
directly across from the second incision. Through this incision, a 3-mm Maryland dissec-
tor is introduced, which is used by the surgeon as the main operating instrument. (If a gas-
trostomy is to be placed, it will be introduced through the abdominal wall at this site and,
therefore, it is important to select the gastrostomy site prior to insufflating the abdomen).
Finally, a fourth stab incision is created in the left lateral epigastrium, just beneath the left
costal margin in the anterior axillary line. Through this incision, an atraumatic 3-mm
grasping forceps is introduced, which is used by the assistant for retraction.
Having introduced all the instruments and elevated the lateral segment of the left
lobe, the table is then turned in reverse Trendelenburg position to allow the colon and
the small intestine to fall away from the area of dissection. A site is selected in the
greater omentum at a point opposite the incisura through which an initial opening is
made to start the ligation and division of short gastric vessels. From this opening, ligation
and division of the short gastric vessels proceed using the cautery in a cephalad direction
along the greater curvature of the stomach all the way to the esophageal hiatus. In an ado-
lescent, the LCS (Ethicon Endosurgery, Cincinnati, OH) device is used for this purpose.
Therefore, the patient’s left epigastric incision, which is the main operating incision,
should be 5-mm in size. The most cephalad short gastric vessels are usually intimately
adherent to the spleen and require careful dissection. Having skeletorized the greater cur-
vature of the stomach to the esophageal hiatus, the esophagus is separated from the
patient’s left diaphragmatic crus using cautery (Fig. 13.3). The retroesophageal space is
then opened taking care not to injure the posterior vagus nerve that lies adherent to the
posterior aspect of the esophagus (Fig. 13.4). Dissection then proceeds from the patient’s
left anteriorly over the esophagus and down the right diaphragmatic crus (Fig. 13.5).
In addition, still using cautery, an opening is made in the gastrohepatic ligament to
Figure 13.3 The short gastric vessels have been ligated and divided with the cautery. The
esophagus (white arrow) is being dissected free from the patient’s left diaphragmatic crus
(black arrow).
Figure 13.4 The retroesophageal space has been opened. Note the left and right diaphragmatic
crura (white arrows) and a small hiatal hernia.
Figure 13.5 Incision in the phrenoesophageal ligament and peritoneum overlying the anterior
esophagus.
Figure 13.6 Attention is now turned to the patient’s right side of the esophagus. The patient’s
right crus (white arrow) is being grasped and dissected free from the patient’s right side of the
esophagus (black arrow).
improve visualization. The right lateral aspect of the esophagus is usually intermittently
adherent to the right diaphragmatic crus but, using careful dissection, it can be separated
from the crus (Fig. 13.6). After this step, the entire esophagus has been freed from its
diaphragmatic attachments and can be pulled further into the abdomen, thereby increasing
the length of the intra-abdominal esophagus prior to fundoplication. Usually, at the very
least, a small hiatal hernia is present and requires closure with a 2-0 silk suture that is
tied intracorporally. Occasionally, a second suture is required either posterior to the eso-
phagus or, sometimes, anterior to the esophagus if there is a large hiatal hernia. Once the
esophageal hiatus is closed appropriately, a blunt esophageal bougie is then inserted by the
anesthesiologist through the mouth and guided into the stomach. Careful attention is paid
to the passage of the bougie through the esophageal hiatus to ensure that there is no evi-
dence of angulation of the esophagus or narrowing from the crual sutures (Fig. 13.7).
The bougie size is selected according to the patient’s weight (Table 13.5).
At this point, the fundus of the stomach is then grasped by the atraumatic forceps in
the operating surgeon’s left hand which has been positioned through the retroesophageal
space. Having grasped the fundus of the stomach, it is then brought through the retroeso-
phageal space from the patient’s left to the right (Fig. 13.8). The fundoplication is
performed over the same indwelling bougie in the esophagus in order not to significantly
narrow the esophagus with the wrap. Usually, three sutures are used to create the fundo-
plication with a small portion of the anterior esophageal wall incorporated with the most
cephalad two sutures. The fundoplication is performed with 2-0 silk sutures, and they are
also tied intracorporally (Fig. 13.9). Following creation of the fundoplication, the length of
the wrap is measured and documented (Fig. 13.10). Usually, a wrap of 2 cm is sufficient to
create an effective anti-reflux mechanism in infants and older children. The bougie is then
Figure 13.7 After the esophagus has been dissected free from its surrounding attachments, the
small hiatal hernia is closed with a single 2-0 silk suture which is tied intracorporally. A blunt tip
bougie has been passed into the esophagus and there is no evidence of residual hiatal hernia.
Figure 13.8 The fundus of the stomach has been passed through the retroesophageal space and is
now ready to be sewn to itself in the standard fashion for a Nissen fundoplication. Note the eso-
phagus (black arrow) and the fundus on each side of the esophagus (white arrows).
Figure 13.9 The completed fundoplication.

Figure 13.10 The length of the fundoplication is measured with a silk suture. In this patient, the
length of the fundoplication measures 2 cm.
removed and the area of dissection carefully inspected. Assuming hemostasis is intact and
there is no need for gastrostomy, the instruments are then removed; bupivicaine 1%
without epinephrine is instilled into the incisions for postoperative analgesia, and the tele-
scope and the umbilical cannula are extracted. The umbilical fascia is then closed with
either 3-0 absorbable suture in an infant or 2-0 absorbable suture in an older child. The
umbilical skin is closed with interrupted 5-0 catgut suture in an infant and 4-0 catgut
suture in an older child. The other incisions are usually closed with steri-strips alone in
an infant but may require a 3-0 or 4-0 absorbable suture placed in the anterior fascia in
an older child (Fig. 13.11). In an older child, these incisions can be approximated with
a 4-0 or 5-0 catgut suture as well.
6. GASTROSTOMY
If a patient requires a gastrostomy for enteral alimentation, the gastrostomy is positioned

through the abdominal wall at the site of the left epigastric incision. This incision usually
needs to be enlarged slightly with a hemostat by bluntly spreading the skin and soft tissues
of the gastrostomy stoma. Also, the intra-abdominal pressure is reduced to 5 mmHg to
reduce the distance and tension between the stomach and anterior abdominal wall.
A site is selected on the anterior aspect of the greater curvature of the stomach at the
level of the incisura for placement of the gastrostomy. A 3-mm atraumatic forceps is intro-
duced through the patient’s left epigastric incision and the stomach grasped at this site
(Fig. 13.12). Using the U-stitch technique described by Georgeson et al., two sutures
are then placed through the skin and abdominal wall cephalad to the gastrostomy
stoma, through the stomach and then out the abdominal wall and skin caudal to the
gastrostomy (49,50) (Fig. 13.13). These sutures are usually 2-0 PDS but 0 PDS is
Figure 13.11 The appearance of the small scars (white arrow) from the laparoscopic fundoplica-
tion in a 4-month-old baby, 2 weeks after surgery.
Figure 13.12 When performing the gastrostomy, a site is selected on the anterior aspect of the
stomach near the greater curvature. The stomach is grasped with a atraumatic forceps inserted
through the patient’s left epigastric incision.
Figure 13.13 A needle is placed through the skin cephalad to the site of the gastrostomy, through
the stomach medial to the planned gastrostomy and is shown exiting the abdominal wall inferior to
the gastrostomy stoma.
necessary in older children due to the fact that it is attached to a larger needle. Once the
stomach is secured on each side of the gastrostomy site, the Seldinger technique is
employed by using the Cook Dilator Set (Cook, Inc., Bloomington, IN). With this tech-
nique, a needle is introduced through the incision and into the stomach in the center of
the square formed by the two PDS sutures and a guidewire is inserted through this
needle into the stomach (Fig. 13.14). The needle is then removed and dilators are
placed over the guidewire and into the stomach, thereby dilating the skin, soft tissues as
well as the gastrostomy (Fig. 13.15). The dilators used are 8, 12, 16, and 20 French
(Fr.). Following dilation with the 20 Fr. dilator, the 8 Fr. dilator is placed through an
appropriately sized Mic-Key button (Ballard Medical Products, Draper, UT), and the gas-
trostomy button and 8 Fr. Dilator are placed over the guidewire and into the stomach. The
5 cc balloon of the button is then inflated under direct visualization (Fig. 13.16). It is
important to visualize the balloon being inflated inside the stomach to confirm its
correct position. The sutures are then secured extra-corporally over the flange of the
button, thereby attaching the stomach to the anterior peritoneum (Fig. 13.17). The 8 Fr.
dilator and the guidewire are then removed. The other incisions are then closed in a
fashion previously described for the laparoscopic fundoplication alone.
7. POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT
The patients are transported from the operating room to the recovery room and then
usually to a regular floor room. Intravenous fluids are initiated, but the patient is given
liquids on the evening of the procedure. The next morning, either formula or a soft diet
is initiated and the patient is usually discharged that afternoon. For patients requiring
Figure 13.14 In the left upper aspect of the photograph, the U-stitches are seen holding the
stomach near the anterior abdominal wall. A needle has been placed through the site of the gastro-
stomy through the stomach. An external view is shown on the right.
Figure 13.15 On the right, the guidewire and dilator are seen to pass through the skin and sub-
cutaneous tissues at the site of the gastrostomy. On the left, the dilator is being introduced into
the stomach through the gastrostomy.
Figure 13.16 On the right, the guidewire, dilator, and gastrostomy button are seen exiting the gas-
trostomy stoma and the balloon of the gastrostomy button is being inflated. On the left, the button is
seen entering the stomach at the site of the gastrostomy.
Figure 13.17 An intra-abdominal view of the stomach secured to the anterior abdominal wall at
the site of the gastrostomy is shown on the left. On the right is an extracorporeal view of the incisions
and the gastrostomy button, following laparoscopic fundoplication and gastrostomy.
gastrostomy feedings, they are usually initiated in a small volume and 50% strength the
night of the procedure, and the patient is usually discharged the following day with instruc-
tions to advance the volume and strength over the next couple of days. As there appears to
be some edema at the site of fundoplication for 2– 3 weeks, patients who are able to take
regular food are instructed to take soft foods with a consistency as in applesauce, mashed
potatoes, or the like. There is a concern that an adolescent may take a large bite of meat
and not chew it appropriately. In this case, the bolus may become lodged at the site of the
fundoplication in the early postoperative period. If a gastrostomy is placed, the families
are instructed to cut the sutures on the fifth postoperative day. All patients are usually
seen in the surgery clinic two weeks following the operation and are then followed
every six months for continued evaluation. All antireflux medications are stopped at the
time of the clinic visit, if they have not been discontinued prior to this time.
8. RESULTS
Most long term studies reporting results after LNF stem from the adult literature and
analysis reveal satisfactory results 1 year after LNF in 95% of patients undergoing fundo-
plication for GER and its complications. Failure rates for adults undergoing LNF are 1%
per year. When failures occur, approximately one-third require a second fundoplication,
while two-thirds can be managed with antireflux medications (9).
The evaluation of symptom control and satisfaction rates for children is not straight-
forward. Unfortunately, confounding variables such as continued antireflux medication on
the part of the primary care provider, and individual comorbid conditions (i.e., neurologic
impairment, congenital anomalies, and chronic lung disease), make establishing a
benchmark for satisfaction very difficult. Therefore, it is perhaps best to evaluate the effec-
tiveness of LNF in relation to recurrent GER as well as wrap failure (dysphagia,
migration/breakdown). The adult literature clearly supports that the most common
complaint postfundoplication is dysphagia, which persists for .1 month in 20% of indi-
viduals. This dysphagia is severe enough to require dilation in up to 40% of these patients.
In our experience of over 200 LNF over the past 3 years, we have not had a patient develop
persistent dysphagia requiring esophageal dilation. This dramatic divergence between
adults and children is easily explained by the diet that each population consumes.
Infants tend to maintain a diet of liquids and soft foods that pose little threat of lodging
in the edematous distal esophagus at the level of the fundoplication. By the time they tran-
sition to a predominantely solid diet, similar to adults, the fundoplication has healed and
all operative changes have resolved, hence little postoperative dysphagia.
The most common reason for wrap failure after LNF (regardless of age) is the
“slipped Nissen” that occurs as a result of crural breakdown and migration of the wrap
into the chest through the resulting hiatal hernia. Wrap migration occurs in up to 20%
of adult patients; however, in our experience, it develops less frequently and others
have reported wrap failure rates in 2– 5% of children undergoing laparoscopic fundoplica-
tion (5,49). Multiple approaches to secure the wrap below the diaphragm, including secur-
ing the fundoplication to the diaphragm, incorporating the posterior aspect of the
esophagus to the crural repair, and tacking the esophagus to the crura at multiple sites,
have been tried in the adult population and have not proven to be more effective in pre-
venting this complication. We currently anchor the esophagus to the crura at the 12, 3,
and 9 o’clock positions in an attempt to maintain the esophagus in an intra-abdominal
position and, hopefully, avoid migration. However, we have not evaluated this technique
in a scientific analysis. Wrap migration does occur more often in neurologically impaired
children and is presumed to be a result of increased intra-abdominal pressure secondary to
retching and often the underlying seizure disorder. Ensuring an adequate crural repair
should be paramount in these children; however, regardless of efforts to prevent wrap
migration, its development will likely continue to be higher in this subpopulation.
Recurrent GER has been reported to occur between 2% and 6% in pediatric patients
and is dependent on the type of fundoplication created (56,57). Chung and Georgeson
reported their results with both laparoscopic Nissen and Toupet fundoplications (49). In
their series, Nissen fundoplication was superior to Toupet fundoplication with regard to
symptom control. Of patients undergoing Toupet fundoplication, 6.1% developed recur-
rent symptoms, while only 3.5% of those undergoing LNF developed similar symptoms.
For comparison purposes, failure rates for open fundoplication range from 20% to
47%, with the upper end of this range representing failures in children with neurologic
impairment (51 –55).
The functional results regarding motility, LES function, and evaluation for GER
have been individually studied in the pediatric population. Okada et al. performed esopha-
geal manometry preoperatively and at one month postoperatively in infants and children
undergoing LNF (3). They found that LNF completely controlled symptoms and inhibited
acid exposure 0 + 0% of fraction time for pH , 4 in 24 h pH monitoring. Manometric
examination revealed statistically significant increases in postoperative basal LES press-
ure and residual LES pressure at the nadir of swallow-induced LES relaxation, both func-
tions of improved GER control. Evaluation of esophageal motility showed no change in
motility patterns after LNF. Tovar et al., evaluated 27 patients prospectively undergoing
LNF. Twenty-four hour pH monitoring performed preoperatively and postoperatively at 6
months after LNF revealed fewer total reflux episodes (70 vs. 19), fewer episodes lasting
longer than 5 min (10.4 vs. 2.4), less percent of time pH , 4 (20.3 vs. 4.7 min), and an
abbreviated longest episode (37 vs. 12 min) after LNF (6).
Table 13.3 summarizes the reports, to date, containing .100 pediatric patients
undergoing laparoscopic fundoplication. The spectrum includes different fundoplication
techniques such as Nissen, Nissen-Rosetti, Thal, and Toupet fundoplications. Regardless
of the approach utilized, the recurrence rates, conversion rates, and operative time are
remarkably similar between the different centers. The data for length of hospitalization
and time to feeds are incomplete in several studies and appears to be institution-dependent
as well as surgeon-preference regarding timing of initiating enteral alimentation after
laparoscopic fundoplication. Complication rates range from 0% to 12.7% and usually
developed early in the “learning curve” experience for each report. Four deaths (three
postoperative and one operative) have occurred out of the 1582 patients (0.25%).
In review, advances in laparoscopy have been proven to be safe and provide superior
cosmetic results to open approaches for GER. The effectiveness of laparoscopic fundopli-
cation compared to open fundoplication in the pediatric population has only been studied
from a retrospective approach, and these findings appear to support the laparoscopic
technique as at least equal, and likely superior, to the open approach.
9. THE CHILDREN’S MERCY EXPERIENCE
Between November 1999 and March 2002, 154 patients underwent LNF at Children’s
Mercy Hospital for GER (62). All operations were performed as described in the
procedure portion of this chapter. The mean age at the time of operation was 24.5
184
Table 13.3 Comparison of Large (.100 Patients) Studies of Children Undergoing Laparoscopic Fundoplication
Author N Recurrence (%) Type Complication Conversion (%) LOS (days) TTF (days) Op time (min)
Georgeson (4) 389 6.1 Toupet 201 Toupet 2 Deaths 3.3 3 N/A 60
3.5 Nissen 188 Nissen (1 Operative)
Esposito et al. (59) 289 2.10 148 N-R Intraop ¼ 5.1% 1.3 N/A N/A 70
141 Toupet Postop ¼ 3.4%
Montupet et al. (60) 284 2.10 Thal Intraop ¼ 0% N/A N/A 3 60
Postop ¼ 1%
Rothenberg (5) 220 3.40 Nissen Intraop ¼ 2.6% 1.0 1.6 N/A 82
Postop ¼ 7.3%
Allal et al. (61) 142 4.20 56 Toupet Intraop ¼ 0.5% 2.1 3 N/A 105
83 Nissen Postop ¼ 2%
1 Death
Iglesias et al. (58) 104 2.90 Nissen Major ¼ 12.7% 1.0 ,10 3 60
1 Death
Ostlie et al. (82) 154 2 Nissen Intraop ¼ 0% 0 2.8 1 90
Postop ¼ 2%
Note: LOS, length of stay; TTF, time to feed; Op time, length of surgical procedure.
Ostlie and Holcomb
Table 13.4 Comparison of Operative Times With and

Without Robotic Telescopic Assistance (62)
Group No. of patients Mean operative time (min)
A 10 108
B 34 110
C 39 93
D 52 68
P-values A vs. B ¼ 0.058, A vs. C , 0.05, A vs. D , 0.05
Note: A ¼ patients underwent fundoplication before the use of

telescopic assistance (camera held by nurse); 10/99-4/00 B –D ¼
patients underwent fundoplication with telescopic assistance over
the following time period; B, 5/00-12/00; C, 1/01-5/01; D,
6/01-3/02.
months (range ¼ 3 weeks – 180 months). Mean weight was 10.6 kg with a range of 2.5 –
50 kg. Mean operative time for the entire group was 90 min. Since May 2000, we have
employed robotic assistance as described. Interestingly, when comparing the operative
times for infants that underwent LNF prior to robotic assistance to those where robotic
assistance was employed revealed a statistically shorter procedure when AESOP was
used (Table 13.4) (62).
Comparison of elective (130 patients) to non-elective (24 patients) LNF revealed
longer hospitalizations in the non-elective group as would be expected. On average,
non-elective patients remained hospitalized for 9.8 days, while mean time to discharge
for elective patients was 1.7 days.
An effective fundoplication length and bougie size has never been established in
infants and children. We have routinely measured the fundoplication length and
recorded the bougie size in patients undergoing LNF. Employing a fundoplication
length of 2 m and a gradated bougie size relative to the patients weight
(Table 13.5), patients undergoing elective LNF have had resolution of their GER symp-
toms. There have been no cases of dysphagia requiring dilation, and only two patients
have developed recurrent symptoms. One patient has required a second LNF, and the
other has undergone repeat evaluation for GER showing a normal pH study and
intact fundoplication on UGI.
Table 13.5 Gradated Bougie

Size Relative to the Patients
Weight
Weight (kg) Bougie size
2.5 – 4 22– 26
4 – 5.5 26– 30
5.5 – 7 30– 34
7 – 8.5 34– 36
8.5 – 10 36– 38
10 – 15 38– 42
10. CONCLUSION
LNF, with or without gastrostomy, can be performed safely in infants and children by sur-
geons comfortable with advanced laparoscopic techniques. It is an excellent approach for
pediatric patients who develop complications of GER or are resistant to medical therapy.
The postoperative hospitalization and time to oral or gastrostomy feeding are short, and
the outcome is comparable, if not superior, to open fundoplication.
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14
Gastrostomy, Jejunostomy, and Cecostomy
Hanmin Lee
University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
1. Introduction 189
2. Gastrostomy 189
2.1. Open Gastrostomy 190
2.2. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy 190
2.3. Laparoscopic Gastrostomy 192
2.4. Gastrostomy Device Considerations 194
3. Jejunostomy 196
4. Cecostomy 197
5. Summary 197
References 197
1. INTRODUCTION
Access to the gastrointestinal tract is necessary for the care of many children with a variety
of disorders. While short-term access may be accomplished with nasoenteric, oroenteric,
or anoenteric tubes, the establishment of abdominal wall stomas facilitates care of children
requiring chronic gastrointestinal access. Gastrostomies and jejunostomies are used
commonly as portals for enteral nutrition, whereas cecostomies are used for antegrade
enemas in children with constipation or fecal incontinence. The advancements in endo-
surgery have given surgeons powerful, minimal access tools for establishing entry to
hollow visceral structures using a combination of gastroscopy, colonoscopy, and laparo-
scopy. This chapter examines existing outcome data for gastrostomies, jejunostomies,
and cecostomies using minimal access surgery with a focus on the pediatric literature.
2. GASTROSTOMY
Gastrostomies are the most common method of providing long-term enteral nutrition in
children who are unable to achieve adequate oral intake. A variety of conditions are indi-
cations for placement of gastrostomy tubes, including neurological impairment, failure to
189
190 Lee
thrive, primary aspiration, and severe gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Tradition-
ally, gastrostomy tubes have been placed by means of a laparotomy. However, the advent
of endoscopy has given surgeons and gastroenterologist new tools to place gastrostomy
devices with minimal abdominal incisions. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG)
was first described by Gauderer et al. (1) in both children and adults and has since
gained immense worldwide popularity. An alternative technique for minimal access
placement of gastrostomy tube is laparoscopic placement of gastrostomy tube
(LAPGT). This has been described using either one or two ports by multiple authors in
the last 10 years (2 – 13).
The method of placement has generally been based on referral patterns and oper-
ator’s experience. Gasteroenterologists are trained in placing gastrostomy tubes using
the PEG technique. Surgeons are trained to place gastrotomies with a laparotomy, and
many are trained in the PEG and LAPGT techniques. Each of the different techniques
has advantages and disadvantages.
2.1. Open Gastrostomy

The traditional approach for placement of a gastrostomy tube has been by laparotomy
incision. Most surgeons use either a vertical midline incision or a transverse or oblique sub-
costal incision. The two most common methods for performing a gastrostomy are the
Stamm gastrostomy and the Janeway gastrostomy. For the Stamm method, the stomach
is tacked up to the abdominal wall with interrupted sutures and the gastrostomy tube is
placed through a separate incision through a gastrotomy within two purse string sutures.
The Stamm technique is favored by most surgeons. The Janeway method involves for-
mation of a gastric tube with the creation of a nipple for continence. This technique is
favored by some surgeons in children who require long-term gastrostomy feeds. The ben-
efits of the open procedures are that they allow precise placement on the stomach with
direct visualization of other visceral structures, minimizing the chance for inadvertent
injury. Additionally, the placement of sutures from the stomach to the abdominal wall
creates an immediate, secure attachment. In the setting of accidental tube removal in the
early postoperative period, the likelihood that the stomach will fall away from the abdomi-
nal wall, resulting in free perforations of the stomach into the peritoneal cavity, is mini-
mized. Also, percutaneous tube replacement through the previous gastrostomy site is
possible in the early postoperative period with minimal worry of the stomach becoming
detached from the abdominal wall. A gastrostomy can be placed by means of a laparotomy
in instances when a PEG or LAPGT may not be appropriate such as in the presence of dense
intra-abdominal adhesions. The one obvious disadvantage of using a laparotomy is the
presence of an incision, both from the standpoint of cosmetics and postoperative pain.
Surgeons traditionally placed a long tube, such as a Malencottw or Foleyw catheter, at
the initial operation, and subsequently replaced these with a low-profile device after 1 –2
months, when the tract has matured. Many surgeons, including the author, now place a
low-profile device primarily when placing a gastrotomy tube by a laparotomy. This low-
profile device is colloquially termed as “button” and is made by several manufacturers
including Kimberly – Clark (Mic-keyw), Bardw, and Applied Medical Technology
(Miniw). The remainder of the procedure is identical to the Stamm gastrostomy.
2.2. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy

The PEG technique has gained worldwide popularity since its inception and is performed
by both surgeons and gastroenterologists and has many benefits over gastrostomy
Gastrostomy, Jejunostomy, and Cecostomy 191
placement by laparotomy. Because many of the patients requiring a gastrostomy are mal-
nourished or have chronic medical illness, operative risk is increased and wound-healing
may present a significant problem. A benefit of PEG placement is minimal postoperative
discomfort to the patient as well as no abdominal incision to heal; the only abdominal
incision necessary is the one at the gastrostomy tube placement site. A PEG can generally
be performed quickly with rapid postoperative recovery. In fact, many clinicians perform
the PEG procedure without general anesthesia with a combination of local and sedation.
Additionally, the endoscopist can visualize the mucosa of the esophagus and the stomach
for potential abnormalities at the same setting.
Additionally, because of minimal manipulation of the peritoneal space, adhesive
small bowel obstruction is virtually nonexistent after PEG placement. In fact, the more
common cause of bowel obstruction following PEG seems to be from migration of part
of the catheter into the small bowel (14,15).
Finally, several studies in the adult literature have shown that PEG placement may
be cost effective compared with open operative placement. One retrospective review com-
paring gastrostomies placed by means of PEG (n ¼ 125) and by Stamm technique
(n ¼ 88), showed that PEG was faster and cheaper by approximately US $1000 (16).
Additionally, feeding time and complications were less in the PEG group than in the
Stamm group. A prospective randomized study of 48 adult patients compared PEG and
open gastrostomy (17). There was no difference in postoperative morbidity between the
groups. Procedural cost was on average approximately US $250 higher for open gastro-
stomy, but statistical analysis was not performed to determine if this difference was sig-
nificant. Similarly, initiation of tube feeds was successful in a greater percentage of
patients in the PEG group than in the open group, but this difference did not achieve stat-
istical significance. The authors commented that no definitive conclusions could be made
regarding the superiority of one technique over the other although there were trends
favoring PEG.
One potential disadvantage of the PEG is the possibility of injury to hollow viscous
while performing gastroscopy, particularly to the esophagus. This complications is rare,
occurring in one patient (0.6%) in one adult series of 168 patients (18), no patients in
an adult series of 232 patients (19), and no patients in a series of 220 children (20).
Another potential disadvantage is the possibility of injury to intra-abdominal visceral
structures, as the peritoneal cavity is not directly visualized. Rather, placement of the gas-
trostomy tube is guided by transillumination to minimize the risk of visceral injury. The
organ most frequently injured is the transverse colon, and the incidence of gastrocolo-
cutaneous fistula during placement of a PEG in children was 2% in the series reported
by Gauderer (20). Other visceral injuries reported have been injury of an arterial vessel
requiring laparotomy in three of 232 adult patients (18). Also, as the stomach is secured
to the abdominal wall only by the gastrostomy device, the risk of intra-abdominal
gastric leak exists if the tube is inadvertently removed in the early postplacement
period. This has occurred in 0.5 –2.2% in adult series (18) and 0.5% in children (19,
20). In order to avoid some of these risk, some clinicians have combined PEG placement
with laparoscopic guidance or used fluoroscopic guidance in conjunction with or instead of
endoscopic guidance for gastrostomy placement (21,22).
The use of the endoscope through the mouth potentially leads to complications. The
most common complication of PEG placement is wound infection or peristomal infection.
Gauderer (20) reported a 1.8% PEG-site infection rate in his pediatric series. In adults,
lesions obstructing the mouth or esophagus, such as head and neck or esophageal
cancers prohibit gastroscopy, making PEG impossible. In rare cases, squamous cell carci-
noma of the head and neck has been shown to metastasize to the gastrostomy site after
192 Lee
PEG placement, presumably from dragging tumor cells to the gastrostomy site by the
endoscope (23). These circumstances rarely, if ever, occur in children.
A recent retrospective study investigated the feasibility and safety of PEG placement
in infants weighing ,3.5 kg (24). In this group, three of 26 (11.5%) developed wound
infections and two of 26 (0.8%) required intervention for pneumoperitoneum as a result
of the procedure. All gastrostomy tubes were successfully placed under general anesthesia.
There were no deaths related to the procedure.
2.3. Laparoscopic Gastrostomy

Several groups have described various techniques for LAPGT using either one or two
incisions (2 – 13). If two incisions are used, a port for a laparoscope is placed through
the umbilicus. Once the stomach is visualized, a site on the abdominal wall conductive
to gastrostomy placement is selected. Either a port is placed at this site or an instrument
is placed directly through a stab wound. The stomach is brought up to the incision and
a gastrostomy is then placed in this site. Figure 14.1 demonstrates one method for the
two-incision method of LAPGT. In the single-port technique, a port is placed in the left
upper quadrant where the gastrostomy will be placed. Either a telescope with a working
port or a bronchoscope or an esophagoscope that can accommodate an instrument
through the sheath is used to bring the stomach up to the incision for gastrostomy place-
ment. Both techniques leave the gastrostomy site as the only visible incision, as the umbi-
lical scar for the two-port technique can be hidden within the umbilicus. Another benefit of
this technique is the ability to identify all visceral structures, thereby eliminating the
potential for inadvertent injury, as may happen in PEG placement. Additionally, the
gastrostomy can be placed precisely on the stomach, which may be beneficial, as will
be discussed later in this chapter. Others have performed a continent Janeway gastrostomy
using laparoscopic assistance (25).
A potential disadvantage of laparoscopic gastrostomy is the risk of visceral injury
during initial trocar placement. Several large series have reported the incidence of visceral
injuries during trocar placement. One study collected data prospectively on 14,243
patients with a mean age of 51.4 years who underwent laparoscopic procedures. There
were 26 injuries resulting in an incidence of 0.18%. The most common injuries were to
the small bowel (n ¼ 6) and the liver (n ¼ 3). Twenty-three injuries were identified and
repaired intraoperatively with 18 of these needing conversion to a laparotomy. The
remaining three patients were identified between 48 and 72 h postoperatively. Two under-
went operative intervention and one underwent successful nonoperative treatment (26).
The largest series in the pediatric literature reviewed 2157 children who underwent laparo-
scopic and thoracoscopic procedures with a total of 7117 cannulas placed. They reported
no major vascular or visceral injuries. Complications included three cases of abdominal
wall bleeding (1.4%) and one incisional hernia (0.5%). In this series, they used only
radially expandable access devices for port placement (27).
Several retrospective reviews have been performed, analyzing the results of laparo-
scopic gastrostomy in children. Lee et al. (28) reviewed a series of 51 patients undergoing
laparoscopic gastrostomy tube placement and reported no significant complications in
this group. In an analysis of hospital charges in this series, LAPGT was approximately
US $1050 more expensive initially than PEG for first operation. However, 13% of
those children undergoing PEG required a second procedure in the operating suite to
convert a gastrostomy to a low-profile device. In a study by Humphrey and Najmaldin
(29), 28 children underwent laparoscopic gastrostomy, 16 in conjunction with a fundopli-
cation. They reported no complications specific to the gastrostomies and reported an
Figure 14.1 This set of pictures illustrates the method of laparoscopic gastrostomy tube place-
ment as described by Georgeson. (A) demonstrates U-stitches placed around the gastrostomy site.
(B) shows serial dilations of the gastrostomy tube tract with progressively layer dilators.
(C) shows placement of the tube. [Reprinted with permission from Georgeson KE et al. Pediatr
Endosurg Innov Tech 1998; 2(4):223– 226.]
average operative time of 65 min in the 12 patients undergoing gastrostomy alone (29).
Rothenberg et al. (30) reported their results on placement of low-profile gastrostomy
“buttons” in 240 children. Forty-one patients underwent gastrostomy alone, whereas the
remainder also underwent a concomitant fundoplication. They showed an average operat-
ive time, for a gastrostomy alone, of 15 min. There were five gastrostomy-related compli-
cations in the 240 children: two wound infections treated with oral antibiotics, two early
tube dislodgements, and one required re-operation. These results are favorable to other
large series reviewing gastrostomy placement by either PEG or open surgical techniques.
One retrospective review compared open and laparoscopic gastrostomy and fundoplica-
tion (31). They found that while complications between the two groups were similar,
194 Lee
Figure 14.1 Continued.
patients undergoing laparoscopic procedures had a shorter hospital stay and quicker return
to feeds postoperatively. One adult retrospective study compared PEG with LAPGT (32).
Seventeen patients underwent PEG, whereas 14 patients underwent LAPGT. There was
one death directly related to tube placement in each group. They reported no wound infec-
tions, gastrocolic fistulae, bleeding, stomal leaks, or visceral injuries in either group.
No single method of placing gastrostomy tubes is optimal in every circumstance. The
current literature on gastrostomy placement consists largely of retrospective reviews of a
single technique making rigorous comparisons of the different techniques difficult.
Bearing this in mind, a prospective study comparing the different methods used children
would be of great importance. The outcome data should include cost of the procedure,
length to full feeds, amount of postoperative pain medications necessary, operative compli-
cations such as visceral injury and wound infections, short-term complications such as early
postoperative tube dislodgment, long-term complications such as gastroesophageal reflux
and gastric prolapse, and patient’s and family satisfaction. The current decisions on
which procedure is performed are usually based on existing resources and experience at a
given facility; no existing data shows compelling evidence for choosing a given technique.
2.4. Gastrostomy Device Considerations

Patients and their families have consistently favored the use of low-profile gastrostomy
devices or “buttons” such as made by Kimberly – Clark (Mic-key), Bard, and Applied
Medical Technology (Mini), over the use of long tubes such as Malencottw and Foleyw
catheters. The longer catheters are technically easier to place than the button catheters
when placed by means of laparotomy. The longer catheter can be changed to a button
once the tract has matured; most surgeons favor waiting 1– 2 months before doing this.
The buttons are particularly favored by families of active children. Because the buttons
lie nearly flush against the abdomen, clothes are easily placed over the buttons and the
devices are more difficult to pull out inadvertently. The Mic-key buttons are particularly
favored by many families. The connecting tube locks into place with the button and are
less likely to become disconnected, particularly with prolonged feeds such as continuous
nighttime feeds. Several groups have reported successful results with primary low-profile
gastrostomy placement using laparoscopic assistance in children (2,30,33). The author is
unaware of studies that have compared different gastrostomy devices for family satisfac-
tion. Such a study would certainly be an important undertaking.
Several other questions regarding gastrostomy tubes in light of differing methods of
placement would benefit from critical examination, and one such question is inadvertent
tube dislodgment in the postoperative period. Replacement in the early postoperative
period may result in two potential significant complications: incorrect tube displace-
ment and/or disruption of the gastrostomy site from the abdominal wall resulting in an
intraperitoneal gastric perforation. The choices for tube replacement are: percutanceous
tube replacement, percutanceous tube replacement with fluoroscopic confirmation, and
intraoperative tube replacement with direct confirmation of correct placement by laparo-
scopy, laparotomy, or gastroscopy. If the tube has become dislodged before 1– 2 weeks
postoperatively, some practitioners will replace the tubes intraoperatively. In general,
most practitioners will replace tubes percutaneously with fluoroscopy within 2 – 8 weeks
postoperatively and percutaneously without fluoroscopy after 2– 8 weeks postoperatively.
After 8 weeks, the gastrocutaneous fistula tract is believed to be sufficiently well formed in
order to replace tubes safely with low risk of complications. Placement of a gastrostomy
by laparotomy likely would result in less incidence of intraperitoneal gastric leak as the
stomach is generally sutured directly to the abdominal wall. Retrospective reviews of
large series and meta-analysis of these series would probably suffice in determining the
rate of incorrect replacement and intraperitoneal gastric leak at various time points post-
operatively for both PEG and laparotomy-placed gastrostomies. Pofahl and Ringold (34)
reviewed 197 patients undergoing PEG and identified six cases (3%) complicated by early
tube dislodgment. The average time to dislodgment was 2.9 + 1.3 days postplacement.
Two patients underwent nonoperative tube replacement, two underwent observation
followed by delayed repeat PEG, and one underwent observation followed by delayed
LAPGT. One required emergent operation. Larger series of LAPGT are probably needed
in order to determine which method of replacement is safe at various postoperative inter-
vals. Determining the appropriate method of replacement of gastrostomy tubes would
ensure safe replacement and could avoid unnecessary fluoroscopy and reoperation.
Another incompletely resolved question is the site of placement of the gastrostomy
with respect to the stomach. Placing the gastrostomy in too close proximity to the pylorus
may lead to obstruction of the pylorus by the tube particularly in small children and par-
ticularly with long-tube devices that may slip further into the stomach. Most surgeons
place the gastrostomy in the mid-body of the stomach to avoid this potential complication.
Placing a gastrostomy near the greater curvature in a patient without a fundoplication may
exacerbate reflux by changing the angle of the gastroesophageal junction both in children
and in experimental animals (35 – 41). Placement of the gastrostomy near the lesser curva-
ture in children has been advocated by some as resulting in less gastroesophageal reflux
(42 –43). Further prospective studies comparing lesser curvature placement and greater
curvature placement with rigorous quantitative analysis of postoperative reflux by pH
probe would be an ideal method to examine this question. Exact placement may not be
quantifiable using the PEG technique.
The question of potentially exacerbated GERD by gastrostomy alone has lead some
surgeons to perform a fundoplication in addition to a gastrostomy in subsets of patients
needing gastrostomy without quantifiable GERD. Frequently, these patients have severe
neurologic impairment and are at high risk for GERD and aspiration. The author is
unaware of any studies comparing gastrostomy alone to gastrostomy and fundoplication
196 Lee
in high-risk patients without quantifiable GERD. Careful preoperative workup and post-
operative followup are particularly necessary in these children.
3. JEJUNOSTOMY
A subset of children who require enteral feedings may not tolerate gastrostomy feedings
secondary to poor gastric emptying or refractory GERD. These patients may be considered
for jejunostomy. As with gastrostomies, jejunostomy tubes may be placed by means of
laparotomy, laparoscopy, or with endoscopic guidance.
Frequently, jejunal access is attained through a new or pre-existing gastrostomy,
whereby a gastro-jejunal tube is passed into the stomach, through the pylorus and duode-
num into the jejunum. This occurs in patients who are noted to have poor gastric emptying
or GERD after placement of a gastrostomy as an alternative to pyloroplasty or fundo-
plication. Albanese et al. (44) retrospectively compared 112 neurologically impaired
children with gastroesophageal reflux undergoing nissen fundoplication with gastrostomy
tube placement (n ¼ 68) and children having a percutaneous gastrojejunostomy (n ¼ 44)
to determine the optimal method for supplying enteral feeds in this population. They
found that the group undergoing fundoplication and gastrostomy had a significantly
higher incidence of major complications, although minor complications were much
greater in the percutaneous gastrojejunostomy group. No deaths occurred in either
group that was directly related to the procedure. They concluded that percutaneous gas-
trojejunostomy is a safe alternative for feeding the neurologically impaired child with gas-
troesophageal reflux.
In many patients, dual access to the jejunum and stomach is attained through a gastro-
jejunal tube to allow for gastric decompression with jejunal feeds. Bell et al. reported a 95%
success rate of passing a jejunostomy tube percutaneously by means of a PEG site. Compli-
cations are frequent with these devices (45). DiSario et al. (46) reported a serious compli-
cation rate of 95% in jejunal tubes placed through a PEG-site complication. In this adult
series of 20 patients, continued aspiration (67%) and tube failure secondary to occlusion,
leakage, malposition, extrusion, cracking, kinking, or rupture (70%) were the most
common. Shike et al. (47) reported a series of 150 adult patients undergoing endoscopic jeju-
nostomy directly into the jejunum. They reported a success rate of 86% in 129 patients with
a procedural complication rate of 8% including six wound infections, one colon perforation,
one abscess, and one instance of postoperative bleeding. They had a low long-term catheter
complication rate of 3%. Mean duration of catheter use was 113 days.
Laparoscopic jejunostomy has been advocated by several group in the last 10 years
as an alternative to open or endoscopic jejunostomy placement (48 –50). Hotokezaka et al.
(49) retrospectively reviewed their adult series of jejunostomies placed with laparoscopic
assistance. Four patients were converted to open laparotomy, whereas 28 were completed
laparoscopically. Major complications including tube displacement, obstruction, and
aspiration pneumonia occurred in 25% of patients. In the four patients with early post-
operative tube dislodgment, three were replaced at the bedside, whereas one occurred
laparotomy for redo jejunostomy. Tube feeds were begun on an average of 2 days in
patients undergoing laparoscopic placement (49).
As with gastrostomy tube placement, no one method of jejunostomy placement has
been shown in a rigorous fashion to be the best method. A prospective randomized study
comparing open, endoscopic, and laparoscopic jejunostomy would be a useful one. Until
then, clinicians should continue to use the techniques with which they are most
comfortable.
4. CECOSTOMY
Fecal incontinence or constipation can be a devastating problem in children with anorectal

anomalies, neurointestinal anomalies, or neurologic devastation. Chronic retrograde
enemas are frequently used in the management of both. In 1990, Malone et al. (51) intro-
duced the antegrade continent enema (ACE), in which a continent cecostomy is fashioned
using the appendix. They reported improvement in 15 of 21 children (71%) with a high
family satisfaction rate (51). The most significant complication has been that of stomal
stenosis. Malone et al. reported a stomal stenosis rate of 24%. The procedure has
quickly gained worldwide popularity. Lynch et al. (52) reported their series of 30 children
undergoing laparoscopic ACE procedure. They showed a continence rate of 90% and a
complication rate of 34% including 27% stomal stenosis (52).
Many patients with fecal incontinence have concomitant urinary incontinence and
require the use of the appendix for a continent urinary stoma. Some surgeons have
placed low-profile devices directly into the cecum either laparoscopically, by laparotomy,
or by means of fluoroscopic guidance. Shandling et al. (53) reported their series of 15
patients who underwent fluoroscopically guided percutaneous insertion of a cecostomy
tube. The group consisted of children with neurologic impairment or children with anor-
ectal anomalies. Cecal access could not be gained in one patient because of the presence of
a interposed, distended sigmoid colon. There were no significant complications in this
group, and the procedure was performed under sedation. Duh and Way (54) reported
the placement of a cecostomy with laparoscopic guidance in an adult patient with
colonic pseudo-obstruction for colonic decompression. Yeung and Lund (55) reported
placement of a laparoscopic cecostomy for a 26-year-old patient with fecal incontinence
secondary to an anorectal malformation for antegrade enemas. While cecal catheters can
be placed in a variety of minimal-access fashions, further investigation is needed in order
to establish the optimal method.
5. SUMMARY
In the last 20 years, endoscopic and laparoscopic advances have led to a variety of minimal
access techniques for stomas. However, few papers have rigorously studied the differences
between the methods of placement. Most studies that have been published are retrospec-
tive reviews of a single technique in adult patients with comparisons to historical controls.
The majority of these studies have shown minimal access techniques for stomas are gen-
erally safe and may be of benefit in terms of postoperative recovery and cost. Prospective
randomized studies in children would be the optimal way to investigate the validity of
these retrospective studies for the pediatric population.
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versus Nissen fundoplication for enteral feeding of the neurologically impaired child with
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45. Bell SD, Carmody EA, Yeung EY, Thurstonlo A, Simons ME, Ito CS. Percutaneous gastro-
stomy and gastrojejunostomy, additional experience in 519 procedures. Radiology, 1995;
194(3):817– 820.
46. DiSario JA, Foutch PG, Sanowski RA. Poor results with percutaneous endoscopic jejunost-
omy. Gastrointest Endosc 1990; 36(3):257.
47. Shike M, Latkany L, Gerdes H, Bloch AS. Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomies for
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48. Albrink MH, Foster J, Rosemurgy AS, Carey LC. Laparoscopic feeding jejunostomy: also a
simple technique. Surg Endosc 1992; 6(5):259.
49. Murayama KM, Johnson TJ, Thompson JS. Laparoscopic gastrostomy and jejunostomy are
safe and effective for obtaining enteral access. Am J Surg 1996; 172(5):591.
50. Hotokezaka M, Adams RB, Miller AD, McCallum RW, Schirmer BD. Laparoscopic percuta-
neous jejunostomy for long-term enteral access. Surg Endosc 1996; 10(10):1008.
51. Malone PS, Ransley PG, Kiely EM. Preliminary report: the antegrade continence enema.
Lancet 1990; 336(8725):1217.
52. Lynch AC, Beasley SW, Robertson RW, Morreau PN. Comparison of results of laparoscopic
and open antegrade continence enema procedures. Pediatr Surg Int 1999; 15(5 – 6):343.
53. Shandling B, Chait PG, Richards HF. Percutaneous cecostomy: a new technique in the
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54. Duh QY, Way LW. Diagnostic laparoscopy and laparoscopic cecostomy for colonic pseudo-
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and technical proposal. Eur J Pediatr Surg 2000; 10(4):276.
15
Achalasia
Craig T. Albanese
1. Diagnosis 201
2. Management 202
2.1. Calcium-Channel Blockade 202
2.2. Pneumatic Dilation 202
2.3. Botulinum Injection 203
2.4. Open Surgical Intervention 203
2.5. Minimal Access Surgical Intervention 204
References 204
Achalasia of the esophagus is a neuromuscular (1 – 7) disorder in which esophageal

dilation and hypertrophy occur without organic stenosis. It is characterized by an increased
resting pressure of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES), failure of complete relaxation of
the LES in response to swallowing, and absence of normal esophageal peristalsis. The
incidence of achalasia is one in 10,000 people (8,9). It is a relatively uncommon
problem in children, with those under 15 years of age comprising ,5% of the sympto-
matic cases (10 – 12). Presenting symptoms include regurgitation of food, dysphagia,
and failure to thrive. Respiratory difficulties may also be present and are often the
result of chronic aspiration.
1. DIAGNOSIS
The diagnosis is supported by radiographic, endoscopic, and esophageal manometric

studies. Plain radiographs are rarely useful but can demonstrate an air – fluid level in the
esophagus. A contrast esophagram will demonstrate a widened esophagus that tapers dis-
tally (“birds beak” appearance). With disease progression, the esophagus may assume a
redundant, sigmoid appearance. Endoscopy is used to rule out other clinical entities that
may present similarly. In some, failure of the gastroesophageal junction to dilate with
insufflation has been noted (10). Esophageal manometry is the gold-standard method to
201
202 Albanese
diagnose achalasia. Characteristics consistent with achalasia include: low amplitude ter-
tiary wave peristalsis along the entire length of the esophagus (the only absolute criterion
for diagnosis), increased resting pressure of the LES (usually two-times normal), and
failure of prolonged relaxation of the LES in response to swallowing.
2. MANAGEMENT
The treatment of achalasia is geared toward symptomatic relief because the etiology is ill-
defined. Management strategies include oral calcium-channel blockade, pneumatic
dilation, botulinum toxin injection, and surgery. The adult literature is replete with pro-
spective and retrospective studies (13 – 35) examining these various treatment strategies,
all with relatively large numbers of patients. In contrast, there is a relative paucity of
pediatric literature (Tables 15.1– 15.3), with no prospective randomized trials.
2.1. Calcium-Channel Blockade

Nifedipinew decreases resting LES pressure and improves esophageal contractions. Case
reports in children have demonstrated a positive response, but symptoms recur when the
medication is discontinued. Side-effects are common and only two-thirds of the adult
population with achalasia experience symptomatic relief (36).
2.2. Pneumatic Dilation

Table 15.1 examines the clinical outcomes of six studies, each with at least eight children
(10,37 –41). The percentage of patients with “good” results, defined as minimal residual or
complete resolution of symptoms after dilation, is presented. With the exception of one
study (38), there was a chronological improvement in outcomes, perhaps reflecting
improvements in technique. Patients who required surgery in these studies had a mean
of 2.8 (range 2 –3) sessions of dilation prior to surgery. Long term follow-up of these
patients, who did not have surgery at the time of publication, would be interesting, to
see whether the favorable outcome with pneumatic dilation was long-standing, as the
adult literature demonstrates that up to 50% of patients with initial good response to
dilation have recurrence of their symptoms within 5 years of treatment (42).
Table 15.1 Comparison of Studies in Children with Achalasia Treated with Pneumatic Dilation
Mean Mean
number number
Number (%) of dilations Number of of dilations
Number of with good in those with patients with in those with
Author (Ref.) patients outcome good outcome failed outcome failed outcome
Azizkhan et al. (37) 20 5 (25) 2.4 15 3

Boyle et al. (38) 10 8 (80) 1.9 2 3
Berquist et al. (10) 8 5 (63) 1 2 2.5
Nakayama et al. (39) 15 11 (73) 1.7 4 2.5
Perisic et al. (40) 12 10 (83) 1.1 2 2
Hamza et al. (41) 11 10 (90) 2 1 3
Achalasia 203
Table 15.2 Comparison of Studies in Children with Achalasia Treated with Open
Esophagomyotomy
Number of Number (%) Follow-up in

Author (Ref.) patients with good outcome range of years
Buick and Spitz (5) 15 12 (80) 6.2 (mean)

Vane et al. (48) 21 18 (86) 1 – 14
Nihoul-Fekete et al. (49) 35 34 (97) 1 – 25
Emblem et al. (50) 12 10 (83) 0.8 – 11
Illi and Stauffer (51) 16 12/14 (86) 3 – 22
Myers et al. (52) 175 (world-wide 110/154 (71) 1 – 20
survey)
Morris-Stiff et al. (53) 10 9 (90) 1 – 23
Karnak et al. (54) 20 14 (70) 0.16 – 16
2.3. Botulinum Injection

Administration of botulinum toxin into the gastroesophageal region has shown short-lived
usefulness. On the basis of several studies (43 –45), the effect after the first treatment was
only for 4 months. The temporary relief of symptoms afforded by the toxin injection
allowed patients to gain weight before surgery or was reserved for poor dilation or
surgery candidates. A major drawback of this intervention is the scar that is produced
in the wall of the perisphincteric esophagus, which makes surgical myotomy quite difficult
and, in many cases, leads to esophageal mucosal perforation during myotomy (an effect
not seen with pneumatic dilation) (46,47) The evidence suggests that there is very little
role for botulinum toxin injection in the pediatric population with achalasia.
2.4. Open Surgical Intervention

The surgical esophagomyotomy, or Heller myotomy, involves cutting a 6 –8 cm length of
esophageal wall (sparing the mucosa). It is performed on either side of the anterior vagus
nerve. It is important to extend the myotomy across the gastroesophageal junction to avoid
postoperative dysphagia, although an extended myotomy across this area may predispose
Table 15.3 Comparison of Studies in Children with Achalasia Treated with Minimal Access
Esophagomyotomy
Number (%) Follow-up in

Number of Surgical procedure with good range of
Author (Ref.) patients (number of patients) outcome months
Waldhausen et al. (60) 8 Lap/fundo (8) 8 (100) 1 – 24

Esposito et al. (55) 10 Lap/fundo (10) 10 (100) 6 – 72
Rothenberg et al. (56) 9 Lap/fundo (5) 7 (78) Not available
Thorac (5)
Patti et al. (57) 13 Lap/fundo (13) 13 (100) 19 (median)
Mehara et al. (58) 22 Lap/fundo (18) 22 (100) 1 – 54
Thorac (4)
Mattioli et al. (59) 20 Lap/fundo (20) 20 (100) 6 – 102
Note: Lap, laparoscopic; fundo, fundoplication; thorac, thoracoscopic.

204 Albanese
to postoperative gastroesophageal reflux (GER). The Heller myotomy is performed via a

left thoracotomy or a laparotomy. Recently, the procedure has been performed in both the
hemithorax and the abdomen using minimal access techniques (discussed subsequently).
There are eight studies (5,48 – 54) in which patients underwent esophageal myotomy
using either a thoracotomy (with or without an antireflux procedure) or a laparotomy (with
or without an antireflux procedure) (Table 15.2). The patients in whom a transabdominal
myotomy with an antireflux procedure was performed had the best outcome with a 91%
symptom resolution rate. In those who underwent transabdominal myotomy alone,
transthoracic myotomy with an antireflux procedure, and transthoracic myotomy alone,
25%, 50%, and 53% of children experienced complete symptom resolution, respectively.
Recommendations from all of these studies include the transabdominal approach with a
concomitant antireflux procedure for the treatment of achalasia in children. The antireflux
procedure of choice is a partial (non-3608) wrap. Most commonly a Dor or Toupet fundo-
plication is used.
2.5. Minimal Access Surgical Intervention

There are six retrospective studies evaluating the clinical outcome after minimal access
myotomy in children (55 – 60). Each study had at least nine subjects. Overall, the children
had good to excellent outcomes in 78 – 100% of the cases. The type of procedure varied
between studies, but the majority underwent laparoscopy with an antireflux procedure
that was a partial fundoplication. The largest study, by Mehara et al. (58), had 22 children
in a multicenter study with similar outcome among all patients. The mean duration of hos-
pitalization was less for laparoscopic esophagomyotomy than for those converted to open
esophagomyotomy or for thoracoscopic esophagomyotomy. The mean time to resumption
of soft feedings occurred sooner after laparoscopic than after converted open or the thor-
acoscopic procedures. Recommendations from all of these studies include a concomitant
partial antireflux procedure.
The two most common reasons for a poor outcome following myotomy are persistent
dysphagia or GER. The occurrence of each of these may reflect differences in operative
approach or technique. A transabdominal myotomy is likely to be carried not only across
the LES but also down onto the cardia of the stomach. In those series where a trans-
abdominal myotomy alone is performed, the rate of postoperative dysphagia is low and
that of GER is high. The length of a transthoracic myotomy is relatively short compared
with the abdominal approach. Thus, GER tends to occur less, whereas the rate of dysphagia
is increased. In one series of adult patients undergoing thoracoscopic myotomies (61), a long
myotomy was performed and resulted in excellent outcomes with respect to dysphagia, but
60% of patients experienced GER. Using the transabdominal approach with a partial fundo-
plication, the same authors decreased the postoperative GER rate to 10% (62).
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16
Laparoscopic Appendectomy
J. Mark Walton and Peter Fitzgerald
McMaster Children’s Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
1. Introduction 209
2. Diagnosis of Appendicitis and Diagnostic Laparoscopy 210
3. Laparoscopic Appendectomy Techniques 210
4. Laparoscopic Appendectomy Compared to Open Appendectomy 211
5. Appendiceal Mass, Laparoscopy, and the Interval Appendectomy 213
6. Implications for Clinical Practice 214
References 214
1. INTRODUCTION
Appendectomy remains one of the most common procedures done for acute abdominal
pain. Since MacBurney (1) described the classic abdominal wall incision in 1894 this
has remained the classic approach to the inflamed appendix with low morbidity and mor-
tality. The application of laparoscopy to appendicitis in adults followed Semm’s initial
description in 1983 (2). The first laparoscopic appendectomy in children was performed
in 1988 (3). However, unlike laparoscopic cholecystectomy for gallbladder disease, it
has not become the procedure of choice for appendicitis in children or adults, and the
indications for this approach remain controversial.
Pediatric surgeons have been able to perform major operations through small
incisions for many years. Pediatric surgeons predated adult surgeons in the application
of many minimal access techniques (4 –6). However, without the large volume of
routine laparoscopic procedures, such as cholecystectomy, many pediatric surgeons
have not had an elective surgical venue to expand their laparoscopic skills. This, in
addition to the “after-hours” nature of appendicitis, has also discouraged pediatric sur-
geons from adopting the minimal access approach for appendicitis. Longer set up and
operating times, as well as the unfamiliarity of the operating room staff in pediatric
centers with minimal access techniques, has slowed the acceptance of laparoscopic appen-
dectomy. However, as minimal access surgery experience in the pediatric age group has
increased so has the use of these techniques in treating appendicitis.
209
210 Walton and Fitzgerald
2. DIAGNOSIS OF APPENDICITIS AND DIAGNOSTIC

LAPAROSCOPY
The diagnostic dilemma of appendicitis remains a consistent issue for the pediatric
surgeon at the bedside of the child with abdominal pain. The current armamentarium
includes the history, physical findings, and laboratory results in addition to reliable
diagnostic imaging techniques such as ultrasonography and CT scan (7).
Laparoscopy has also been used to diagnose the source of the abdominal pain and
thus may reduce the chance of removing a normal appendix. This approach has been advo-
cated especially in young women for whom the negative appendectomy rate is as high as
50%. With laparoscopy in fertile women, the negative appendectomy rate is five times less
(8). Although there are no consistent data, some studies have suggested that the normal-
looking appendix can safely be left in place at the time of laparoscopy (9 –13), especially
when other pathology is found (14). Others believe that the low risk of incidental appen-
dectomy may be justified by the benefit of avoiding confusion if the patient returns in the
future with recurrent right lower quadrant pain.
A number of studies in adult patients looked at diagnostic laparoscopy followed by
open appendectomy compared to open appendectomy alone and found no advantage to
this staged approach in terms of number of wound infections (15), intra-abdominal
abscesses (15,16), or length of stay (15 – 17).
3. LAPAROSCOPIC APPENDECTOMY TECHNIQUES
Techniques described for laparoscopic appendectomy usually involve three trocars.

However, methods have been described that utilize a single trocar to visualize and
grasp the appendix (18). In this technique, the appendix is delivered extra-corporeally
and the mesoappendix and the base of the appendix are dealt with as in an open appendect-
omy. In the standard three-trocar technique, an umbilical trocar is used for initial access to
the abdomen. The size of the trocars depends upon the technique used for controlling the
mesoappendix as well as the base of the appendix (18 – 21). Usually one 10 mm trocar for
extraction of the appendix and two 5 mm trocars are required for the placement of instru-
ments. Options for the positions of the other two trocars vary between the left lower quad-
rant and suprapubic area or the left lower quadrant with a right upper quadrant trocar
(22,23). A 5 mm telescope is most flexible as it can be moved from one trocar to
another. A 308 lens allows the surgeon to adjust the angle of view but does require a
more experienced person to direct the laparoscope. Cautery and/or clips can safely
control the mesoappendix and endoloops are commonly used for the base of the appendix.
In both adults and children, a linear stapling device (24 –26) has been used to control
the base of the appendix and the mesoappendix, but requires the use of a 12 mm trocar.
This, in addition to the amount of room required for the instrument, makes it less suitable
for smaller children (22). However, the advantages of this technique are speed and the
ability to control a necrotic or inflamed appendiceal base more easily. The extraction of
the appendix can be done by pulling the inflamed appendix into the 10 mm trocar and
withdrawing the appendix and trocar as a unit from the abdominal wall, or alternatively
by using a specimen retrieval bag.
One trial looked at various-sized instruments and compared open vs. laparoscopic
vs. needlescopic laparoscopic appendectomy technique (using 2 mm instruments) (9). It
demonstrated that the needlescopic procedure was feasible but did require the use of a
10 mm port for use of clips and for extraction of the appendix.
Laparoscopic Appendectomy 211
4. LAPAROSCOPIC APPENDECTOMY COMPARED

TO OPEN APPENDECTOMY
A number of studies in children have compared laparoscopic and open appendectomy but
suffer from being retrospective (27) or claim to be randomized but actually allocated
according to parent preference (28), making analysis difficult. Other studies prospectively
compared laparoscopic and open appendectomy but were not randomized as the perform-
ance of laparoscopy depended upon the availability of the laparoscopic surgeon (29).
Many randomized studies excluded patients with diffuse peritonitis and abscesses (22).
Large retrospective pediatric studies have reported good results with laparoscopic
appendectomy but have no control group. One series of 1379 cases reported only 4 post-
operative intra-abdominal abscesses (30). In this series there were nine conversions to
laparotomy (,0.7%). Conversion rates from laparoscopic to open have been noted to
be higher with complicated appendicitis due to technical difficulties with completing
the procedure (31).
An extensive meta-analysis by Sauerland et al. (32) and a more recent analysis in the
Cochrane library (8) reviewed the current literature on the surgical approach to the patient
with appendicitis (Tables 16.1 and 16.2). Other meta-analyses have concluded that laparo-
scopic appendectomy is a superior operation to open appendectomy (33). Many studies
have been done but unfortunately many are poorly designed, not blinded, and do not
follow the intention to treat guidelines. Other studies do not have proper control groups
while others were not properly randomized. Sauerland excluded these studies after an
extensive attempt to contact original authors in studies where study design was in question
(8). Following this extensive review, this meta-analysis was left with 39 studies in adults
and 5 studies in children (Tables 16.1 and 16.2) that compared laparoscopic and open
appendectomy and fulfilled their criteria (8).
Table 16.1 Randomized Studies of Laparoscopic and Open Appendectomy in Children (8)
Pain Operation Costs US$ Time to

Wound mean cm time LOS (surgery/ RTNA
infection IAA VAS (min) (days) total) (days)
Lavonius et al. LA 0/23 0/23 — 42 + 13 3 — —

(22) (n ¼ 43) OA 0/20 0/20 — 34 + 13 3.1 — —
Lejus et al. LA 0/32 0/32 3.0 54 + 17 — — —
(34) (n ¼ 63) OA 0/31 0/31 2.9 39 + 18 — — —
Lintula et al. LA 0/30 0/30 2.8 34 + 18 1.9 — —
(35) (n ¼ 61) OA 3/31 0/31 3.5 30 + 11 2.6 — —
Little et al. LA 2/44 1/44 — 75 + 75 4 1480/8041 2
(23) (n ¼ 88) OA 1/44 1/44 — 51 + 51 3.5 1240/7091 1
Yeung et al. LA 0/91 0/91 — 60 + 60 — — —
(36) (n ¼ 181) OA 9/90 0/90 — 60 + 60 — — —
Overall LA 2/220 1/220 NS Tx-9 Tx-0.6
min days
longer less
OA 13/216 1/216
Statistical effect LA NS NS OA LA NS OA
Note: LA, laparoscopic appendectomy; OA, open appendectomy; IAA, intra-abdominal abscesses; VAS, visual
analog scale; LOS, length of stay; RTNA, return to normal activities; LA , significant effect favors laparoscopic
appendectomy; OA , significant effect favors open appendectomy; NS, not significant.
Table 16.2 Summary Data of Randomized Studies of Laparoscopic and Open Appendectomy in
Adults (8)
Pain Costs US$ Time to

Wound mean cm Operation LOS (surgery/ RTNA
infection IAA VAS time (min) (days) total) (days)
LA 86/2213 41/2239 14.3 min 0.7 day Variable 6 days

difference difference results difference
OA 161/2111 13/2134 Variable
Statistical LA OA LA OA LA Overall NS LA
effect
Note: LA, laparoscopic appendectomy; OA, open appendectomy; IAA, intra-abdominal abscesses; VAS, visual
analog scale; LOS, length of stay; RTNA, return to normal activities; LA , Significant effect favors laparoscopic
appendectomy; OA , significant effect favors open appendectomy; NS, not significant.
Wound infections were approximately half as common in laparoscopic appendect-

omy (86 of 2213) as they were in open appendectomy (161 of 2111) in the 33 analyzable
studies (8). This was a consistent and statistically significant finding amongst studies
regardless of antibiotics used as well as specific techniques of the procedures. In children
the five randomized studies (22,23,34 –36) similarly showed a definite reduction in wound
infection by laparoscopy (2 of 220 in laparoscopic vs. 13 of 216 in open). This result is
somewhat skewed by the excessive result in Yeung’s published abstract in which there
were nine wound infections in the open group and none in the laparoscopic group (36).
Among the fifteen adult studies in which intra-abdominal abscesses could be ana-
lyzed, there was a three-fold increase in abscesses after laparoscopic appendectomy (13
of 2134 in the open group vs. 41 of 2239 in the laparoscopic group) (8). In children there
were no intra-abdominal abscesses in four of the five randomized studies. Thus the risk
of intra-abdominal abscess in children cannot be adequately assessed. A large retrospective
series of pediatric patients showed only four intra-abdominal abscesses out of 1,379 appen-
dectomy patients (30). All four occurred among the 221 patients with complicated appen-
dicitis (30). Others however feel strongly that laparoscopy should not be used in cases of
complicated appendicitis (12). A theoretical reason for increased intra-abdominal abscess
formation in perforated appendicitis may be the insufflation of CO2 that leads to spread
of the localized infection around the peritoneal cavity (37), although this has not been
proven. Animal studies have suggested that in the peritonitis model induced pneumoperito-
neum leads to worsening of the peritonitis as well as more positive blood cultures (38,39). It
may well be the simple fact that during laparoscopic appendectomy the manipulation of the
appendix is all done intra-corporeally, while in an open appendectomy it is done extra-
corporeally once the appendix is mobilized. Despite these data, advocates of a laparoscopic
approach for perforated appendicitis suggest that laparoscopic visualization improves the
surgeon’s ability to effectively irrigate and suction the peritoneal cavity (40,41).
One retrospective pediatric study has suggested that laparoscopic appendectomy
should be avoided in complicated appendicitis because of a higher incidence of intra-
abdominal abscess (42). A small study, which was part of a larger randomized study,
suggested that laparoscopic appendectomy was associated with more major complications
when compared to open appendectomy (43). The laparoscopic and open groups were not
comparable in this study, as there were more perforated appendicitis cases in the laparo-
scopic group and more cases of gangrenous appendicitis in the open group, suggesting a
milder form of complicated appendicitis in the open group (43).
In the Cochrane study, operating time was increased by 14 min in the laparoscopic
group compared to the open group and likewise there was an increase in the anesthetic and
overall operating room time (8). These results varied among studies. Operating time was
9 min longer in children in the five pediatric randomized studies (22,23,34 –36).
Pain was found to be reduced overall in accumulated data from 11 adult series of
laparoscopic vs. open appendectomy (8). Pain was assessed in a blinded manner in two
pediatric studies and was not found to be reduced after laparoscopic appendectomy com-
pared to open appendectomy (34,35).
The length of stay varied among studies, but in no study was hospital stay longer
after laparoscopic appendectomy. In one blinded pediatric study the laparoscopic
approach shortened stay by 0.7 days (35).
The time to resumption of normal activities, work, and sports in adults was signifi-
cantly reduced after laparoscopic appendectomy, although variability was noted (8). In
children, only one study looked at return to full activities. In this study the laparoscopic
group was slower to return to full activities (23).
In adults the overall cost of laparoscopic and open appendectomy were similar, as
the extra operating room time was balanced by the earlier discharge and the early
return to work with laparoscopic appendectomy (8). Cost was only assessed in one ran-
domized pediatric series in which laparoscopic appendectomy resulted in statistically sig-
nificant increases in surgical and anesthesia costs. However the overall costs for
laparoscopic vs. open appendectomy were not statistically different (23).
The physiological effect of laparoscopic and open appendectomy was studied in a
randomized pediatric study (44). The laparoscopic group had significant increase in the
end tidal CO2 with a 7-mmHg elevation in blood pressure. Intraoperative serum glucose
was significantly higher in the laparoscopic group. The overall significance of this is
not known but does suggest that open appendectomy should be considered in pediatric
patients with compromised cardiopulmonary status.
5. APPENDICEAL MASS, LAPAROSCOPY, AND

THE INTERVAL APPENDECTOMY
There is no evidence in the literature to support laparoscopic drainage of intra-abdominal

abscesses instead of percutaneous radiological techniques. The laparoscopic technique
leads to the risk of contamination of the peritoneal cavity by infection as the abscess
cavity is disrupted laparoscopically.
Controversy abounds with respect to whether an interval appendectomy is necessary
after a walled-off perforated appendicitis has been treated medically. Difficulty remains as
to the natural history of this condition. Retrospective studies have suggested that about
30% of cases left without an appendectomy will develop recurrent symptoms during the
first year after presentation (45,46). Some may use this statistic to proceed with interval
appendectomy, while others say that there is a good chance that this will not cause any
more problems and recurrent symptoms can be dealt with at that time with an appendect-
omy (45).
Others advocate a trial of antibiotics in all cases of perforated appendicitis followed
by an interval appendectomy (47). For those who believe that interval appendectomy is
necessary there is support in the literature for a laparoscopic approach (48). However,
there are no randomized studies comparing laparoscopic approach to open approach for
interval appendectomy.
6. IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE
Clearly, laparoscopic appendectomy in the pediatric age group is becoming more widely
accepted. Unfortunately, an extensive review of the current literature does not yield a clear
answer to the question of whether a laparoscopic appendectomy is superior to the
traditional open appendectomy for patients with either acute or perforated appendicitis.
Individual pediatric surgeons must decide where they are in their learning curve. Most
surgeons who are publishing randomized trials on this subject are past their own learning
curve. So how pertinent are these studies to the average pediatric surgeon’s practice?
The lack of randomized controlled trials with researchers blinded to the surgical
technique remains a problem in the search for an evidence-based decision regarding the
use of minimal access techniques in the management of patients with appendicitis. Unfor-
tunately, in non-blinded studies, bias may be introduced as the laparoscopic procedure is
viewed as a more advanced procedure and caregivers and patients may believe that the
laparoscopic group will do better.
It seems clear that laparoscopic appendectomy is a safe alternative to open appen-
dectomy for the child with simple nonperforated appendicitis. For children with perforated
appendicitis, it is unclear whether laparoscopic is any better than open appendectomy, or
whether in fact it leads to more intra-abdominal abscess formation than the open tech-
nique. This question will require further studies in pediatric patients.
In summary, laparoscopic appendectomy cannot be recommended as the preferred
approach to the child with appendicitis, but is a reasonable alternative with some potential
advantages and disadvantages. Certain patients, such as adolescent females, obese chil-
dren, and children with doubtful diagnosis, may represent groups to whom laparoscopic
appendectomy may be particularly beneficial. One additional benefit of laparoscopic
appendectomy is that it is a simple, common procedure, which helps individual surgeons
and pediatric institutions to become proficient in laparoscopic techniques.
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17
Meckel Diverticulum, Duplications, Small
Bowel Obstruction, and Intussusception
Mark V. Mazziotti
Houston Pediatric Surgeons, Houston, Texas, USA
Jacob C. Langer
1. Introduction 217
2. Meckel Diverticulum 218
2.1. Presentation and Indications for Surgery 218
2.2. Surgical Technique 218
2.3. Evidence 219
3. Intestinal Duplication 219
3.1. Presentation and Indications for Surgery 219
3.3. Evidence 220
4. Small Bowel Obstruction 220
4.2. Evidence 221
5. Intussusception 221
5.2. Evidence 222
References 222
1. INTRODUCTION
Minimally invasive surgical techniques are now standard treatment for commonly encoun-
tered diseases of childhood such as acute appendicitis and gastroesophageal reflux disease.
As pediatric surgeons have become more comfortable with these techniques, they have
been applied to a variety of more unusual disorders of the small intestine such as
Meckel diverticulum, intestinal duplications, intestinal obstruction, and intussusception.
This chapter will summarize the principles of laparoscopic treatment for a variety of
small intestinal disorders, as well as the current available evidence for these principles.
217
218 Mazziotti and Langer
2. MECKEL DIVERTICULUM
Meckel diverticulum represents the remnant of the most proximal portion of the yolk stalk,
also known as the vitelline duct or omphalomesenteric duct. By 9 weeks gestational age,
the yolk stalk usually involutes. Persistence of some portion of this structure results in a
spectrum of congenital anomalies termed omphalomesenteric duct remnants. These
include a true diverticulum (the most common anomaly), a fibrous cord, a fistula, cysts,
and sinuses. Meckel diverticulum arises from the antimesenteric border of the ileum,
between 40 and 100 cm from the ileocecal valve. It is a true diverticulum, containing
all four layers of the bowel wall. It may be 1 – 10 cm in length and may have a wide or
narrow base. The blood supply arises from the mesentery, where a single artery crosses
the bowel from the mesenteric to the antimesenteric side to course along the longitudinal
axis of the diverticulum.
2.1. Presentation and Indications for Surgery

Meckel diverticulum is found in 2% of the population. It is not known exactly how many
of these will become symptomatic, although most reports estimate between 4% and 35%
(1). More than 60% of those who develop symptoms are younger than 2-year-old (2). The
most common presentations include bleeding, obstruction, inflammation, and umbilical
drainage, and the incidence of each varies depending on the age of the patient.
Although most cases of Meckel diverticulum are discovered incidentally during
abdominal exploration for some other reason, the most common symptom is painless
rectal bleeding. This bleeding occurs at a mean age of 2 years, although it can certainly
occur in older children and adults. The bleeding may be massive and require transfusion.
Bleeding is due to ileal mucosal ulceration by acid secreted from ectopic gastric mucosa
within the diverticulum. The bleeding site is usually at the junction of the two different
mucosal surfaces.
The study of choice for the diagnosis of Meckel diverticulum in a patient with pain-
less rectal bleeding is the technetium-99m pertechnetate radioisotope scan. This isotope
localizes to gastric mucosa and in ectopic locations. The study takes 60 min and has a
false-negative rate of only 5– 10%. Its sensitivity can be increased by the bladder cathe-
terization and by the administration of pentagastrin and H2-blockers. The differential diag-
nosis of a positive study also must include an intestinal duplication, which may also
contain ectopic gastric mucosa. If no other source of bleeding can be identified, upper
and lower endoscopies, tagged red blood cell scan, or angiography, as well as laparoscopy
or laparotomy, can be considered.
The next most common complication associated with Meckel diverticulum is intes-
tinal obstruction, which occurs in 25% of patients who present with symptoms. Obstruc-
tion may occur either by volvulus of the small bowel around an omphalomesenteric fibrous
band attached to the umbilicus or to the mesentery or due to intussusception with Meckel
diverticulum as a lead point. Meckel diverticulitis, with or without perforation, may occur
in as many as 20% of symptomatic patients. Most are misdiagnosed as acute appendicitis.
2.2. Surgical Technique

All patients requiring operation for Meckel diverticulum should be adequately resuscitated
and receive perioperative antibiotics prior to their operation. Resuscitation is particularly
important in the cases of bleeding and may require transfusion. Operative principles vary
with the indications for operation. In the case of bleeding from Meckel diverticulum,
Meckel Diverticulum, Duplications, Obstructions, and Intussusception 219
principles include resection of the diverticulum with its ectopic gastric mucosa, and resec-
tion of any ulcerated intestine to prevent recurrent bleeding episodes. For patients with
Meckel diverticulitis, the goal is simply to remove the inflamed diverticulum. In the
cases of bowel obstruction, the obstruction must be relieved whether this involves resec-
tion of an intussuscepted diverticulum or correction of a volvulus from a Meckel band and
resection of the band.
The indications for resection of an incidentally discovered Meckel diverticulum are
not clear. A large retrospective, population-based study by Cullen et al. (3) concluded that
Meckel diverticula discovered incidentally during operation should be removed for most
patients, regardless of age. However, this remains an area of controversy.
Laparoscopic exploration of the abdomen is performed through the umbilicus. The
incision should be 12 mm in length to accommodate an endostapler. Carbon dioxide insuf-
flation is performed up to pressures of 10– 15 mmHg, depending on the size of the child.
Laparoscopic exploration of the peritoneal cavity is best performed with a 5 mm 308
laparoscope. One or two additional 5 mm ports are placed to triangulate a working
space and to manipulate and resect the Meckel diverticulum.
The diverticulum typically has a prominent feeding vessel, which originates from
the ileal mesentery, crosses over the ileum, and parallels the diverticulum for its length.
When present, this vessel is divided with cautery, harmonic scalpel, or clips. In the case
of Meckel diverticulitis or during resection of an incidentally discovered Meckel diverti-
culum, an endostapler is used to divide the base of the diverticulum in the transverse
dimension, so as not to narrow the intestinal lumen. When the indication for resection
is bleeding, some have advocated a similar approach, whereas others recommend a seg-
mental bowel resection to minimize the risk of leaving behind ulcerated small bowel.
Although a small bowel resection can be done intracorporeally, some surgeons prefer a
slight enlargement of the umbilical incision, allows the diverticulum to be delivered so
that an extracorporeal resection and anastomosis can be performed.
2.3. Evidence
There are no randomized controlled studies comparing open vs. laparoscopic resection of
Meckel diverticulum. Almost every report in the literature is a series of a few cases (4 – 7).
Outcomes were excellent in each series, and there were no reported complications, but
because of the nature of the studies, no conclusions can be drawn to say that the laparo-
scopic approach is superior.
3. INTESTINAL DUPLICATION
Alimentary tract duplications are cystic or tubular structures lined by normal gastrointestinal
mucosa and having intestinal smooth muscle in their wall. They occur anywhere from the
mouth to the anus, but most commonly occur in the ileum and the jejunum. Their usual
location is on the mesenteric side of the normal intestine, in contrast to omphalomesenteric
remnants, which are antimesenteric in location. Duplications are often associated with other
congenital anomalies, and multiple alimentary tract duplications can occur in the same patient.
3.1. Presentation and Indications for Surgery

The symptoms caused by intestinal duplications depend on the type and location of the
duplication. The small intestine is the most common location, accounting for 50% of
all lesions in large series (8). Of these, approximately two-third are ileal and one-third are
jejunal. Noncommunicating cystic lesions are most common, but communication with the
lumen may occur. If the communication occurs distally, drainage into the adjacent bowel
will occur and the lesion may remain asymptomatic. If the communication is proximal,
the distal end of the duplication becomes dilated and may cause obstruction, perforation, or
volvulus. In addition, some duplications may contain ectopic gastric mucosa and, if commu-
nicating, it may result in bleeding through the same mechanism as Meckel diverticulum.
Symptoms include a mass discovered on physical examination or seen on a radio-
graphic study, pain from obstruction, perforation, or peptic ulceration, vomiting, or
bleeding. Because many patients present with a confusing clinical picture, ultrasound,
CT, and contrast studies may all be helpful in the diagnosis of a small intestinal dupli-
cation. Recently, many enteric duplications have been diagnosed on prenatal sonography.
Radioisotope scanning has been useful to help diagnose enteric duplications which contain
ectopic gastric mucosa (9).

Surgical excision is the goal for the treatment of most small intestinal duplications. Many
cystic duplications can be totally excised. If the duplication and the normal intestine
share a common blood supply or muscular wall, the adjacent intestine must be resected
with the cyst. Resection of the adjacent small intestine can usually be performed without
jeopardizing the amount of functional small intestine, except for rare long tubular dupli-
cations, in which case the duplication may be partially resected, with its remaining
mucosa stripped, so as to eliminate the risks of hemorrhage or cancer. Duplications of the
duodenum present a unique challenge because complete removal may endanger the bile
duct or the pancreas. These duplications are best managed by marsupialization of the cyst
into the duodenum by an anastomosis of the common walls or by partial cystectomy and
stripping of the mucosa of the residual cyst wall (10).
Minimally invasive treatment for small intestinal duplications is possible, although
many cases require advanced techniques. Some patients will present with an acute
abdominal problem and the diagnosis of an enteric duplication is not made until a lapar-
otomy has already been performed. In those patients in whom the diagnosis is known or
suspected preoperatively, the cyst can be decompressed with a needle and an entirely intra-
corporeal laparoscopic or laparoscopic-assisted resection may be performed. The tech-
nique is similar to that used when a bowel resection is needed for Meckel diverticulum.
For a long tubular duplication, mucosal stripping can be performed laparoscopically,
but it is laborious and time consuming. If the diagnosis is made laparoscopically, the umbi-
lical port site can then be slightly enlarged, the bowel brought out and the partial resection
and mucosal stripping can be done outside the abdomen.
3.3. Evidence
Literature concerning laparoscopic treatment of intestinal duplications is scarce. In one
series of 13 cases, two were treated by laparoscopic-assisted resection (11). Experience
should increase as more surgeons utilize minimally invasive techniques as diagnostic tools.
4. SMALL BOWEL OBSTRUCTION
Postoperative adhesions form the basis for most cases of small bowel obstruction,
although hernias, tumors, and inflammatory disorders are other important diagnostic
considerations. Patients present with crampy abdominal pain and vomiting and may have a
history of previous abdominal surgery. They may have abdominal distension if the
obstruction is in the distal small intestine. Plain abdominal films are frequently used to
study patients who may have a small bowel obstruction. Dilated loops of intestine with
air – fluid levels are characteristic features. CT scanning has also been utilized to help to
make the diagnosis.

The abdomen is accessed through the umbilicus, usually using an open technique both
because of the risk of adhesions and because of the intestinal distension. The first issue
for the surgeon is whether an adequate working space can be developed with the pneumo-
peritoneum. If bowel distension or extensive adhesions precludes adequate visualization,
the operation should be converted to a laparotomy. In addition, if frankly necrotic bowel is
seen, most surgeons would convert to an open approach. If visualization is adequate, the
point or points of obstruction are identified and adhesions are slowly and carefully divided.
If a bowel resection is necessary, it can be done intracorporeally or using a laparoscopic-
assisted approach.
4.2. Evidence
Laparoscopic adhesiolysis has been described in a number of case reports and series in
both adults and children (12 –14). Most authors have concluded that the laparoscopic
approach is an excellent way to start, but that the procedure should be converted to
open if visualization is inadequate or necrotic bowel is found. The results of laparoscopic
adhesiolysis may be improved by using enteroclysis to identify the point of obstruction
preoperatively (15).
5. INTUSSUSCEPTION
Ileocolic intussusception is a very common condition, which usually occurs in infants

between 3 and 12 months of age. However, it can be seen in older and younger children
as well. Many children have a history of a preceding viral illness. The etiology is not com-
pletely understood, but the most common explanation is that a viral illness results in
hypertrophy of the Peyer patches within the bowel wall, which then act as a lead point
for the intussusception. In some children, there is a “pathologic” lead point such as a
polyp, tumor, Meckel diverticulum, or duplication.
Although the most common presentation is intermittent abdominal pain, intussus-
ception may also cause rectal bleeding (“current jelly” stools) and intestinal obstruction.
The diagnosis is suspected on the basis of the history and physical examination, and the
definitive diagnosis is made either by contrast enema or more recently by ultrasound.
Most intussusceptions can be successfully treated in the radiology suite using a barium
or air enema, with larger series showing a success rate of 81% (16). Surgery is indicated
for those cases that cannot be reduced hydrostatically or pneumatically, for cases in which
perforation occurs during attempted reduction, or for recurrent cases where a pathologic
lead point has been identified.

In some cases of failed reduction, the intussusception will actually have reduced itself
between the radiology suite and the operating room due to reduction of edema and due
to the effects of general anesthesia. The first goal of surgery is therefore to determine
whether the intussusception is still present. This can be accomplished by inserting a
small umbilical port to examine the ileocecal area. If the intussusception is no longer
present, the port can be removed and the patient awakened. If the intussusception is
still present, additional ports should be placed and a gentle attempt made to reduce the
intussusception. Pneumaticically-assisted laparoscopic reduction has also been reported
(17). If these maneuvers are unsuccessful, most surgeons would choose to make a right
lower quadrant incision and complete the operation using an open technique. This
might involve manual reduction or may require resection.
5.2. Evidence
There have only been a few series of patients undergoing laparoscopy for ileocolic intus-
susception (18 – 21). These reports confirm the safety of the technique and confirm its
usefulness both as a diagnostic tool to ensure that the intussusception has not spon-
taneously reduced and as a technique for accomplishing reduction in some cases.
However, most studies acknowledge that the need to convert to an open procedure is
higher in this condition than for most other pediatric surgical diseases.
REFERENCES
1. St-Vil D, Brandt ML, Panic S et al. Meckel’s diverticulum in children: a 20 year review.
J Pediatr Surg 1991; 26:1289.
2. Sawin RS. Appendix and Meckel diverticulum. In: Oldham KT, Colombani PM, Foglia RP,
eds. Surgery of Infants and Children. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1997:1215 – 1228.
3. Cullen JJ, Kelly KA, Moir CR et al. Surgical management of Meckel’s diverticulum. Ann Surg
1994; 220:564.
4. Huang CS, Lin LH. Laparoscopic Meckel’s diverticulectomy in infants: report of three cases.
5. Teitelbaum DH, Polley TZ Jr, Obeid F. Laparoscopic diagnosis and excision of Meckel’s
diverticulum. J Pediatr Surg 1994; 29:495.
6. Scheir F, Hoffmann K, Waldschmidt J. Laparoscopic removal of Meckel’s diverticula in
children. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1996; 6:38.
7. Schmid SW, Schäfer M, Krähenbühl et al. The role of laparoscopy in symptomatic Meckel’s
diverticulum. Surg Endosc 1999; 13:1047.
8. Holcomb GW III, Gheissari A, O’Neill JA Jr et al. Surgical management of alimentary tract
duplications. Arch Surg 1989; 209:167.
9. Schwesinger WH, Croom RD III, Habibian MR. Diagnosis of an enteric duplication with
pertechnetate 99mTc scanning. Ann Surg 1975; 181:428.
10. Wrenn EL Jr, Hollabaugh RS. Alimentary tract duplications. In: Ashcraft KW et al., eds.
Pediatric Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 2000.
11. Schalamon J, Schleef J, Hollwarth ME. Experience with gastro-intestinal duplications in
childhood. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2000; 402.
12. Iannelli A, Fabiani P, Dahman M, Benizri E, Gugenheim J. Small bowel volvulus resulting
from a congenital band treated laparoscopically. Surg Endosc 2002; 16:538.
13. Levard H, Boudet MJ, Msika S, Molkhou JM, Hay JM, Laborde Y, Gillet M, Fingerhut A.
Laparoscopic treatment of acute small bowel obstruction: a multicentre retrospective study.
ANZ J Surg 2001; 71:641 – 646.
14. Shalaby R, Desoky A. Laparoscopic approach to small intestinal obstruction in children: a
preliminary experience. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech 2001; 11:301 – 305.
15. Pekmezci S, Altinli E, Saribeyoglu K, Carkman S, Hamzaoglu I, Paksoy M, Uras C,
Korman U, Sirin F. Enteroclysis-guided laparoscopic adhesiolysis in recurrent adhesive
small bowel obstructions. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech 2002; 12:165– 170.
16. Stein M, Alton DJ, Daneman A. Pneumatic reduction of intussusception: 5-year experience.
Radiology 1992; 183:681 – 684.
17. Goldstein AM, Cho NL, Mazziotti MV, Zitsman JL. Pneumatically assisted laparoscopic
reduction of intussusception. Pediatr Endosurg Innov Tech 2003; 7:33– 37.
18. van der Laan M, Bax NM, van der Zee DC, Ure BM. The role of laparoscopy in the manage-
ment of childhood intussusception. Surg Endosc 2001; 15:373 – 376.
19. Lai IR, Huang MT, Lee WJ. Mini-laparoscopic reduction of intussusception for children.
J Formos Med Assoc 2000; 99:510 – 512.
20. Hay SA, Kabesh AA, Soliman HA, Abdelrahman AH. Idiopathic intussusception: the role of
laparoscopy. J Pediatr Surg 1999; 34:577 – 578.
21. Poddoubnyi IV, Dronov AF, Blinnikov OI, Smirnov AN, Darenkov IA, Dedov KA.
Laparoscopy in the treatment of intussusception in children. J Pediatr Surg 1998;
33:1194 – 1197.
18
Laparoscopic-Assisted Total Colectomy
with Pouch Reconstruction
Keith E. Georgeson
The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
1. Introduction 225
2. Operative Technique 225
3. Results 232
4. Conclusions 233
References 233
1. INTRODUCTION
In general, children with ulcerative colitis and familial polyposis can be managed
medically into adulthood. However, some children have unremitting bloody diarrhea
even with maximum medical management. In addition, some children are growth retarded
or have delayed puberty. The negative sequelae associated with the long-term use of
corticosteroids is also an indication for total proctocolectomy in these children (1).
Restorative proctocolectomy with J-pouch pull-through is well tolerated by most
children and adolescents (2). A laparoscopic-assisted technique is used for the total colect-
omy with the addition of a small suprapubic incision for the proctectomy and J-pouch for-
mation. The author prefers a mucosectomy for the proctectomy in order to remove all of
the rectal mucosa. The double-staple technique commonly favored for adult patients
leaves more abnormal rectal mucosa behind. Throughout the lifetime of the child or the
adolescent, there is potentially more time for the development of stricture or neoplasia
in the native rectal remnant. The author uses a diverting ileostomy in most patients for
6 – 8 weeks to minimize the potential for anastomotic leaks in the pelvis.
2. OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE
The patient’s colon should be cleansed mechanically before elective proctocolectomy.

Broad-spectrum antibiotics are administered perioperatively. The patient is placed
225
226 Georgeson
supine in stirrups on the operating table. A urinary catheter is inserted by the surgeon after
the patient has been prepped and draped. Four or five cannulas are placed as indicated in
Fig. 18.1. Colon mobilization is begun in the rectosigmoid mesocolon just proximal to the
rectosigmoid junction. The division of the mesocolon is best accomplished using an ultra-
sonic scalpel. The dissection is kept very close to the colon at all times to avoid encoun-
tering any large vessels which would not be well controlled by the ultrasonic scalpel.
Alternatively, the dissection can be made more proximal in the mesocolon with the
large vessels controlled by vascular staples or clips. However, the mesentery in these chil-
dren is frequently thick owing to the fatty infiltration induced by the chronic use of corti-
costeroids. For this reason, keeping the dissection close to the colon is usually the safest
technique. Once an opening is made completely through the rectosigmoid mesocolon, the
dissection is continued proximally up to the terminal descending colon. Care must be
taken to recognize the proximity of the left ureter to the sigmoid mesocolon. As long as
the dissection is kept close to the colon, the ureter is usually well out of harm’s way.
At the level of the distal descending colon, the fusion fascia is divided. The author
prefers to use scissors or a hook cautery for this division, as it is usually faster than the
use of the ultrasonic scalpel. The dissection of the mesocolon is carried proximally to
the level of the splenic flexure. As the surgeon approaches the splenic flexure, the meso-
colic dissection becomes more difficult. It should be noted that the mesocolon can be
Figure 18.1 Trocar and incision sites used in laparoscopic-assisted proctocolectomy.

Laparoscopic-Assisted Total Colectomy 227
divided either from a medial approach or more commonly by pulling the colon medially
and dividing the mesocolon lateral to the colon. In some situations, the medial approach is
more efficacious, but in others the lateral approach can be useful and will speed the oper-
ation. When this mesenteric dissection becomes difficult and confusing, the gastrocolic
ligament should be approached from the right side of the patient beginning at the level
of the falciform ligament. Care must be taken not to divide both the gastrocolic ligament
and the mesentery simultaneously as they are sometimes intimately attached to one
another. The gastrocolic ligament is opened all the way to the lienocolic ligament. The
lienocolic fibers are also divided. The mesocolon is then divided. The mesocolon can
again be divided from below the colon inferiorly or by pulling downward on the colon
and dividing the mesocolon above the colon. Both techniques can be useful and can aid
in the more rapid resection of the colon. Once the splenic flexure of the colon has been
amputated from the mesocolon, the surgeon changes position from the right side of the
operating table to a point between the patient’s legs, which are held in stirrups. The
table should be tilted to the right during the dissection of the descending colon and
splenic flexure. While dissecting the transverse mesocolon, the patient should be placed
in a reverse Trendelenburg position to bring the small bowel and omentum toward the
pelvis for better visualization of the transverse mesocolon. Some surgeons advocate
retaining the omentum, but the author prefers to resect the omentum with the colon.
The gastro- and hepatocolic ligaments are divided over to the hepatic flexure. When it
is easily done, the transverse mesocolon is also divided. It is important to remember the
pesky proximity of the duodenum to the hepatic flexure of the colon. The duodenum
can be easily violated, if the surgeon is unaware of its adhesion to the transverse meso-
colon. When the dissection of the transverse colon and hepatic flexure becomes difficult,
the focus of the dissection is changed to the ascending colon. The appendix and ascending
colon are mobilized away from the abdominal wall by dividing the fusion fascia. The
terminal ileum is also mobilized away from the posterior abdominal wall at this point
to make the eventual positioning of the J-pouch easier. It is expeditious to mobilize the
terminal ileum and its small bowel mesentery away from the posterior attachment to
the abdominal wall at this point. The fusion fascia of the ascending colon is divided.
The ascending mesocolon is divided as close to the colon as possible. Every effort
should be made to save the right colic and marginal arteries which are helpful in providing
blood supply to the terminal ileum after the formation of the J-pouch. The proximity of the
duodenum to the right transverse mesocolon should also be noted during this upward
division of the ascending mesocolon (Fig. 18.2).
Once the entire colon has been devascularized and all of its intra-abdominal attach-
ments have been divided, a suprapubic transverse incision is made into the peritoneal
cavity. Injury to the bladder and the vas deferens should be carefully avoided. Once the
peritoneal cavity is entered, the distal colon is divided with a gastrointestinal stapling
device. The abdominal colon is removed through the suprapubic incision. The mesentery
to the distal sigmoid colon and the proximal rectum are divided down to the peritoneal
reflection of the pelvis. Saline with epinephrine solution is injected into the wall of the
proximal rectum circumferentially. A plane is developed between the smooth circumfer-
ential muscle of the rectal wall and the submucosa. Dissection is continued down toward
the anus from above in this plane using blunt and sharp dissection. A combination of a
needle-tip electrocautery, fine-tipped scissors, and Kittner dissectors are used for this dis-
section. The mucosa should be stripped away from the muscular rectal wall with gentle
upward traction applied to the mucosal sleeve to facilitate the dissection. Once the muco-
sectomy has been carried down to a point 4 –5 cm from the dentate line of the anorectal
junction, the transabdominal portion of the dissection can be discontinued. At this
228 Georgeson
Figure 18.2 Laparoscopic detachment of the abdominal colon.
point, the J-pouch is constructed. The terminal ileum has previously been mobilized. The
point on the terminal ileum for maximal length of the J-pouch is determined and is usually
10– 20 cm proximal to the ileocecal valve. A J-pouch is fashioned with each limb 6 –
8 cm in length. The J-pouch is folded on itself and secured with a few basting sutures.
Small incisions are made in the medial aspect of each proximal limb of the J-pouch to
accommodate the stapling device. The spur is stapled and divided through these small
incisions (Fig. 18.3). Two to three centimeters of distal spur is usually left after stapling
from above. This distal spur is left in place and stapled from below. Often, this spur is
left in place for 8 weeks and is divided at the time of closure of the ileostomy, when
the blood supply to the J-pouch is more secure and there is less upward tension on the
J-pouch. The J-pouch is assessed for adequate length. In males, adequate length usually
means the pouch can be brought out through the wound and over the pubis to the level
of the scrotum. In females, the tip of the exteriorized J-pouch must reach the level of
the clitoris to be considered long enough. Several lengthening techniques are useful.
Transverse incisions in the anterior and posterior small bowel mesentery over the superior
mesenteric artery and vein will usually allow several centimeters of increased length. In
addition, division of restraining vessels can be accomplished if small bulldog clamps
have been placed on the vessels and the remaining collateral blood supply is noted to
be adequate. If there is any doubt about adequacy of blood supply, the bulldog clamp
can be left in place during the transanal dissection of the remaining mucosal cuff and
then re-evaluated. The posterior peritoneal attachment of the distal small bowel mesentery
should also be divided on the right side beginning inferiorly and extending up to the duo-
denum. This release of the small bowel mesentery will usually provide another 1 or 2 cm
Figure 18.3 Formation of the J-pouch with division of the proximal spur.
of length to the pedicle. Another helpful maneuver is to divide the mesentery immediately
adjacent to the inner portion of the J over a distance of 3 cm. Separating the mesentery
from the rounded portion of the J-pouch does not compromise the blood supply to the
J-pouch because of adequate collateral inflow. This technique often allows an additional
1 or 2 cm of J-pouch length.
Once the length of the J-pouch is adequate, the patient’s legs are flexed in the stir-
rups to allow for access to the anus. Retraction sutures are applied to the dentate line and
attached to the buttocks 3 or 4 cm laterally in radial fashion. Six to eight sutures are placed
radially so that they distract the anus for excellent visualization during the mucosal dissec-
tion and anastomosis. A circumferential incision is made in the mucosa near the top of the
rectal columns in the transitional epithelium (Fig. 18.4). The surgeon should avoid leaving
rectal mucosa behind because this mucosa can lead to the development of scarring and
cancer over time. The mucosal sleeve should be cored out in a similar fashion to the dis-
section from above. The submucosa is infiltrated with saline and epinephrine solution. The
circumferential incision is made. The edges of the proximal mucosa are secured together
with multiple fine sutures, and the dissection is continued circumferentially between the
circular smooth muscle of the rectal wall and the submucosa (Fig. 18.5). By continuing
this dissection upward, the entire mucosal sleeve of the rectum is cored out. Once the
transanal dissection meets the dissection already completed from above, the rectal
mucosal sleeve is pulled out through the anus. It is possible to perform the entire submu-
cosal sleeve dissection through the anus. However, the author has found this to be much
230 Georgeson
Figure 18.4 Circumferential incision in the anorectal transitional epithelium.
more difficult and time consuming. In addition, it requires significantly greater dilatation
of the internal and external anal sphincters which may be deleterious to continence.
The remaining muscular sleeve may be divided posteriorly. This division of the
sleeve is mandatory in the rectal dissections for Hirschsprung’s disease, but is elective
in patients with ulcerative colitis and familial polyposis. The J-pouch is pulled into
Figure 18.5 Transanal mucosectomy.

position through the muscular sleeve (Fig. 18.6). An anastomosis is made in a single layer
by opening the distal portion of the J-pouch. The distal incision in the J-pouch should not
be .2 cm as it tends to stretch during the formation of the anal anastomosis. As mentioned
earlier, the remaining spur in the J-pouch is divided 6– 8 weeks later when the ileostomy is
closed (Fig. 18.7). In most cases, a protective ileostomy is to be performed so the anorectal
anastomosis does not need to be water tight. Indeed, sometimes the anastomosis is very
difficult because of tension on the J-pouch from above by a short mesentery. It is important
to place at least 10 sutures circumferentially for this anastomosis, while avoiding tearing
the wall of the J-pouch.
The surgeon’s gown and gloves are changed. Transabdominal inspection of the
small bowel and its pedicle should be performed carefully. The potential internal hernia
behind the pedicle of the J-pouch should be closed with interrupted sutures taking care
to avoid injury to the blood supply of the J-pouch. The pedicle should also be evaluated
for twists. In addition, the pedicle should not be so tight that the blood supply is compro-
mised. If so, further efforts to relieve the tension of the pedicle should be made.
A loop ileostomy is brought out onto the abdominal wall. Occasionally, the patient
has such a short mesentery and such a thick abdominal wall that a loop ileostomy is
impossible to perform. Under these circumstances, the stapled end of the distal ileostomy
Figure 18.6 The J-pouch is pulled into position.

232 Georgeson
Figure 18.7 The distal spur is divided at the time the ileostomy is closed.
should be attached to the proximal limb of the ileostomy inside the peritoneal cavity so
that it can be found easily for closure of the ileostomy in 6– 8 weeks. Fascial attachment
of the ileum to the anterior sheath should be performed to reduce the chances for a peri-
stomal hernia. The ileostomy should be matured after the abdominal wounds have been
closed.
The suprapubic wound and the trocar sites are closed. The skin of the suprapubic
wound should be closed loosely to help prevent a wound infection. Broad spectrum anti-
biotics are continued for 3 days. Bowel function usually begins on the second or third post-
operative day. Most patients are ready for discharge by the fifth or sixth postoperative day.
3. RESULTS
Total proctocolectomy with J-pouch reconstruction carries a relatively high morbidity rate
both with the open and also the laparoscopic-assisted procedures (3,4). The advantages of
laparoscopic proctocolectomy over open colectomy have been documented primarily in
adult patients. Return of bowel function, advancement of an oral diet, and hospital
length of stay generally favor the laparoscopic approach (3 –6). Operative times are
generally longer with the laparoscopic-assisted approach. Functional results including
continence, number of stools, and soilage are similar (3 – 6). Dunker et al. (5) has reported
that body image after a laparoscopic approach is better than that after open surgery as
demonstrated by a standardized image questionnaire. About 25 (25%) of the patients
have complications with wound infection, small bowel obstruction, and ileostomy dys-
function being the most common. The author has performed 25 laparoscopic-assisted
colectomies with J-pouch reconstruction in children and adolescents. The laparoscopic-
assisted approach took 56 min longer than the open approach in the author’s experience.
One of the 25 patients has had to have the J-pouch resected and an end ileostomy per-
formed when the patient developed obvious Crohn’s disease in the pouch. Three of the
patients are still in the early postoperative stage. Of the remaining 21 patients, two have
occasional nighttime leakage but are continent in the day. This nighttime incontinence
is of the urgency type in which the patient does not awaken rapidly enough to get to
the commode. This symptom is usually ameliorated by refraining from eating and drinking
at least 2 h before bedtime. The other 19 patients have satisfactory daytime continence and
do not have nighttime incontinence. The author believes that the shortness of the J-Pouch
(6 –8 cm) is a significant factor in the success of this operation. On an average, the patients
had two to six bowel movements per day. Most patients require Imodium during the first
few years after pull-through but often stop taking it in later years without any significant
increase in their stool output. All of these children have had excellent resolution of their
growth and maturation problems after the discontinuation of steroids (2). Cosmetic results
are better after the laparoscopic approach when compared with the open approach,
although no body image instrument has been validated for children and adolescents.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Laparoscopic-assisted total proctocolectomy with J-pouch reconstruction is a useful thera-

peutic tool. Outcomes are excellent but complication rates approach 25% as in the open
procedure. Excellent long-term outcomes are achieved with an average of two to four
bowel movements per day and very satisfactory continence.
REFERENCES
1. Georgeson KE. Laparoscopic-assisted total colectomy with pouch reconstruction. Sem Ped Surg
2002; 11(4):233– 236.
2. Rintala, Lindahl RG, Lindahl HG. Proctocolectomy and J-pouch ileo-anal anastomosis in
children. J Ped Surg 2002; 37(1):66– 70.
3. Marcello PW, Milson JW, Wong SK et al. Laparoscopic restorative proctocolectomy. Dis Colon
Rectum 2000; 43(5):604– 608.
4. Wexner SD, Johansen OB, Nogueras JJ, Jagelman DG. Laparoscopic total abdominal
colectomy: a prospective trial. Dis Colon Rectum 2002; 35(7):651 – 655.
5. Dunker MS, Bemelman WA, Slors JF, Dujivenkijk P, Gouma DJ. Functional outcome, quality
of life, body image, and cosmetics in patients after laparoscopic and conventional restorative
proctocolectomy: a comparative study. Dis Colon Rectum 2001; 44(12):1008– 1007.
6. Chen HH, Wexner SD, Iroatulam AJN, Pikarsky AJ, Alabaz O, Nogueras JJ, Nessim A,
Weiss EG. Laparoscopic colectomy compares favorably with colectomy by laparotomy for
reduction of postoperative ileus. Dis Colon Rectum 2000; 43(1):6 – 65.
19
Minimal Access Surgery for
Hirschsprung Disease
Jacob C. Langer
1. Introduction 235
2. Is a Routine Colostomy Necessary? 236
3. Laparoscopic Pullthrough 236
4. Transanal (Perineal) Pullthrough 236
5. Is Routine Identification of the Transition Zone Necessary? 237
6. Timing of One-Stage Pullthrough 237
7. Summary 238
References 238
1. INTRODUCTION
Hirschsprung disease is characterized by the absence of ganglion cells in the myenteric

and submucosal plexuses. Usually, the abnormality involves the rectosigmoid region,
but in some cases it may extend proximally to involve the entire colon or even some of
the small bowel. The absence of intrinsic innervation results in disturbed motility, with
resultant neonatal bowel obstruction, constipation, or enterocolitis.
Since the pathophysiology of Hirschsprung disease was first described in the 1940s,
there has been an evolution in the surgical management of this condition. Initially, a
colostomy was used routinely and was then followed by an operation that involved resec-
tion of the aganglionic bowel and reconstruction using one of several “pullthrough” tech-
niques, most commonly the Swenson, Soave, Duhamel, or Rehbein procedures. In some
cases, the stoma would then be closed in a third operation.
Over the past 15 years, a number of authors have described one-stage pullthroughs
for Hirschsprung disease (1 –3). More recently, minimal access approaches to the one-
stage pullthroughs have become popular. These consisted of pullthroughs utilizing laparo-
scopic abdominal and pelvic mobilization of the rectum (4 – 6) and a number of transanal
approaches which do not include any intra-abdominal dissection (7 –9). This chapter will
235
236 Langer
review the principles and current evidence for the use of minimal access surgery in the
management of this disease.
2. IS A ROUTINE COLOSTOMY NECESSARY?
At the time of Swenson’s first description of the surgical repair of Hirschsprung disease,
many children presented with significant malnutrition, inflammation, and colonic dilata-
tion. In these cases, a colostomy was a life-saving procedure and became the standard
of care. Over the past 15 or so years, a number of authors questioned the need for
routine colostomy and published series of cases repaired using a one-stage approach
(10 –12). These studies suggested that a one-stage approach was technically feasible
and safe. A longer term study documented excellent functional results in children under-
going a one-stage endorectal pullthrough, although there was no control group that had
undergone a two-stage approach (13). Subsequently, several comparative series were
published, using historical controls. In these studies, there was general agreement that
short-term outcomes were similar and that the use of a colostomy was associated with a
specific set of complications (1,14). It is important to point out, however, that a one-
stage pullthrough requires a judgment of the level of the transition zone based on
frozen sections, which relies on the expertise and experience of the pathologist (15).
This approach should not be used, if such a pathologist is unavailable.
3. LAPAROSCOPIC PULLTHROUGH
The first descriptions of a laparoscopic approach to pullthrough surgery were in animal

models. Subsequently, technical descriptions of laparoscopic Duhamel and Swenson pro-
cedures were published (5,6). In 1995, Georgeson et al. (16) described a laparoscopic pull-
through which combined the rectal dissection done in the Swenson procedure with a
mucosal dissection similar to a Soave. This operation has become the predominant laparo-
scopic pullthrough in North America.
There are few studies thus far which have critically evaluated the results of laparo-
scopic surgery for Hirschsprung disease. In a large multicenter report of 80 patients, the
mean length of stay was 3.7 days, and the complication rate was comparable to those
reported in the literature (17). Other single center series of the Georgeson operation and
the Duhamel have also suggested that the laparoscopic approach is safe and associated
with less pain, shorter hospital stay, and lower cost than open surgery (6,18,19). No
prospective or randomized trials have been reported to-date.
4. TRANSANAL (PERINEAL) PULLTHROUGH
The transanal pullthrough developed as an extension of the laparoscopic approach and

uses essentially the same anal dissection described by Georgeson. However, in a transanal
pullthrough, there is no intra-abdominal dissection of the rectum, and potentially no
incisions or port sites in the abdominal wall. Initial descriptions of the technique used a
Soave approach with a submucosal dissection, coming through the muscular cuff at
some point above the sphincters and continuing the dissection on the serosal surface of
the rectum and more proximal colon until the transition zone is reached (7 –9). More
MAS for Hirschsprung Disease 237
recently, a transanal Swenson procedure has been described, where the full thickness of
the rectal wall is divided just above the dentate line (Walton, unpublished data).
As with the laparoscopic approaches, there are few comparative series that critically
evaluate the results of the transanal approaches. In several series comparing children
undergoing a transanal pullthrough to those having a one-stage open Soave, the transanal
approach was associated with less pain, shorter hospital stay, and lower cost (20,21). Func-
tional outcome have also been shown to be similar to those undergoing an open operation
(22). There have not been any prospective or randomized studies comparing the transanal
and open approaches.
There have not been any studies that directly compare the laparoscopic technique
with the transanal technique. Because both approaches have enthusiastic proponents,
and the results with both operations are excellent, it is unlikely that such a study will be
done.
5. IS ROUTINE IDENTIFICATION OF THE TRANSITION

ZONE NECESSARY?
One of the issues that is often debated concerning the minimal access approach is the need
to do biopsies to identify the transition zone, prior to beginning the anal dissection. Biop-
sies can be done laparoscopically, or in the case of the transanal procedure, through a small
umbilical incision. The advocates of routine intra-abdominal biopsies express concern that
an error in preoperative localization of the transition zone might result in an inappropriate
operation being done for long-segment disease. For example, many surgeons prefer to do a
Duhamel reconstruction for total colonic disease, and if the submucosal dissection had
already been done before transition zone had been identified, the surgeon would be com-
mitted to a Soave procedure. Other surgeons have suggested that intra-abdominal biopsies
be reserved for children who are at increased risk of long-segment disease, such as those
with a positive family history or those with proximal or inconclusive transition zones on
barium enema (20).
There are no comparative studies looking specifically at this question. It has been
reported that 10– 20% of infants with Hirschsprung disease will have no demonstrable
transition zone on barium enema (23), and there is some evidence that the transition
zone seen on the barium enema may be inaccurate in up to 10% of cases (24). As there
does not seem to be any increased risk or difference in outcome with a biopsy through
a laparoscopic approach or small umbilical incision, surgeons should probably be
liberal in the use of intra-abdominal biopsies prior to beginning the anal dissection.
6. TIMING OF ONE-STAGE PULLTHROUGH
Many series have reported one-stage pullthroughs, done open or using MAS techniques,
even in newborn infants. However, there are many surgeons who prefer to wait until
the child has attained a certain weight, in order to improve visualization and make the
operation technically easier (25). During this waiting time, the child is usually managed
with rectal stimulation or irrigations to maintain evacuation of stools and prevent entero-
colitis and is usually placed on either breast milk or an elemental formula to decrease stool
output.
There are no controlled studies examining the need to attain a specific weight or to
critically evaluate the safety of neonatal one-stage pullthrough. However, retrospective
238 Langer
studies have not noted different complication rates between the neonatal cases and the
older ones. In addition, there have been occasional cases of enterocolitis occurring
despite irrigations during the waiting period; some of which have proven to be fatal. It
therefore appears that neonatal pullthrough is preferable in most cases, particularly in
the hands of an experienced surgeon. However, this is a question which requires further
study.
7. SUMMARY
Minimal access surgical techniques for the management of Hirschsprung disease are
increasing in popularity. Most children can now be managed in a single operation,
without a colostomy. The laparoscopic and transanal approaches have both been used
successfully and are superior to open techniques by the virtue of decreased pain, earlier
feeding, earlier discharge, and lower cost. Issues, such as which procedure produces the
best long-term outcomes, what is the best timing of surgery, and whether routine intra-
abdominal biopsies are necessary, remain controversial and will require further study.
REFERENCES
1. Langer JC, Fitzgerald PG, Winthrop AL et al. One vs two stage Soave pull-through for
Hirschsprung’s disease in the first year of life. J Pediatr Surg 1996; 31:33– 37.
2. Pierro A, Fasoli L, Kiely EM, Drake D, Spitz L. Staged pull-through for rectosigmoid
Hirschsprung’s disease is not safer than primary pull-through. J Pediatr Surg 1997;
32:505 – 509.
3. Hackam DJ, Superina RA, Pearl RH. Single-stage repair of Hirschsprung’s disease: a compari-
son of 109 patients over 5 years. J Pediatr Surg 1997; 32:1028 – 1031.
4. Jona JZ, Cohen RD, Georgeson KE, Rothenberg SS. Laparoscopic pull-through procedure for
Hirschsprung’s disease. Sem Pediatr Surg 1998; 7:228– 231.
5. Smith BM, Steiner RB, Lobe TE. Laparoscopic Duhamel pullthrough procedure for
Hirschsprung’s disease in childhood. J Laparoendosc Surg 1994; 4:273 – 276.
6. Curran TJ, Raffensperger JG. Laparoscopic Swenson pull-through: a comparison with the open
procedure. J Pediatr Surg 1996; 31:1155– 1156.
7. De la Torre-Mondragon L, Ortega-Salgado JA. Transanal endorectal pull-through for
Hirschsprung’s disease. J Pediatr Surg 1998; 33:1283 – 1286.
8. Langer JC, Minkes RK, Mazziotti MV, Skinner MA, Winthrop AL. Transanal one-stage Soave
procedure for infants with Hirschsprung disease. J Pediatr Surg 1999; 34:148 –152.
9. Albanese CT, Jennings RW, Smith B, Bratton B, Harrison MR. Perineal one-stage pull-through
for Hirschsprung’s disease. J Pediatr Surg 1999; 34:377 –380.
10. Cilley RE, Statter MB, Hirschl RB, Coran AG. Definitive treatment of Hirschsprung’s disease
in the newborn with a one-stage procedure. Surgery 1994; 115:551 –556.
11. Cass DT. Neonatal one-stage repair of Hirschsprung’s disease. Pediatr Surg Int 1990;
5:341 – 346.
12. Wilcox DT, Bruce J, Bowen J, Bianchi A. One-stage neonatal pull-through to treat
Hirschsprung’s disease. J Pediatr Surg 1997; 32:243 –245.
13. Teitelbaum DH, Drongowski RA, Chamberlain JN, Coran AG. Long-term stooling patterns in
infants undergoing primary endorectal pull-through for Hirschsprung’s disease. J Pediatr Surg
1997; 32:1049 – 1052.
14. Warner BW. Single-stage operations for Hirschsprung’s disease: pushing the envelope.
Gastroenterology 2001; 120:1299 – 1301.
MAS for Hirschsprung Disease 239
15. Teitelbaum DH, Cilley RE, Sherman NJ et al. A decade of experience with the primary pull-
through for Hirschsprung disease in the newborn period: a multicenter analysis of outcomes.
Ann Surg 2000; 232:372 – 380.
16. Georgeson KE, Fuenfer MM, Hardin WD. Primary laparoscopic pull-through for Hirsch-
sprung’s disease in infants and children. J Pediatr Surg 1995; 30:1017– 1021.
17. Georgeson KE, Cohen RD, Hebra A et al. Primary laparoscopic-assisted endorectal colon pull-
through for Hirschsprung’s disease: a new gold standard. Ann Surg 1999; 229:678 –683.
18. Bufo AJ, Chen MK, Shah R, Gross E, Cyr N, Lobe TE. Analysis of the costs of surgery for
Hirschsprung’s disease: one-stage laparoscopic pull-through versus two-stage Duhamel
procedure. Clin Pediatr 1999; 38:593 – 596.
19. Jona J. Personal experience with 50 laparoscopic procedures for Hirschsprung’s disease in
infants and children. Pediatr Endosurg Innov Tech 2001; 5:361– 363.
20. Langer JC, Seifert M, Minkes RK. One-stage Soave pullthrough for Hirschsprung disease:
a comparison of the transanal vs open approaches. J Pediatr Surg 2000; 35:820– 822.
21. De la Torre L, Ortega A. Transanal versus open endorectal pull-through for Hirschsprung’s
disease. J Pediatr Surg 2000; 35:1630 – 1632.
22. Van Leeuwen K GJ, Barnett JL, Coran AG, Teitelbaum DH. Stooling and manometric findings
after primary pull-throughs in Hirschsprung’s disease: perineal versus abdominal approaches.
J Pediatr Surg 2002; 37:1321 – 1325.
23. Taxman TL, Yulish BS, Rothstein FC. How useful is the barium enema in the diagnosis of
infantile Hirschsprung’s disease? Am J Dis Child 1986; 140:881– 884.
24. Proctor ML, Traubici J, Langer JC et al. Correlation between radiographic transition zone and
level of aganglionosis in Hirschspring’s disease: implications for surgical approach. J Pediatr
Surg 2003; 38:775 –778.
25. Carcassonne M, Guys JM, Morisson-Lacombe G, Kreitmann B. Management of
Hirschsprung’s disease: curative surgery before 3 months of age. J Pediatr Surg 1989;
24:1032 – 1034.
20
Minimal Access Treatment of
Anorectal Malformations
Thomas H. Inge
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine,
Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
1. Introduction 241
2. History of Surgical Repair of ARM 242
3. Anatomy and Physiology 244
4. Management and Classification 246
5. Rationale for LAARP 247
5.1. Single-Stage Approach 247
5.2. Two-Stage Approach 248
5.3. Three-Stage Approach 248
6. Technique of LAARP 248
6.1. Preparation 248
6.2. Trocar Placement 248
6.3. Dissection 249
6.4. Pull-Through 250
6.5. Anoplasty 253
7. Potential Complications 254
8. Discussion/Outcome 255
Acknowledgments 257
References 257
1. INTRODUCTION
To treat diseased or anomalous anatomy, pediatric surgeons have traditionally had to

incise and dissect normal tissue planes to provide adequate surgical exposure. The appli-
cation of minimal access techniques has revolutionized the performance of many routine
pediatric surgical procedures by enabling the surgeon to access body cavities without sig-
nificantly traumatizing intervening fascia, muscles, and nerves. The use of small puncture
241
242 Inge
wounds and trocars has resulted in fewer complications (e.g., wound pain, physiologic
stress, infection, dehiscence, and incisional hernia) related to traditional open surgery
(1 –5). Moreover, laparoscopic magnification and illumination can enhance surgical
exposure and anatomic visualization beyond that achieved with open operations.
The laparoscopically assisted anorectal pull-through (LAARP) for high anorectal
malformation (ARM) employs fundamental concepts learned from decades of open surgi-
cal ARM repair and additionally incorporates modern technologic advancements in surgi-
cal instrumentation and technique (6). LAARP combines extraordinary anatomic exposure
of an infant’s deep pelvis with a reconstruction technique that minimizes surgical
exposure-related trauma to important surrounding structures.
This chapter focuses on the historic background upon which this operation was
conceived and the principles upon which it is based. The technical details of LAARP and
a critical assessment of the merits of this procedure compared to other operations for high
ARM are also presented. Outcome data are presently limited and will also be presented.
2. HISTORY OF SURGICAL REPAIR OF ARM
For centuries, surgeons have been faced with the challenge of how best to restore anorectal
function in infants born without an anal opening. It has only been within the past 3 decades
that significant strides have been made in understanding the anatomy and pathophysiology
of the various types of ARM. Both Webster (7) and De Vries (8) have published compre-
hensive accounts of the surgical history of ARM. A brief overview of these accounts is
important for understanding the current methods of treatment.
The earliest report of surgical treatment for ARM is from the 7th century when a
blind perforation of the perineum and rectum was made with bistoury (long, straight
blade), followed by anorectal dilatation. At that time, high ARM was essentially a
lethal diagnosis. There was neither any concept of transperitoneal abdominal surgery
nor any concept of decompressive colostomy. The goal was to relieve the bowel obstruc-
tion in the most expeditious fashion. Since surgeons were concerned about doing harm to
muscles and nerves within the neonatal pelvis, no serious attempt at dissection deep into
the perineum for the purpose of rectal mobilization and anorectoplasty was made for many
centuries. Blind perforation was reasonably effective for patients with very low lesions,
when the rectum ended within a centimeter of the perineal skin. However, for patients
with higher ARM, this technique was largely a failure, resulting in strictures, wound infec-
tions, and septic death.
In 1835, Amussat realized that better exposure was needed to mobilize the bowel.
He reported a perineal dissection of the blind-ending rectum high enough to bring the
bowel down to perform a sutured proctoplasty between the rectum and perineal skin.
The principles of strict midline dissection, avoidance of major pelvic floor disruption
due to blind trocar passage, adequate rectal mobilization, and suture fixation of the
bowel to the skin became the standard for many years to come. Although these principles
helped to prevent many of the problems associated with severe strictures, the reconstructed
rectum was not enveloped in any natural way by an intact, functional sphincter mechan-
ism. Incontinence was therefore a common result.
With the availability of inhaled anesthesia and the application of Listerian principles
by the end of the 19th century, dissection high into the pelvis could be accomplished more
safely. In many cases, surgeons were able to adequately mobilize the bowel from a peri-
neal approach. Laparotomy was also used (abdominoperineal approach) to enhance
exposure of higher fistulae from the rectum to the genitourinary system.
MAS of Anorectal Malformations 243
In the first half of the 20th century, surgeons gradually became more comfortable
with the abdominoperineal approach to high ARM, and colostomies were also sometimes
performed to allow delayed reconstruction. Contrary to popular belief at that time, neither
the puborectalis muscle (deep behind the bladder neck) nor the exact midline of the deep
pelvis could be readily observed or used during reconstruction. Additionally, a strict
midline perineal dissection without the benefit of a muscle stimulator was difficult to
perform.
In 1953, Stephens (9) realized the critical contribution of the puborectalis muscular
sling to postoperative continence, and endeavored to identify and preserve the integrity of
this important structure when repairing high ARM. The addition of a sacral incision—to
provide a better vantage point for identification of the puborectalis and dissection of the
rectal fistula—was considered a major advance. The sacroperineal approach employed a
right angle clamp placed through the trans-sacral wound to dissect a tunnel anterior to
the puborectalis muscle. This dissection plane from above then joined a small midline
perineal dissection, with the surgeon receiving tactile guidance by placement of a finger
into the perineal incision. A laparotomy (sacroabdominoperineal approach) was only per-
formed if deemed necessary based on rectal position or size. Emphasis was placed on pres-
ervation of the puborectalis muscle. The external sphincter was, however, largely
disregarded because it was believed to contribute little to continence for patients with
ARM. Many modifications of this approach were developed, including use of a mucosa
stripping, endorectal pull-through (10).
Surgeons now still acknowledge the critical contribution of the puborectalis to con-
tinence, but also understand the need to place the bowel within the confines of the more
caudal striated muscle complex and external anal sphincter (EAS) in order to achieve
optimal anorectal function (11,12). Interestingly, Stephens readily acknowledged that in
creating the tunnel for the bowel within the puborectalis sling, neither the puborectalis
muscle nor the levator diaphragm was well visualized. Nevertheless, his premise was that
the correct anatomic plane through the levators could be defined. This premise has been
shown to be incorrect in many instances, and modern imaging techniques and operative
revisions have documented the misplacement of the bowel through the levators in some
patients who underwent abdominoperineal as well as sacroperineal pull-through (13,14).
Although long-term follow-up (5 –32 years) after such operations for high and inter-
mediate ARM has shown that a majority of patients ultimately have socially acceptable
continence, few are free of soiling between bowel movements (15). It is important to
note that the number of patients who underwent these older procedures and who are avail-
able for long-term follow-up evaluation is only a fraction of all patients treated. Accurate
assessment of outcome is thus quite difficult.
Difficulties encountered in anatomic visualization with the sacroperineal and
sacroabdominoperineal operations led deVries and Peña to return to the prior concepts
of high dissection from a posterior sagittal approach originally described by Amussat.
They refined this technique by the addition of a muscle stimulator and performed an
extensive, meticulous dissection from the perineum that was termed posterior sagittal
anorectoplasty (PSARP) (11). This procedure represents one of the most important contri-
butions in the history of treatment of ARM, and has now gained considerable acceptance
worldwide. PSARP allows for the widest degree of surgical exposure of the high malfor-
mation of the rectum, with a midline incision from the base of the scrotum or introitus to
the sacrum. Essentially all of the voluntary muscles of continence are identified in the
midline. Specifically, the external anal sphincter, the vertically oriented striated muscle
complex, and the levator ani muscles are seen and divided into two halves during
PSARP. These facts also formed the basis for early criticisms of the technique (16). We
244 Inge
have learned now that when a strict midline dissection and precise reconstruction of
muscles is properly performed, PSARP represents an elegant exposure and reconstruction
of the pelvic anatomy. In most patients with high lesions, the bowel is found during
PSARP immediately deep to the levator group. In patients with rectovesical fistulae, a
laparotomy is additionally required because this type of fistula cannot be adequately
exposed from below. It is clear that considerable mobilization of the rectum can be accom-
plished using this approach, with excellent visualization and protection of urogenital
structures.
Clinical outcomes after PSARP vary depending upon the institutional experience
with ARM (17) and the level of the malformation. Functional results after PSARP, as
with many other procedures, are also dependent in part on technical factors at the time
of operation. Specifically, the dissection must “remain strictly in the median plane,”
with precise and meticulous reconstruction (18). This goal can be a technical challenge
in that some patients may not have sufficient symmetric striated muscle bulk to guide a
strict midline dissection, even with optical magnification and electrostimulation.
In an impressive long-term follow-up of nearly 1200 of Peña’s patients with all var-
ieties of ARM, total continence (voluntary bowel movements and no soiling) was seen in
39% of all patients (12). Subgroup analysis demonstrates that essentially all patients with a
perineal fistula were totally continent. Total continence was seen in only 55% of girls with
a vestibular fistula, 31% of boys with a rectobulbar urethral fistula, 20% of boys with a
rectoprostatic urethral fistula, and none of the patients with rectovesical fistula. The
extent to which the muscle-splitting dissection ultimately impairs overall anorectal func-
tion is not clear. Follow-up has also shown that constipation is also seen in some patients
after PSARP. Whether this aspect of anorectal dysfunction is related to the scarring after
perineal dissection or more likely to intrinsic dysmotility of the colon is not certain.
A problematic issue pertaining to patients with high ARM is determining the
inherent potential for continence in each individual patient. In light of this, surgeons
have been unable to know with any certainty what goals are realistic and achievable for
continence in individual patients. The potential for continence varies greatly depending
on the degree of development of pelvic and perineal anatomy, and the general health
status of the patient. The ultimate outcome is also likely to be dependent on some
factors that are surgically correctable (e.g., proper positioning of the bowel within the
levators and striated muscle complex) and on some factors that are not surgically correct-
able (e.g., intrinsic bowel dysmotility, pelvic muscular hypoplasia or asymmetry, abnor-
mal pelvic innervation). It seems reasonable to assume, however, that if an anatomic
reconstruction of the ARM (such as that which results after PSARP) could be achieved
without surgical trauma to the continence mechanisms (e.g., pelvic nerves and muscula-
ture), the clinical outcomes might then approach each individual’s maximal potential
for continence.
3. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
The muscles responsible for continence are the striated muscle of the pelvic diaphragm
and the associated striated and smooth muscle groups constituting the anal sphincters
(19). Although these muscles act as a single entity, they have slightly different individual
functions. For instance, the upper sphincter group is made up of portions of the levator ani,
the iliococcygeus, and pubococcygeus muscles. The levator group supports and envelopes
the rectum distally and can be readily seen by MRI (20). The pubococcygeus muscle has
a thicker and more vascular anteromedial component, termed the puborectalis muscle,
which has a critical role in defecation and continence. This muscle has both a sensory
(detection of rectal distention) and a motor function (constriction around the bowel). It
also has both slow twitch (red muscle) fibers that maintain a tonic contractile force on
the anorectal junction and a fast twitch (white muscle) component that can be used to
accentuate this anorectal angle. The puborectalis muscle forms a funnel-like sling
around the distal rectum, producing an antero-cephalad elevation. This elevation results
in an anorectal angle that opposes propulsive forces from above (21,22). Since the pubor-
ectalis is a voluntary muscle, it is an important mechanism by which conscious control
over defecation is exercised (23). Caudally the puborectalis and pubococcygeus essen-
tially form a continuum with the deep and more superficial portions of the EAS—together
termed the striated muscle complex (24). The continuum of striated muscle complex com-
presses and elevates the anal canal under conscious control to efficiently collapse the
lumen and control fecal flow.
The anatomic orientation of the EAS fibers has been controversial. The EAS has
been described as a strictly parasagittally oriented muscle with no circular component
in either normal individuals or patients with ARMs (18,24). Yet another view holds that
the EAS is organized as a U-shaped loop around the anal canal (25). MRI, endorectal ultra-
sound, and actual histological sections from cadaveric specimens, however, clearly show
that the EAS surrounds the anal canal. It consists of circular skeletal muscle fascicles that
pass circumferentially around the bowel and are continuous anteriorly and posteriorly, just
as is seen with the adjacent internal sphincter (26 –28). At attachment points with the ano-
coccygeal ligament posteriorly and with the bulbospongiosum muscle (male) or perineal
body (female) anteriorly, there are many fascicles that cross the midline (28). There is a
subcutaneous division of the EAS as well as deeper components, which is continuous
with the more vertically oriented muscle complex. Differences are likely to exist
between the normal EAS and the EAS found in patients with ARM. Regardless of the
anatomic organization however, the action of the external anal sphincter is to provide tem-
porary voluntary constriction of the anal canal in order to resist passage of material
through the canal.
The internal anal sphincter is a thickening of the inner circular smooth muscle of the
bowel wall, which encircles the upper two-thirds of the anal canal. This sphincter is toni-
cally contracted and provides an involuntary high-pressure zone around the anal canal that
prevents leakage of gas and mucus. The internal anal sphincter is thought to be important
for prevention of soiling, and thus provides an important mechanism for continence. In
patients with high ARM, a normal internal anal sphincter cannot be demonstrated in the
distal rectal pouch. However, in the distal fistula of high ARM, muscle fibers with internal
sphincter-like properties have been found (29). This has led some surgeons to suggest that
the fistula be used for anal reconstruction (30). However, the beneficial contribution of the
fistula for long-term continence has not been universally accepted (18,31).
Normal continence is the result of a poorly understood, complex interplay between
anatomic structures and physiologic forces in the pelvis. The major factor controlling fecal
continence is the influence of pelvic muscles on the anatomic configuration of the distal
rectum and anal canal. After the rectum has been filled by the sigmoid, contraction of
the rectum results in evacuation of the rectal lumen. The recto-anal inhibitory reflex
refers to relaxation of the internal sphincter in response to rectal pressure. This relaxation
helps to open the anal canal to allow passage of fecal material. Momentary simultaneous
contraction of the external sphincter allows time for a conscious decision to be made
regarding defecation. As cited, in high ARM, development of a normal internal sphincter
does not occur. The amount of internal sphincter present after reconstruction (measured by
recto-anal inhibitory reflex) is variable, but is frequently not found (31,32). Patients with
246 Inge
ARM thus have a greater reliance on the striated muscle for maintenance of continence
and preservation of the integrity of these muscles during reconstruction is an important
principle. Specifically, the recto-puborectalis reflex (contraction of the puborectalis
after contraction of the rectum) becomes a very important voluntary mechanism to
guard against involuntary opening of the rectal neck if defecation is not socially appropri-
ate. Patients with high ARM may have an abnormal sacra and may lack the muscle mass,
innervation, and therefore the strength and sensation of a normal puborectalis and EAS.
These factors certainly contribute to the difficulties that these patients experience with
fecal continence.
In summary, defecation and continence require proper sensory and motor inner-
vation, coordinated voluntary and involuntary muscle contraction and relaxation, and
appropriate bowel motility. In patients with anorectal malformations, the muscles,
sensory elements, and nerves responsible for continence are also severely affected. It is
these factors, rather than the technique of surgical reconstruction, that are ultimately the
most important predictors of clinical outcome in these patients.
4. MANAGEMENT AND CLASSIFICATION
Upon diagnosis of an ARM, a complete maternal and prenatal history is obtained. The
physical examination and a short period of observation should provide the physician
with sufficient information as to the type of defect present and the best initial management.
Additionally, a number of diagnostic procedures are performed to determine the presence
of associated anomalies. Echocardiography is performed to exclude cardiac malfor-
mations. A tube is passed down the esophagus to exclude esophageal atresia. A renal
ultrasound is obtained to determine whether abnormalities of the urinary system exist,
since these are seen in 50% of patients with ARM. Plain radiographs of the spine are
performed to exclude coexisting vertebral abnormalities, since the condition of the lumbo-
sacral spine has a significant bearing on future fecal as well as urinary continence. Finally,
spinal ultrasonography or MRI is routinely performed to exclude tethered cord and occult
spinal dysraphism.
Anatomic classification of malformations has traditionally been based on clinical
presentation and radiographic studies (33). Emphasis has been placed on whether the ter-
mination of the bowel was above or below the levator muscles, since this has an important
bearing on operative planning. Agenesis of the rectum resulting in a rectal pouch that ter-
minates above the levator muscles is considered a high ARM. Defects resulting in a rectal
pouch that passes through the levators are considered low ARMs.
Currently, a low lesion (anal agenesis with rectoperineal fistula) for either sex is
typically diagnosed by physical examination alone, but this interpretation may be verified
with a cross-table lateral view of the prone infant, or by using perineal ultrasound. These
ancillary studies support the diagnosis of a low ARM if the rectal gas pattern or rectal wall
is found within a centimeter of the perineum. Low ARMs are treated by limited posterior
sagittal anoplasty in the newborn period (34). In cases where a perineal fistula is not
readily appreciated, a urinalysis may show evidence of meconium and should be obtained.
If a newborn with imperforate anus is observed for 24 h and is judged to not to have a low
ARM or if a cloaca, vestibular fistula, or urinary fistula is clearly diagnosed during the
period of observation the infant is treated as if a high malformation exists. A colostomy
is conventionally performed prior to definitive management. For some patients, exact
classification is not made until the distal colostogram is performed. Males are commonly
found to have a rectourethral fistula, a rectovesical fistula, a high ARM without a patent
fistula, or rectal atresia. Females are commonly found to have a rectovestibular fistula, a
cloacal malformation, high ARM without fistula, or rectal atresia.
5. RATIONALE FOR LAARP
Increasing experience in laparoscopic dissection of the rectosigmoid colon in neonates

with Hirshprung’s disease led Georgeson et al. (35) to realize that the laparoscope
could provide significantly improved exposure (compared to that of the laparotomy) for
dissection of the rectum and associated genitourinary fistula from above in patients with
ARM. This technique avoids the need for an extensive dissection from the perineum
(6). Magnified laparoscopic visualization with high intensity illumination focused directly
on the surgical field of view offers an anatomic exposure that is often superior to that
achieved with open surgery.
The sheathed Veress needle trocars that are now available are capable of sequential
radial expansion to a 5, 10, or even 12 mm diameter. The use of these devices has resulted
in a safe, noncutting method to create an anatomic tunnel in the pelvis without the trau-
matic disruption of muscle associated with other methods of tunneling. These technologic
innovations have facilitated the development of LAARP. With LAARP, surgeons have an
option of treating high malformations like low ARM, essentially doing a fistula transfer
with only a limited perineal dissection.
5.1. Single-Stage Approach

For several years surgeons have recognized the safety and excellent results of single-stage
endorectal pull-through for Hirshprung’s disease in neonates (35). Using LAARP, some
high ARMs can also be reconstructed in a single stage (initial anorectoplasty alone),
since no large perineal wound is created. If the single stage LAARP approach is used
for high ARM, caregivers must be diligent with dilation protocols to prevent stricture
or sepsis of the neoanus. This method obviates additional operation(s) and allows the
neonate to experience the sensation of stool passage earlier in life.
Several reasons have been enumerated for not proceeding with neonatal primary
reconstruction for high ARM (36). These include: (1) The risk of infection and dehiscence.
After LAARP, the risk of infection and dehiscence is reduced, since there is only a small
perineal anastomosis, but no extensive skin wound or dissected and reconstructed deeper
tissue planes; (2) the need for preoperative distal colostogram. The preoperative distal
colostogram has been used extensively to determine whether a strictly posterior or a com-
bined anterior and posterior approach will be necessary. Alternatively, when considering
use of LAARP, the major preoperative consideration is ruling out a perineal fistula (that
can usually be done by physical examination with or without perineal ultrasound) that
might best be approached with a limited perineal procedure. Once a low lesion is ruled
out, high fistulae are easily defined using a combination of cystoscopy and laparoscopy.
Distal colostogram can provide supplemental anatomic information, but is not considered
necessary preoperatively; and (3) injury to adjacent structures. Concerns have also been
raised about finding and damaging other unexpected structures if a newborn is subjected
to a deep perineal exploration for a high ARM without prior colostomy. However, at the
time of LAARP, the surgical dissection starts from above and moves methodically from
“known to unknown” with excellent illumination and magnification, and with confidence
in identification of all relevant adjacent structures. Cystoscopy can provide additional
information and infrared marking of the urethra is another adjunctive technique (see
248 Inge
subsequent paragraphs). For these reasons, the LAARP can be safely performed in new-
borns with high ARM, as either a single- or two-stage procedure as outlined earlier.
5.2. Two-Stage Approach

LAARP can also be performed in two stages: initial anorectoplasty with simultaneous
colostomy, followed by reversal of colostomy at 4 –6 weeks of age. This approach may
become the preferred method because it allows the neonate to experience normal
defecation within the first 4– 6 weeks of life and allows for initial healing of the anorectal
anastomosis prior to active stooling through the neoanus.
5.3. Three-Stage Approach

Until experience with LAARP is acquired, the three-stage approach is recommended. This
approach consists of initial colostomy then anorectoplasty at 4– 6 weeks of age, followed
by reversal of colostomy 4– 6 weeks later. This approach is particularly beneficial to sur-
geons who are gaining experience with LAARP. A colostomy is initially performed, and a
distal colostogram and cystourethrogram are subsequently carried out to provide anatomic
details. The LAARP is performed as an elective procedure (as early as 1 month of age) and
the neoanus can heal with little risk of septic complications at the anastomosis. After the
caregivers have become comfortable with dilations of the neoanus, the colostomy is
reversed (as early as 2 months of age).
6. TECHNIQUE OF LAARP
6.1. Preparation
If the patient has had a prior colostomy, a mechanical and antibiotic bowel preparation is
carried out, and the terminal rectum is irrigated through the mucus fistula with a saline
solution þ 100 mg% neomycin and erythromycin or betadine/saline. The patient is
positioned supine, transversely across the end of the table. The torso, pelvis, and lower
extremities lie flat on several folded sheets to elevate the body. This allows the neck to
extend and protects the head and endotracheal tube while covered during laparoscopy.
This positioning also allows the surgeon and assistant maximal access to the patient for
both laparoscopic and perineal parts of the procedure. The antiseptic skin preparation is
performed from nipples to toes. If LAARP is performed as a primary procedure without
prior colostomy, a cystoscopy should be done immediately prior to LAARP to detect coex-
isting major urologic abnormalities, and to define the level of urinary fistula. The bladder
is decompressed by transurethral catheterization; this prevents postoperative urinary reten-
tion and also aids in identification of the urethra during laparoscopic dissection. It may also
be beneficial to illuminate the urethra within the lumen by using a urethral catheter capable
of emitting an infrared signal (Stryker Endoscopy, Cupertino, CA). A detection filter in the
camera must also be used, and visualization of the urethral position is enhanced.
6.2. Trocar Placement

There are many possible variations on trocar placement, but the following strategy has
been useful. The surgeon stands at the patient’s head and assistant stands at the end of
the table to the side of the patient. Pneumoperitoneum is created using a Veress needle
inserted into the right upper quadrant (Fig. 20.1). The site is infiltrated with lidocaine
and a 5 mm incision is made. The fascia is grasped between two hemostats and elevated to
allow the Veress needle to be inserted safely. After 8 –10 mmHg of pneumoperitoneum is
established, this site is used for placement of a 5 mm radially expandable trocar (Step
SL75, Innerdyne Corporation, Salt Lake City, UT). Laparoscopy is performed through
the right upper quadrant site using a 4 or 5 mm, 308 angled telescope. Smaller 3.5 mm
trocars can be placed in the left upper quadrant and left lower quadrant. Another 5 mm
trocar is placed in the right lower quadrant. This site is later used for the 5 mm bipolar
electrocoagulating shears, the endoloop, or the clip applier.
6.3. Dissection
Laparoscopic rectal dissection begins distally at the peritoneal reflection. This dissection is
facilitated by cephalad traction applied to the bowel wall by the assistant’s grasper in the
left lower quadrant. The most distal mesorectum is opened and divided using hook
cautery. Bipolar shears are used throughout the remainder of the dissection to prevent
thermal injury to the rectal wall, since viability of the pulled-through bowel will be depen-
dent upon the intramural blood supply. As the rectum tapers into the fistula distally, a meti-
culous and deliberate dissection toward the termination of the fistula must be performed.
When the fistula has been sufficiently cleared of surrounding tissue, it is ligated and
divided (Fig. 20.2). This may be accomplished by placing an endoloop around a
locking grasper and grasping the fistula near its termination. The fistula is next sharply
divided proximal to the grasper. The endoloop can then be slipped off of the grasper
and secured around the distal fistula stump. Alternatively, the fistula can be ligated with
a 5 mm titanium clip at the termination and sharply divided.
Figure 20.1 Laparoscopic port placement. A total of four laparoscopic ports are placed for
LAARP. The camera is usually placed in the RUQ 5 mm site, while the RLQ site is used for the
bipolar shears. The surgeon’s left hand uses a grasper in the LUQ, and the assistant’s grasper is
placed into the LLQ.
250 Inge
Figure 20.2 Divided rectourethral fistula. The angled laparoscope is used to maximal advantage
by peering around the bladder neck at the rectourethral fistula in this male patient with a high ARM.
The rectum is brought out of the pelvis and into the abdomen to facilitate close
inspection of the pelvic floor musculature (Fig. 20.3). To accomplish this exposure, the
308 angled telescope is advanced just beyond the sacral prominence, with the end of
the lens directed upward so that the surgeon is looking “around the corner” of the
bladder neck. This is a surgical exposure that would be difficult if not impossible
without laparoscopy. In some patients, visualization of the entire pelvic diaphragm and
puborectalis muscle is possible. In other patients, clear visualization may be difficult.
This is due to either a variable amount of endopelvic fascia left in situ on the pelvic
floor after the rectal wall dissection or to the fact that the levator muscle mass is poor
in some patients. The distal end of the divided fistula gives the surgeon clear identification
of the midline [Fig. 20.3(C)].
6.4. Pull-Through
Next the legs are elevated, the hips flexed, and the feet held together over the face to
exposure of the perineum (Fig. 20.4). The hip-flexed position in normal individuals is ana-
logous to the “squatting” position that straightens the anorectal angle to facilitate defeca-
tion. Thus, in a patient undergoing LAARP, this position should also straighten the vertical
muscle complex to improve alignment of the perineal anal site, the vertical muscle
complex, and the puborectalis sling. The MRI finding of an appropriate anorectal angle
in the supine sagittal plane after LAARP suggests that this occurs (personal observation).
The muscle stimulator (Peña Muscle Stimulator, Radionics Corporation, Burlington, MA)
is used to determine the center of the sphincter complex—the optimal site for the neoanus.
The area of maximal stimulated contraction and upward pull denotes the region where the
highest density of striated sphincteric muscle is located. A hemostat is used to make a 1 cm
vertical midline incision in the perineum. The intrasphincteric plane is bluntly dissected
from below for a short distance without dividing the sphincter. This dissection seems to
Figure 20.3 Composite of laparoscopic view in the pelvis after division of the rectourethral
fistula. Panel A: Laparoscopic image of the puborectalis sling after division of the fistula and retrac-
tion of the rectal pouch out of the pelvis. Panel B: Line drawing with anatomic labels of the laparo-
scopic image in panel A. Panel C: Laparoscopic image of another patient (with a rectovesical
fistula). The anterior extensions of the puborectalis are labeled “A” and “C,” while the posterior
communication in the midline is labeled “B.” The grasper was used to “palpate” the muscle
bundles, and identify the levator hiatus (labeled “ ”) where the pull-through rectum will be
placed. The PDS suture occluding the bladder neck end of the fistula is also seen between the two
bellies of the puborectalis.
252 Inge
be facilitated by the tension created in the pelvic diaphragm by the pneumoperitoneum,

and to some degree by the backlighting provided by the laparoscope.
Using laparoscopic guidance, the low profile Veress needle with radially expanding
sheath (Step, Innerdyne) is then placed into the perineal wound, and passed through the
midline intrasphincteric plane, advancing between the two bellies of the pubococcygeus
muscle. The angle of insertion should be approximately 458 from the horizon (coronal
plane) in the hip-flexed position. The needle must enter the pelvis in the midline through
the levator sling, just posterior to the urethra. Due to the conical nature of the pelvic dia-
phragm, the sheathed needle is easily deflected from the midline to the side while advancing
through the muscle complex. This deflection is readily apparent from the laparoscopic
vantage point. When the deflection occurs, the needle is removed and reintroduced until
it is placed accurately between the “V” of the puborectalis sling (Fig. 20.3). Proper place-
ment of the needle and the creation of the pull-through tunnel are possible only if the
Figure 20.4 Perineal dissection. The patient is in an exaggerated lithotomy position with a towel
roll beneath the sacrum to provide optimal exposure to the anal site. A 1 cm incision has been made,
based contraction seen with electrostimulation. A hemostat is used for blunt dissection of the EAS
fibers in the midline, followed by passage of the sheathed Veress needle trocar.
surgeon is simultaneously watching the laparoscopic image. This is the key difference
between this technique and the blind techniques used in the past, where a surgeon’s intuition
rather than objective visual guidance was used in tunneling through the pelvis.
Technologic advancements in laparoscopic surgery enable the pediatric surgeon to
look around the pubic arch and to see a magnified view of the pelvic floor of the infant.
When the laparoscope is controlled robotically, the image is steady and can be adjusted
simply by voice command of the surgeon working at the perineum.
6.5. Anoplasty
After accurate placement of the sheathed needle through the anal site and puborectalis
sling, the needle is removed from the sheath. The tract is dilated gently in a stepwise
fashion, first to 5 mm and then to 10 mm diameter without cutting any of the delicate
fibers of the muscles of continence. The rectum is grasped with a Babcock clamp and
gently guided through the tract downward to the perineum, retracting it out with the
trocar as a unit (Fig. 20.5). The rectal fistula is next incised to expand the opening in the
rectum to 1 cm in diameter. The anastomosis between rectum and perineal skin is next
completed with circumferential, interrupted 4-0 polyglycolic acid sutures. The rectum is
retracted cephalad laparoscopically and secured to the presacral fascia at a convenient
location using 2-0 silk sutures, in order to prevent prolapse and to lengthen the skin-
lined anal canal (Fig. 20.6). The neoanus is sized with Hegar dilators.
Dilations begin 2 –3 weeks postoperatively, with the Hegar dilator size noted intra-
operatively. The colostomy is closed once satisfactory healing has occurred and an ade-
quate orifice is present.
Figure 20.5 Perineal pull-through. The transsphincteric, translevator tunnel has been created with
the radially expandable Step trocar. The rectal fistula has been grasped and is being transferred down
to the perineum for anorectoplasty.
254 Inge
Figure 20.6 Postoperative appearance. The sutured anorectoplasty has been performed and the
pelvic fixation suture is shown between the bowel and the presacral fascia.
7. POTENTIAL COMPLICATIONS
As with any operative procedure, there are many real and theoretic pitfalls to be avoided.
LAARP is not necessary for patients with rectoperineal fistula. It has not been used with
cloacal malformations, and has no particular advantage for rectovestibular fistulae.
LAARP is most useful in males with rectourethral and rectovesical fistulae, and in
females with high rectovaginal fistulae. The more important preoperative consideration
is ensuring that no perineal fistula exists; in such cases, only a limited PSARP is needed.
Although evidence is mounting for the safety of laparoscopic surgery in infants
,5 kg (35,37 – 39), the effects of pneumoperitoneum on cardiopulmonary performance
must be considered carefully prior to any neonatal laparoscopic procedure. Insufflation
pressures should be maintained at 6 –10 mmHg to prevent the predictable pressure-
related depression of venous return and cardiac output, which have been documented in
animals as well as in children (40). These lower insufflation pressures also minimize the
hypercapnea and increase airway resistance which can be seen with pediatric laparoscopy
(41). Associated conditions must also be taken into consideration. Patients considered
least suitable for laparoscopic procedures are those with complex congenital heart disease
resulting particularly in right heart pump failure, patients with marked pulmonary dys-
function, premature infants, and those with marked abdominal distension.
After repair of high ARM, short-term urinary retention should be expected, and the
urethral catheter should remain in place for 2 –3 days. It is far safer to leave the catheter
in place for several days than to remove it prematurely and risk the possible need to
re-catheterize after repair of a rectourethral fistula has been performed.
The placement of trocars in neonates must be done using the technique most familiar
to the surgeon, since penetrating injuries to abdominal and retroperitoneal viscera can
result if appropriate care is not taken during placement (42). Dissection of the colon
should begin at the peritoneal reflection, since ischemia of the rectum can result if dissec-
tion is begun more proximally. Before pull-through, the length of dissected rectum can be
tested by moving it into the deep pelvis and assessing the amount of tension on the bowel.
More sigmoid mesocolon can then be divided using hook electrocautery if more length is
needed.
During division of the rectal fistula, it is important to stay on the plane of the longi-
tudinal layer of the bowel wall since important pelvic autonomic nerve supply to the
bladder and penis pass in close proximity and can be injured when dissecting the recto-
urethral fistula. This dissection is considerably easier to perform for the higher recto-
bladder neck and recto-vaginal fistulae than is the more meticulous dissection needed to
avoid urethral injury at the termination of rectourethral fistulae. For rectourethral fistulae,
it is also important that the fistula is completely and securely ligated to prevent post-
operative pelvic sepsis and recurrence of rectourethral fistula. Occasionally, it is necessary
to up-size the right lower quadrant trocar to 10 mm to apply a larger clip across a broad-
based fistula. Also, a rectourethral fistula may be encountered more distally than expected.
If it cannot be safely ligated and divided laparoscopically, it may be necessary to extend
the perineal incision anteriorly and proceed with a midline dissection to find and ligate the
fistula (modified Mollard approach).
8. DISCUSSION/OUTCOME
Developmental neurobiologists have increasingly asserted that normal infant development

is dependent on sensory input that provides necessary neural activity to shape the devel-
oping cerebral cortex (43). In the 1960s, Wiesel found that neonatal visual deprivation led
to failure of development of the visual cortex such that even if vision was later restored,
permanent cortical blindness resulted (44,45). More recently, others have found that cor-
tical growth and blood vessel density in the mammalian brain is significantly greater in
regions of chronically increased neural activity (46). One rationale for repairing high
ARM during the neonatal period has been to give the infant the earliest sensorineural
experience possible (47,48). If a critical early phase of cortical synaptic remodeling and
growth occurs with continence pathways as has been documented in the visual system,
then the infant with high ARM should benefit from procedures that offer the earliest
experience with proper anorectal function. LAARP is an attractive alternative procedure
that can be performed early in infancy and thus allows for earlier anorectal functioning.
LAARP combines principles outlined by many of the pioneers in surgical care of
ARM. Before the 1970s the major problem with repair techniques for high ARM was
that the puborectalis was not well seen during reconstruction (16). After this time,
repair techniques that were capable of exposure of the puborectalis required either an
extensive anterior perineal dissection (49) or an extensive posterior perineal dissection
combined with division of the puborectalis (11). Georgeson’s most important contribution
in developing the LAARP is the unparalleled endopelvic visualization and ability to accu-
rately target the center of the puborectalis sling without an extensive perineal dissection or
256 Inge
division of sphincter components critical for proper anorectal function. Accurate

placement of the rectum has been documented after LAARP by MRI, which clearly
demonstrates the pull-through rectum in the midline between the two bellies of the
puborectalis sling and EAS, with an appropriate anorectal angle (personal observation).
Patients who have undergone LAARP should be followed on a regular basis. The
first patient who underwent LAARP at the Children’s Hospital of Alabama was born at
30 weeks’ gestation with complex VACTERL malformations (VSD, horseshoe kidney,
tethered spinal cord, severe caudal regression with absent right leg, partial sacral agenesis,
lumbar vertebral anomalies, scoliosis, hip dysplasia, vaginal duplication, grade 3 vesicour-
ethral reflux). The LAARP was performed in 1995 and she was (not unexpectedly) still
totally incontinent after age five. She underwent a continent appendicostomy and with
the use of nightly antegrade colonic enemas, her outcome has been excellent.
It is difficult to make any judgments about fecal continence in patients with high
anorectal malformations before 3 or 4 years of age, since it is common for this group of
patients to experience delayed toilet training. Only three other patients who have under-
gone LAARP (one rectobulbar, age 43 months; one rectoprostatic, age 46 months; and one
rectovesical fistula, age 43 months) have reached the age of 3 years. All of these boys have
abnormal sacra and none has yet demonstrated fecal continence, although toilet training
has been initiated. Caregivers have however reported that these patients show facial
expression and/or activity interruption when having a bowel movement, suggesting
some degree of sensation of the event. While this has been considered a good prognostic
sign for later continence, it is still too early to make any conclusive statements about func-
tional outcomes of LAARP. Since March 1999, 12 patients (10 male, 2 female) have
undergone LAARP at the University of California, San Francisco (54). All but two
male patients had fistulae to either the bladder neck or the prostatic urethra. Nine pro-
cedures were two-staged repairs, two were a single-stage procedure, and one was a
three-staged repair. There were no intraoperative complications and no postoperative stric-
tures after an outpatient regimen of dilations of the neoanus. Not described in their report
but known by personal communication is a patient who had developed a urethral diverti-
culum 4 years after the division of the rectoprostatic fistula. He presented with recurrent
urinary tract infections and a large diverticulum resembling an enlarged utricle was diag-
nosed by cystourethrogram. Presumptively it resulted from division of the fistula remotely
from the urethra. It was successfully repaired with an open, transcystic procedure. The
longest follow-up in this series is 3 years. Two children are taking oral medications for
constipation. Continence has yet to be assessed. No child developed significant rectal
mucosal prolapse in the follow-up period.
The developmental mutations that lead to ARM during early embryogenesis are only
now being elucidated (50 – 52). While the potential for preventative antenatal genetic
interventions are not inconceivable, medical progress for these birth defects currently
depends on refinements in postnatal management. For patients with high ARM, the
overall goal is to treat the anomaly so that the best anorectal function and socially appro-
priate continence can be achieved. In addition to the obvious imperforate anus and rectal
fistula, these patients suffer from a spectrum of other problems related to the anomaly.
These problems often include neurogenic bladder, inadequate levator and sphincter mus-
culature, abnormal pelvic sensory and motor nerve supply, and intrinsic dysmotility of the
hindgut. Unfortunately, currently there is no specific remedy for these structural and func-
tional abnormalities. The clinical problems that result from these abnormalities can be
effectively treated with a bowel management program (53), and socially acceptable
control of incontinence can often be achieved. The technical goal of surgery for the
infant born with a high ARM is therefore to correct the gross anatomic anomalies in
such a way that each patient’s maximal anorectal functional potential is preserved. Inno-
vations in minimally invasive pediatric surgery have provided the tools and techniques to
accomplish this surgical goal while minimizing collateral surgical injury to surrounding
structures. A prospective, controlled clinical trial with long-term postoperative evaluation
of anorectal function will be needed to determine the optimal technique for reconstruction
of the patient with high ARM.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I greatly appreciate the thoughtful input from Drs. Keith Georgeson, Brad Warner, and
Ms. Aliza Cohen during the preparation of this manuscript.
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21
Laparoscopy for Ovarian Pathology
David Gibbs and Peter C. W. Kim
Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
1. Introduction 261
2. The Natural History of Ovarian Masses 262
2.1. Cystic Ovarian Lesions 262
2.2. Solid Ovarian Lesions 263
3. A Diagnostic Approach to Ovarian Masses 264
4. The Role of Laparoscopy for Diagnosis and Treatment 265
4.1. Fetal and Neonatal Cysts 265
4.2. Premenarchal Ovarian Cysts 266
4.3. Perimenarchal Cysts 266
4.4. Solid Ovarian Lesions 266
4.5. Ovarian Torsion 267
5. Summary 267
References 267
1. INTRODUCTION
The evaluation and treatment of the child with an adnexal mass has changed considerably
in recent years. The routine and liberal use of prenatal screening ultrasound and advances
in technology have resulted in the detection of a number of masses, particularly cysts, that
previously might have gone undetected (1 – 5). Increased sophistication of postnatal
imaging modalities, including the use of doppler ultrasound, computed tomography,
and magnetic resonance imaging have allowed more precise and specific characterization
of adnexal masses prior to surgery (4,5). As laparoscopic techniques and equipment have
become increasingly suited to the pediatric patient, increased treatment options have
brought with them a new set of controversies. Principles derived from a better understand-
ing of adnexal masses in children can make it possible to make good use of still emerging
laparoscopic approaches.
In this chapter, we discuss the characteristics of adnexal masses in children, suggest
a diagnostic approach, and then propose a therapeutic algorithm, paying particular
attention to the expanding role of laparoscopy.
261
262 Gibbs and Kim
2. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF OVARIAN MASSES
An increase in the utilization and accuracy of diagnostic modalities is changing our under-
standing of and approach to adnexal masses. Prenatal ultrasounds frequently detect masses
that would have heretofore gone undetected (2,6). Increasing utilization of ultrasound and
computed tomography (CT) to evaluate abdominal pain and suspected urologic abnorm-
alities is leading to an increase in the discovery of asymptomatic masses of all types in
older girls. It is this change in technology and utilization that, while increasing our under-
standing of these lesions, is also contributing to a wide variation in the reported incidence
and nature of these lesions in the literature (1 – 5).
Prior to the almost routine use of ultrasound, most ovarian masses were thought to be
solid, and a substantial number of them were believed to be malignant in children (7 – 10).
Furthermore, adnexal pathology in the earliest years of life was thought to be infrequent.
In a recent review, however, non-neoplastic ovarian cysts were predominant (11)
(Table 21.1). We will briefly discuss the natural history of adnexal masses by lesion
and by age.
2.1. Cystic Ovarian Lesions

The cause of ovarian cysts varies with patient age. In the perinatal period, most cysts are
non-neoplastic simple follicular cysts and are a result of stimulation of Graffian follicle
development by maternal (estrogen), fetal (FSH), or placental (hCG) hormones (1,12).
Although most of these simple cysts resolve in the neonatal period (3,7,13), these cysts
can cause ovarian torsion with loss of the gonad, adhesion formation, and other symptoms
(1,5,11,14,15). Complex ovarian cysts in the neonatal period are less common, but can
occur (11). In a review by Croitoru, 8 of 9 complex neonatal cysts were associated with
Table 21.1 Pathologic Findings from 106 Operations on 102 Patients
Pathology No. of patients Percent of total
Non-neoplastic 49 46.2
Ovarian torsion (without associated tumor) 16 15.1
Corpus luteal cyst 15 14.2
Simple or follicular cyst 11 10.4
Paraovarian cyst 2 1.9
Hemo/hydrosalpinx 2 1.9
Biopsy of normal ovary 2 1.9
Ovotestis 1 0.9
Neoplastic: benign 47 44.3
Mature teratoma 42 39.6
Cystadenoma 3 2.8
Cystic lymphangioma 1 0.9
Immature teratoma 1 0.9
Neoplastic: potentially malignant 10 9.4
Dysgerminoma 4 3.8
Immature teratoma with yolk sac tumor 2 1.9
Yolk sac tumor 1 0.9
Juvenile granulosa cell tumor 2 1.9
Sertoli –Leydig cell tumor 1 0.9
Source: Cass et al. (11), with permission from Mosby.

Laparoscopy for Ovarian Pathology 263
ovarian torsion and 1 of 9 was from a juvenile granulosa cell tumor (1). Simple cysts are
unlikely to be malignant (16).
In the premenarchal period beyond the first few months of life, large ovarian cysts
are much less common and likely reflect follicular responsiveness within the prepubertal
ovary to a pulsatile release of gonadotropins by the developing pituitary (7,17). Cysts in
this premenarchal age group are known to present with precocious pseudopuberty, pre-
sumably from estrogen secretion by the cyst lining (18,19). These symptomatic cysts
may resolve spontaneously. When cysts in this age group do occur, they are more
likely to be malignant, particularly if complex or hemorrhagic (7,20). As with cysts in
other age groups, torsion is also a concern, particularly with larger cysts (18).
In girls entering menarche, corpus luteum cysts become more predominant. These
cysts may appear to be hemorrhagic and complex, but may resolve spontaneously if
,7 cm (13). Cysts in this age group are less likely to be malignant than in the premenar-
chal age group (7). Ectopic pregnancy and pelvic inflammatory disease should also be
considered in the differential diagnosis of ovarian cysts in adolescent girls (7). Less com-
monly, para-ovarian lesions such as mesenteric or intestinal duplication cysts can mimic
ovarian cystic lesions.
2.2. Solid Ovarian Lesions

Most solid ovarian masses are benign, with mature teratoma being the most common of
this group (11,21,22) (Table 21.1). Roughly 10% of solid masses, or 5% of all ovarian
lesions, are potentially malignant (11). Characteristics of potentially malignant tumors
are given in the table (includes tumor markers, prognosis, treatment). Unfortunately, the
differentiation between benign and malignant ovarian masses is not easy. Solid masses
are more common in the premenarchal and perimenarchal age groups, and can present
with torsion (11,12).
Of the benign solid ovarian masses, most are mature cystic teratomas, comprised of
both cystic and solid components, lined with well differentiated ecto- and endo-dermal
derived cyst walls such as sebaceous cysts (11,23). Fewer than 20% of pediatric
ovarian teratomas in most series are malignant. Cystadenomas, cystic lymphangiomas,
and torsed ovaries (in the absence of tumor) make up most of the remainder (11,23).
Malignant ovarian masses comprise 10% of all ovarian lesions, and 20% of all
solid ovarian masses (11, Table 21.1). Various classification schemes have been proposed,
but most malignant ovarian tumors are believed to be derived from one of three types:
germ cell, sex cord/stromal, or epithelial. Two-thirds of malignant ovarian tumors are
germ cell tumors, which in turn have five subtypes (24).
Dysgerminomas are the most common germ cell tumor. They are bilateral in
10 – 15% of cases, and usually do not produce tumor markers (4). Treatment with resection
and chemotherapy usually results in cure. While radiation may result in a complete
response, the patient will be rendered infertile.
Endodermal sinus tumor, also known as yolk sac tumor, is less common but is
extremely aggressive. aFP correlates with tumor burden, but may not be produced with
recurrent tumor (4). Survival even with surgery and multi-agent chemotherapy is 15%.
Embryonal carcinoma is less well differentiated than the other germ cell tumor sub-
types, and often exists as part of a mixed germ cell tumor. b-HCG is usually elevated,
and aFP may be elevated if the tumor contains elements of endodermal sinus tumor.
Precocious puberty is a frequent manifestation of this tumor. Prognosis of this tumor,
while poor, is better than that of endodermal sinus tumor, and treatment consists of
surgery and multi-agent chemotherapy (4,11,19).
264 Gibbs and Kim
Choriocarcinoma is uncommon in children, and may present with precocious

puberty. b-HCG levels are elevated with this tumor. After treatment with surgery,
additional adjuvant platinum-based chemotherapy is required (4,11,19).
Teratoma is the most common germ cell tumor overall, but only the second most
common malignant germ cell tumor (4,11,25). Most are benign and are cured by extirpa-
tion. aFP may be elevated, but b-HCG is usually normal. Survival is related to histologic
grade, ranging from 30% to 90%. For low-grade, malignant teratomas, surgery alone may
be curative, but for higher-grade tumors, multiagent chemotherapy is required.
Malignant germ cell tumors may also present with characteristics of more than one
germ cell subtype. In general, tumor markers, treatment, and survival are dictated by the
most aggressive element. The overall prognosis is poor.
While germ cell tumors are the most common malignant tumor type, sex cord/
stromal tumors are less so, accounting for 5 –15% of pediatric ovarian malignancies.
These are in turn subdivided into granulosa – theca tumors and Sertoli – Leydig tumors
(arrhenoblastomas). Granulosa – theca tumors often present with early pubertal changes
because of high estrogen secretion. Prognosis is good with resection alone for early
stage tumors and surgery with chemotherapy for advanced disease. Sertoli –Leydig cell
tumors, or arrhenoblastomas, are rare, and behave unpredictably. They are characterized
by the production of large amounts of male hormones. While surgery is a mainstay of
treatment, widespread agreement does not exist on the value or type of chemotherapeutic
regimen (4,11,25).
Epithelial tumors, while much more common in older women, are unusual in girls,
and extremely rare prior to menarche. This tumor may be bilateral, and in younger girls,
widespread at the time of its discovery. CA-125 is usually elevated in these tumors
(26,27). Treatment consists of resection when possible and multi-agent chemotherapy.
Prognosis is fair in adolescent girls to poor in premenarchal girls, but long-term survivors
have been reported (26,27).
3. A DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH TO OVARIAN MASSES
In addition to an understanding of the natural history of ovarian masses, a principles-based

laparoscopic approach must include a thorough diagnostic workup of these masses. A
detailed history and physical examination, guided by the child’s age, will provide import-
ant information. A history of pain, gastrointestinal complaints, and (when appropriate)
menstrual patterns and sexual activity are particularly relevant. Physical examination
should focus on both general and pubertal development as well as characterization of
any abdominal masses. Bimanual rectoabdominal examination and, in some adolescents,
pelvic examination will provide important information regarding the size, texture, and fix-
ation of an adnexal mass.
Laboratory tests should be ordered during the evaluation of any suspicious ovarian
mass. aFT, b-HCG, and LDH should be sent. While CA-125 levels are useful in the
evaluation of ovarian pathology in older women, they are unlikely to prove helpful in
the pediatric patient.
The abdominal and pelvic ultrasound remains the most important radiologic diag-
nostic test in the evaluation of adnexal masses. Size, septation, fluid content, calcifications,
and location can all be evaluated. Sonographic findings that may be suggestive of malig-
nancy include heterogeneity, a significant solid component, and the presence of excres-
cences (28 – 30). Color-flow doppler can identify blood flow and aid in the diagnosis of
torsion (7). Low impedence to flow may also be suggestive of an increased risk of
malignancy.
CT is indicated when malignancy is suggested by history, laboratory values, and
ultrasound findings. We do not routinely employ CT when evaluating simple cystic
lesions where malignancy is not suggested by history, physical findings, or laboratory
values. CT is well suited for evaluating regional lymph nodes, assessing metastatic
spread, and further characterizing complex solid lesions. Findings suggestive of malig-
nancy include large size, presence of calcifications, and predominantly solid character
with occasional areas (19).
Although MRI is not routinely indicated during the evaluation of ovarian cysts, it is
highly sensitive and specific for evaluating pelvic pathology in adults (31). It is well suited
for differentiating between masses of uterine and ovarian origin. Ovarian torsion with
infarction has a characteristic MRI pattern with a T1-enhancing rim (19). MRI may
have some role in the evaluation of Muellerian duct remnants and endometriosis.
However, more liberal use of MRI in children is limited by the need for sedation or
anesthesia to complete the examination in younger patients.
The role of percutaneous or incisional biopsy is limited for obvious reasons of
tumour spill, and remains controversial.
4. THE ROLE OF LAPAROSCOPY FOR DIAGNOSIS

AND TREATMENT
An understanding of the natural history and diagnostic workup of both cystic and solid
ovarian masses in children serves as the basis for a laparoscopic –based approach to the
treatment of these lesions. Considerable controversy continues to exist as to the proper
role of laparoscopy in the treatment of certain ovarian lesions. With continuing advances
in the detection of ovarian lesions, new questions are being raised as to which lesions
should be treated at all. Furthermore, as advances in both laparoscopic technology and
technique are being made, previously unforeseen treatment options become available, if
not always advisable. Thus, two questions have to be addressed: (1) Is surgery indicated,
and if so, (2) what is the proper role for laparoscopy in the surgical approach?
4.1. Fetal and Neonatal Cysts

In fetuses and neonates, most ovarian masses are benign follicular cysts which will resolve
over time. The principle goal of treatment if undertaken should be to prevent potential
torsion, which may occur prior to regression. Some authors recommend observation
for all neonatal cysts, with surgical intervention reserved for those with symptoms or
those failing to regress (1,3,7). Some authors feel that such cysts should be at least aspi-
rated if over 5 cm in neonates to decrease the risk of torsion (7). Van der Zee et al. (32)
advocate laparoscopically guided aspiration for neonatal ovarian cysts followed by
mini-laparotomy. Given the very low likelihood of malignancy in this age group, particu-
larly with a simple cystic mass, a laparotomy for the resection of an intact cyst may be
excessive. The literature in this area is scant and mainly based on case reports (8,32).
Laparoscopic drainage and/or resection of ovarian cysts in neonates are feasible.
Although there is no evidence to support that laparoscopic-guided aspiration is superior
to ultrasound-guided aspiration, for large simple cysts over 5 cm in diameter, aspiration
and complete cyst resection done laparoscopically is a reasonable approach, provided
that a maximal amount of ovarian tissue can be spared. For more complex ovarian
266 Gibbs and Kim
cysts in neonates, attempted laparoscopic resection may be reasonable; low likelihood of

malignancy makes tumor spill unlikely. If at any time, preservation of ovarian tissue is in
doubt, formal laparotomy should be undertaken.
4.2. Premenarchal Ovarian Cysts

After the first few months of life, the risk of malignancy in an ovarian mass becomes
greater. Simple unilocular cysts in premenarchal girls can resolve spontaneously, and
should be followed for several weeks before recommending surgical resection (7,20).
Laparoscopy for simple unilocular cysts failing to resolve may be undertaken, but conver-
sion to laparotomy is indicated if complex features are found at laparoscopy (7). Similarly,
laparotomy should be undertaken from the outset for more complex ovarian cysts due to
increased risk of malignancy and potential tumor spillage. Again, evidence supporting this
suggestion remains anecdotal and mainly based on case reports (1,3,7,20).
4.3. Perimenarchal Cysts

With the onset of menarche, the characteristics and treatment of both simple and complex
ovarian cysts change significantly. For asymptomatic unilocular cysts in adolescent girls,
observation and follow-up over 6 – 8 weeks is appropriate (33). The use of oral contracep-
tives over a couple of cycles may help differentiate functional cysts from pathologic ones
and also helps to prevent the development of functional cysts during the observation
period (33). For simple cysts failing to resolve, laparoscopic fenestration offers the advan-
tages of avoiding a laparotomy, sparing a maximal ovarian tissue and providing tissue for
pathologic examination (34). Ultrasound or laparoscopy-guided cyst aspiration (as
opposed to fenestration or removal) has a disadvantage of unacceptably high recurrence
rate (35 –37). Complex or hemorrhagic ovarian cysts should be observed for 2 –4 weeks
for resolution. If at any time, the ovarian mass is not simple or highly suspicious based
on size, organic functional appearance, laparoscopy is indicated as the initial evaluation
(33). Laparoscopy for initial evaluation of persistent complex cysts is appropriate, but
we favor conversion to laparotomy if the complex appearance is confirmed and cyst
resection is planned.
4.4. Solid Ovarian Lesions

There is relatively little controversy as to whether surgery is indicated for solid ovarian
lesions in any pediatric age group. Following a thorough diagnostic workup, resection
of any solid ovarian mass is indicated. If the lesion appears to be a benign teratoma by
appearance and frozen section histology, an attempt at resection of the mass with preser-
vation of remaining ovarian tissue may be considered (38). Otherwise, resection of the
involved ovary and, if necessary, the involved adnexa should be undertaken (1,33).
The role of laparoscopy in the evaluation of solid or complex ovarian lesions is more
controversial (12,39). Many authors recommend diagnostic laparoscopy followed by
attempted laparoscopic resection for ovarian lesions with serologic, radiologic, and clini-
cal features suggesting benign lesion (33). Most studies in the adult literature based on
surveys of practice patterns and case reports have not demonstrated an increased risk to
the patient following laparoscopic resection of solid ovarian masses but the literature in
children are scant (12,33,40,41). While laparoscopic resection with an endo-bag may in
fact be safe, most authors conclude that decreased risk of tumor spillage and dissemination
and a better ability to preserve as much viable normal ovarian tissue as possible in young
patients make the open approach outweigh the potential benefits of laparoscopic resection
(33,42,43). For highly suspicious lesions, few authors advocate attempted laparoscopic
resection in children at present, although diagnostic laparoscopy at the beginning of the
procedure may provide better visualization of relatively inaccessible areas. As additional
experience is gained with laparoscopy for ovarian pathology in children, the results of
follow-up studies may well expand the accepted indications for resection in children as
they have in adult patients.
4.5. Ovarian Torsion

The issue of laparoscopic or open oophoropexy as treatment or prophylaxis for ovarian
torsion is also controversial in any age group. The normal tube and ovary are extremely
mobile and are capable of a rotation of 908 without giving rise to symptoms (44). Of all
reported cases of torsion in childhood, 70% of the adnexal torsion contained pathologic
lesions in the adnexal tissues (44). However, many authors feel, based on case reports,
that the risk of fertility from adhesions related to oophoropexy outweighs the possible
decreased risk of ovarian torsion, and do not recommend oophoropexy, either as treatment
or prophylaxis (11). Depending on the patient’s age group, open or laparoscopic aspira-
tion, resection, or fenestration of a cystic lesion associated with torsed ovary is reasonable.
Solid masses associated with ovarian torsion should be resected, preferably by laparotomy
(33,43). If the so-called “torsion of normal ovary” is found, the ovary can be detorsed
laparoscopically; if the ovary appears viable, it should be left in place (45). Whether ipsi-
lateral or contralateral fixation following ovarian torsion should be done remains contro-
versial without any strong evidence to support either way. (11,44 –47). Laparoscopic
oophoropexy may have additional use, other than the circumstances of torsion. For
example, pexying the ovary(s) away from planned field of radiation in the pelvis for
ovarian preservation has been effectively used by the authors as well.
5. SUMMARY
Knowledge of the natural history of ovarian lesions in children as well as the appropriate
indications for laparoscopiy continue to expand. Today, most cystic lesions are amenable
to laparoscopic treatment following a period of observation. For suspicious complex and
solid lesions, the role of laparoscopy in children remains limited but can be expected to
expand.
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22
Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities
Sean E. McLean
Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
Robert K. Minkes
Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center,
Children’s Hospital of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
1. Introduction 271
2. Embryology 272
3. Classification 272
4. Associated Anomalies 273
5. Clinical Presentation 273
5.1. Midgut Volvulus 274
5.2. Duodenal Obstruction 274
5.3. Vague Nonspecific Symptoms 274
5.4. Asymptomatic 274
6. Diagnosis 275
7. Preoperative Management 276
8. Surgical Treatment 276
8.1. Laparoscopic Treatment 276
8.2. Technique 277
8.3. Results in Patients Without Volvulus 278
8.4. Results in Patients with Volvulus 281
9. Summary 282
References 282
1. INTRODUCTION
“During its development the abdominal portion of the alimentary canal may suffer a
large variety of perversions . . . The condition therefore requires especial significance
in regard to the surgery of infancy.” Norman M. Dott (1)
Embryologic errors that lead to abnormalities of rotation and fixation of the intestine constitute
a unique group of surgical anomalies that are managed by the pediatric surgeon. Intestinal mal-
rotation and faulty fixation of the bowel, which may lead to the development of bowel obstruc-
tion or midgut volvulus and have life-threatening consequences, must be differentiated from
271
272 McLean and Minkes
nonrotation, an abnormality that does not require surgical correction and is not associated with
the risk of volvulus. The incidence of intestinal malrotation has been reported with a frequency
of 1 in 500 to 1 in 6000 (2,3). Intestinal rotation or fixation abnormalities are associated with a
high incidence of other associated congenital anomalies (3). Most patients diagnosed with
malrotation will present with symptoms in the neonatal period, but problems may not occur
until late in childhood or as adults (3). The presence of such an anomaly requires the
prompt attention of a pediatric surgeon due to the risk of midgut volvulus.
Early investigation in the field focused on the embryology of the intestine. In 1898,
Mall described the process of rotation and fixation of the bowel (4). In 1923, Dott elegantly
published the first clinical correlation relating the embryology of intestinal malrotation to
surgical anatomy (1). Ladd, in 1936, reported the successful treatment of intestinal rotation
abnormalities in the infant (5). In regards to surgical management, he emphasized the lysis
of peritoneal bands, the evisceration and derotation of the bowel, and the placement of the
bowel in a state of nonrotation (5). These remain the principles of surgical treatment today.
Recent advances in minimal access technology have led to the development of a
laparoscopic approach to managing patients with malrotation. The first report of laparo-
scopic management of malrotation was published in 1995 (6). This has been followed by
many case reports and small case series describing the successful management of rotation
abnormalities using the laparoscopic approach in neonates and infants (6 – 13), older chil-
dren (8,12 – 16), and adults (13,17). As a collection, the available literature proposes many
benefits for laparoscopic surgery over traditional measures in the management of intestinal
rotation abnormalities. This chapter will evaluate the existing evidence supporting the
application of minimal access techniques in intestinal rotation and fixation abnormalities.
2. EMBRYOLOGY
During its development, the midgut goes through four physiologic stages: (1) herniation,
(2) rotation, (3) retraction of the herniated loops, and (4) fixation. Disruption of these criti-
cal steps will lead to midgut rotational and fixation abnormalities. The primary intestinal
loop consists of a cephalic (duodenojejunal) limb and a caudal (cecocolic) limb and its
associated blood supply (18). Between the 4th and 6th weeks of development, the
primary intestinal loop enters into a state of rapid growth that leads to physiological her-
niation into the extraembryonic coelom. Each intestinal limb makes three separate 908
turns in a counterclockwise direction with the superior mesentery artery (SMA) serving
as the axis of rotation, while outside of the abdominal cavity, the limbs of the primary
intestinal loop undergo the initial 908 rotation. The second 908 rotation occurs as the
bowel returns to the abdominal cavity and the final 908 turn occurs in the abdominal
cavity. After a total turn of 2708 around the axis of the SMA, the duodenojejunal limb
is positioned to the left of the SMA and the cecocolic limb to the right of the SMA.
The colonic mesentery fuses with the parietal peritoneum and the colon develops perito-
neal bands that anchor the ascending and descending portions of the colon to the posterior
abdominal wall (18). Failure of the cecum to rotate to the right side will lead to abnormally
developed peritoneal bands known as Ladd’s bands. These bands that anchor the malposi-
tioned midline colon to the right postero-lateral aspect of the abdominal wall may obstruct
the duodenum or proximal small intestine that lies to the right of the cecum (19).
3. CLASSIFICATION
A wide spectrum of anatomic abnormalities may arise during embryogenesis. The intes-
tine may undergo no rotation at all or any combination of incomplete rotation as outlined
Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities 273
in the steps described above. The most common abnormalities include nonrotation,
“classic” malrotation, duodenojejunal malrotation, and cecocolic malrotation. Abnormal
fixation may also occur, but this tends to occur in the cecum.
Nonrotation is the failure of rotation of both limbs of the primary intestinal loop. In a
state of nonrotation the small bowel lies on the right side of the abdomen and the colon on
the left. The mesenteric base is usually wide enough to prevent midgut volvulus; however,
this can be variable. This is the position of the intestine following a Ladd’s procedure.
In “classic” malrotation there is incomplete rotation of both the duodenojejunal and
cecocolic limbs. The ligament of Treitz lies to the right of the midline and the cecum is
usually found in the upper abdomen close to the duodenum. The mesenteric base is nar-
rowed and the midgut is at risk for volvulus. Duodenal obstruction may occur due to
Ladd’s bands or kinking of the duodenum on itself.
Duodenojejunal malrotation occurs with the failure of the duodenojejunal limb to
rotate in the presence of normal cecal rotation and fixation. Duodenal obstruction may
occur due to peritoneal bands that kink the duodenum. The base of the midgut mesentery
is usually broad, making volvulus unlikely.
Incomplete rotation of the cecocolic limb may lead to problems with fixation of the
colon. Peritoneal bands may obstruct the duodenum. Although rare, the lack of fixation
also places the cecum at risk for volvulus. Nonrotation of the cecocolic limb in the pre-
sence of normal rotation of the duodenojejunal limb creates a narrow mesenteric base
between the ligament of Treitz and the cecum; therefore, the midgut is at increased risk
for the development of volvulus.
4. ASSOCIATED ANOMALIES
Rotational abnormalities of the midgut are often associated with other congenital
anomalies. Associated anomalies are found in 30 – 59% of patients with the diagnosis of
malrotation (3,19 –23). Defects that may be encountered include Meckel’s diverticulum,
Hirschsprung’s disease, imperforate anus, esophageal atresia and tracheo-esophageal
fistula, cardiac anomalies, asplenia/polysplenia syndromes with cardiac anomalies, and
situs inversus. Malrotation should be suspected in children with these anomalies.
Conditions where the primary intestinal loop does not return to the abdominal cavity,
such as congenital diaphragmatic hernia and abdominal wall defects, are universally
associated with rotational abnormalities. The rotational defect usually does not need
surgical correction beyond that of the repair of the primary disease.
5. CLINICAL PRESENTATION
The clinical presentation of rotational and fixation defects are determined by the type of
abnormality. Children may present with midgut volvulus or an isolated duodenal obstruc-
tion in an acute, recurrent, or chronic setting. The majority of patients will present with
symptoms in the newborn period. Reports show that up to 65% of patients will present
within the first thirty days of life (3,22); however, rotational anomalies may remain
silent until adulthood.
The most common symptom, particularly in young patients, is bilious emesis. This
may be due to duodenal obstruction from peritoneal bands or due to midgut volvulus
(3,22,23). Others symptoms include nonbilious emesis, blood per rectum, intermittent
diarrhea, early satiety, weight loss, failure to thrive, or vague abdominal cramping.
Constipation is also very common. Some patients are asymptomatic. Physical findings
range from a totally benign examination to an acute abdomen with peritonitis.
5.1. Midgut Volvulus

Midgut volvulus is a surgical emergency. The narrow mesenteric base present in malrota-
tion places the midgut at increased risk for volvulus. When the bowel twists around its
mesentery the vascular supply becomes compromised. Most patients with midgut volvulus
present within the first months of life (24). Sudden onset of bilious emesis is the most
common sign of acute midgut volvulus. Other signs include abdominal distension, dehy-
dration, and irritability. As intestinal ischemia develops the symptoms may progress
rapidly to lethargy, a firm abdomen, hypovolemia, and shock. Bilious emesis and other
signs should raise concern for midgut volvulus, and a definitive diagnosis must be estab-
lished before intestinal viability is compromised.
Intermittent and partial midgut volvulus occurs less frequently and is more com-
monly encountered in patients .2 years of age (25,26). Patients typically complain of
chronic abdominal pain, intermittent nonbilious emesis, early satiety, weight loss,
failure to thrive, and diarrhea. These patients may have poor nutrient absorption due to
obstruction of mesenteric lymphatics and veins. Failure to suspect the diagnosis has led
to repeated dietary manipulations and psychiatric consults in some patients (19).
5.2. Duodenal Obstruction

Duodenal obstruction may be partial or complete and chronic or acute. Acute duodenal
obstruction is caused by extrinsic compression of peritoneal bands or by the kinking of
incompletely rotated or nonrotated duodenum. Acute duodenal obstruction is most
common in the neonate, but it may occur later in life. Bilious emesis is the primary
sign; however, nonbilious emesis may be seen. The presence of abdominal distension is
variable. Chronic or recurrent obstruction of the duodenum results from the kink of the
duodenum that results from improper rotation. Key findings are bilious or nonbilious
emesis, poor weight gain, and cramping abdominal pain. Contrast studies may under-
estimate the degree of duodenal kinking.
5.3. Vague Nonspecific Symptoms

Rotational anomalies may be diagnosed during a workup in children with vague and
nonspecific symptoms such as intermittent abdominal pain, vomiting, poor weight gain,
diarrhea, or constipation. It is difficult to know whether these symptoms, which are
very common in children, are caused by the rotational abnormality.
5.4. Asymptomatic
Many patients with rotational abnormalities remain asymptomatic. It is important, but
often difficult or impossible, to differentiate nonrotation from rotational defects that
require surgery. Rotational anomalies are often discovered as incidental findings during
operations for unrelated reasons or after a gastrointestinal tract contrast study. The
primary concern with asymptomatic patients is trying to predict which patients are at
risk of midgut volvulus and the potentially life-threatening consequences related to its
development. There is no evidence in the literature that clearly differentiates nonrotation
from malrotation or identifies factors that will effectively predict when patients with
malrotation will develop midgut volvulus. Therefore, it is common practice to operate on

children with rotational abnormalities and surgically correct malrotation upon discovery.
Nevertheless, this practice remains controversial because there is inadequate evidence in
the medical literature to show a benefit in the application of surgical therapy over expec-
tant management in asymptomatic patients.
6. DIAGNOSIS
Radiologic studies play a critical role in establishing the diagnosis of malrotation. Any
infant with bilious emesis should have immediate imaging studies performed to confirm
or rule out the diagnosis. The diagnostic evaluation should include plain abdominal radio-
graphs and contrast imaging of the gastrointestinal tract.
Plain abdominal radiographs are usually nondiagnostic, but may show patterns and
signs that may be helpful, such as the “double-bubble” indicative of duodenal obstruction.
A “gasless” abdomen often characterizes volvulus; however, patients with volvulus may
have a nonspecific or normal bowel gas pattern on plain abdominal radiographs. Bowel
thickening and edema, indicating vascular compromise in the bowel, can often be seen
with midgut volvulus. Since plain abdominal radiographs are often nondiagnostic, rapid
steps must be taken to perform contrast radiologic studies, or the patient should be
taken to the operative theatre for exploration to establish the diagnosis.
Contrast studies of the intestinal tract are needed to establish the diagnosis of
abnormalities of intestinal rotation and fixation. The upper gastrointestinal contrast
series is performed as the initial study of choice at most centers. The duodenum should
be seen coursing across the spine in a cephalad direction to the ligament of Treitz. The
diagnosis is established when the ligament of Treitz does not cross to the left of the
patients’ spine. There is controversy as to the significance of a low-positioned ligament
of Treitz that crosses the spine. Other findings include obstruction of the duodenum
and the jejunum positioned on the right side of the abdomen (27,28). Hallmark signs
for volvulus include the “bird’s beak” sign and a corkscrew appearance of the small intes-
tine. Delayed films or small bowel follow through into the colon may reveal abnormalities
of colonic rotation or fixation. Barium enema can also be used to evaluate the colon in
patients suspected of having malrotation; however, there are many limitations of the
barium enema. For instance, the barium enema will miss the diagnosis of duodenal
obstruction that occurs due to malrotation with a normally positioned cecum (19).
Other limitations include missed diagnosis in patients with a mobile cecum and nondiag-
nostic imaging due to redundant bowel (3). In their report, Simpson et al. showed that
upper gastrointestinal contrast imaging made the diagnosis of 100% in comparison to a
50% rate for barium enema (28). Because of its limitations, the barium enema should
be used to define the location of the cecum or to rule out other pathology such as intus-
susception, and not as the sole radiologic test for determining the presence of malrotation.
With improvements in technology, ultrasound has been used in some centers to aid
in the diagnostic evaluation of malrotation. Ultrasound can be used to rule out other causes
of obstruction such as pyloric stenosis, to establish the orientation of the superior mesen-
teric vessels, and to define the presence of flow through the superior mesenteric vessels in
patients with suspected volvulus. While the use of ultrasound is becoming increasingly
widespread, it is extremely operator dependent and should only be used to provide adjunc-
tive information in the diagnosis of intestinal rotation abnormalities. Ultrasound cannot,
however, differentiate malrotation from nonrotation.
7. PREOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT
An acutely ill patient with suspected midgut volvulus or bowel obstruction requires
prompt surgical attention. Resuscitation with appropriate intravenous fluids should
begin immediately. Other adjunctive measures include the placement of a nasogastric
tube to decompress the stomach, the placement of a urethral catheter to measure
urinary output, and the administration of intravenous antibiotics. In patients with sus-
pected malrotation without acute symptoms, corrective surgery can be delayed to allow
a thorough work-up and preoperative planning.
8. SURGICAL TREATMENT
Exploratory laparotomy and the Ladd procedure is the “gold standard” for treating malro-
tation with or without volvulus. The key steps of the procedure have not changed since it
was first described by Ladd and Gross (5). The surgical steps are as follows:
1. evisceration of the midgut and inspection of the mesenteric root;
2. counter-clockwise de-rotation of the midgut volvulus (if present);
3. lysis of peritoneal bands with mobilization of the right colon so that it moves to
the left side of the abdomen and straightening of the duodenum along the right
abdominal gutter;
4. widening of the mesentery so that the small bowel sits to the right side of the
abdomen and the cecum in the left lower quadrant (a state of nonrotation); and
5. appendectomy.
The principles of the open surgical technique also apply to the laparoscopic correc-
tion of abnormalities of intestinal rotation and fixation. This will be discussed in following
sections.
8.1. Laparoscopic Treatment

Recent advances and experience in minimal access surgery have led to the development of
techniques for the successful correction of abnormalities of intestinal rotation and fixation
(29 –34). The first report of the laparoscopic management of malrotation was by van der
Zee and Bax (6) in 1995. They reported on the successful treatment of acute midgut
volvulus with the use of minimally invasive techniques.
Since 1995, there have been 12 additional reports that have described the successful
use of minimal access techniques in treating malrotation with or without volvulus (see
Table 22.1). This group of publications includes five case reports (6,14 – 17), six case
series (7 –11,13), and a retrospective study comparing patients treated by open technique
vs. laparoscopic technique (12). As a collection the studies account for the care of 58
patients who have been treated with minimal access surgery for malrotation. The patients
span across all age groups and can be divided into neonates and infants (6 –13), older chil-
dren (8,12 –16), and adults (13,17). Furthermore, the studies include patients treated for
malrotation with volvulus and without volvulus, and the reports address the role of
minimal access techniques in both the diagnostic evaluation of malrotation and in correc-
tive therapy. The case reports and case series all praise the benefits of a short hospital stay,
rapid return of bowel function, minimal postoperative pain, and improved cosmesis that
were achieved with the use of minimal access surgery. However, only one study compares
outcome data of laparoscopic surgery to the traditional open technique (12).
Table 22.1 Publications of Minimal Access Surgery for the Treatment of Rotation Abnormalities
Authors Type of study (# of patients) Ages of patients
Malrotation without Volvulus

Lessin and Luks (8) Case series (2) 6 years, 17 years
Bass et al. (9) Case series (12) Mean: 2 weeks
(5 days– 4 months)
Cheikhelard et al. (10) Case series (3) 4, 11, 3 days
Gross et al. (11) Case series (2) 6 weeks, 4 months
Frantzides et al. (17) Case report 38 years
Waldhausen and Sawin (16) Case report 4 years
Yahata et al. (15) Case report 17 years
Mazziotti et al. (13) Case series (7) Median 7 years
(4 days– 23 years)
Chen et al. (12) Retrospective comparison of LS, median 8.5 months
laparoscopic to open (3 days– 17 years)
surgery (LS, 18; OS, 20) OS, median 5.3 months
(1 day– 7 years)
Bax and van der Zee (7) Case series (9) Range 7 days – 28 months
Malrotation with volvulus
Bax and van der Zee (7) Case series (9) Range 7 days – 28 months
Van der Zee and Bax (6) Case report 7 days
Yamashita et al. (14) Case report 13 years
8.2. Technique
The technical aspects of the laparoscopic treatment of abnormalities of malrotation
without volvulus are based upon the principles established by Ladd as discussed above.
The four major steps consistent in the reports from all of the authors are:
1. inspection of the mesenteric base and detorsion of the bowel;
2. lysis of peritoneal bands;
3. placement of the bowel in a state of nonrotation with broadening of the
mesenteric base;
4. appendectomy (7 – 13,15 – 17). Port placement differed among authors, but we
believe that the port placement configuration used in the case series by
Mazziotti et al. provides the surgeon with flexibility and comfort to perform
the procedure; furthermore, the technique described by Mazziotti et al. has
been safe and effective at our institution and is detailed below (12,13).
A 10-mm port is placed in the infraumbilical fold with the use of the open technique.
Two 5-mm ports are inserted in the right and left lower quadrants respectively, and a
10-mm port is positioned in the midline above the umbilicus (13). The abdomen is insuf-
flated according to the age of the patient with a pressure range of 8 –15 mmHg. After an
adequate pneumoperitoneum and visualization are established, the base of the mesentery
is inspected by identifying the duodenojejunal junction and the ileocecal junction. Since
there are no guidelines established to predict whether a volvulus will occur, a mesenteric
base extending greater than half the diameter of the abdomen was arbitrarily selected
as being broad enough base to prevent volvulus. If the length of the mesenteric base
is less than half of the transverse diameter of the peritoneal cavity, a Ladd procedure is
performed.
The first step of the Ladd procedure is complete mobilization of the right colon. It is
reflected to the left. Next, the entire duodenum is mobilized with straightening of the
C-loop of the duodenum and peritoneal bands are lysed. Any remaining peritoneal
bands associated with the mesentery should be lysed, and the base of the mesentery broad-
ened. An appendectomy is performed with the use of laparoscopic techniques. The last
step is to leave the bowel in a state of nonrotation with the cecum in the left upper quadrant
and the small intestine to the right of the spine (13).
Cecopexy was used in the care of an adult patient in the report by Frantzides (17),
but there are no descriptions in the pediatric surgical literature. There is no existing evi-
dence to show that a benefit is derived from the use of cecal fixation in performing a
Ladd procedure. In addition, cecal fixation creates a potential axis for rotation around
the point of fixation and predispose patients to the development of a volvulus.
8.3. Results in Patients Without Volvulus

Since 1995, ten reports have shown that minimal access surgery can be applied safely and
effectively to the evaluation and treatment of abnormalities of intestinal rotation and fix-
ation (7 – 13,15 – 17). The studies are a collection of case reports, case series, and one retro-
spective analysis of open vs. laparoscopic technique. The studies address management in
neonates, children, and adults. Symptomatic and asymptomatic patients were treated with
laparoscopic techniques. Symptoms at presentation included bilious and nonbilious
emesis, recurrent abdominal pain, and peritoneal signs (Table 22.2). Radiographic
images were used consistently to evaluate the patients, and upper gastrointestinal contrast
studies were used most commonly.
Many detractors of minimally invasive techniques for complex surgical problems
cite technical feasibility, increased operative time, and potential for intraoperative compli-
cations as contraindications for minimal access surgery in infants. However, together the
reports describe a reasonable level of operative times ranging from 35 min to 3 h and
25 min (Table 22.2). No intraoperative complications or incidents of conversion to open
technique were reported. The outcome data generated by the reports were consistent.
Time to the resumption of a regular diet ranged from one postoperative day to five post-
operative days (Table 22.2). The time to discharge ranged from 1 day to 6 days postopera-
tively (Table 22.2). All patients detailed in the reports had complete resolution of
symptoms at follow-up.
The data provided by the reports, supports the application of minimal access tech-
niques to malrotation without volvulus. Many institutions have successfully applied
minimal access surgery to malrotation without volvulus. The weaknesses of this body
of literature are typical of case reports and small case series. First, there is tremendous
potential for reporter bias in the data presented. It is difficult to interpret the lack of nega-
tive outcomes reported. While this may indeed be true, it is not verifiable. The second
major weakness is the lack of concurrent controls or comparison data for the outcomes
generated by these reports.
Recently, Chen, Minkes, and Langer reported a study comparing the outcomes of the
laparoscopic and open approaches in children with malrotation without volvulus. The ret-
rospective study evaluates the outcomes of 18 patients treated with minimal access tech-
niques and 20 patients treated by an open Ladd procedure over the same time period. The
ages of the patients were similar with the median age of 8.5 months in the laparoscopic
surgery group (LS) and 5.25 months in the open surgery group (OS) (Table 22.3).
Twenty-nine percent of the patients in the study were asymptomatic, and all rotational
abnormalities were confirmed by contrast studies. The outcome data of the study shows
Table 22.2 Outcome Data from Publications for Laparoscopic Technique for Malrotation
Time for return Time to Resolution of Length of

Authors Operative time to regular diet discharge symptoms follow-up Complications
Malrotation without volvulus

Lessin and Luks (8) NR POD 1 POD 2 Yes NR None
Bass et al. (9) Ave. 58 min POD 2 (10 cases) Ave. 2.2 days Yes- for all pts NR None
(35– 120 min) POD 3 (2 cases) (2 –4 days)
Cheikhelard et al. (10) NR Pt #1, POD 5 #1, POD 6 Yes #1, 5 months None
#2, NR #2, NR #2, 5 months
Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities
#3, complicated by #3, NR #3, 2 months

duodenal web
Gross et al. (11) #1, NR #1, POD 4 #1, POD 5 Yes NR None
#2, 76 min #2, POD 2 #2, POD 4
Frantzides et al. (17) 1 h and 45 min POD 1 POD 1 Yes 3 months None
Waldhausen and Sawin (16) 3h POD 3 POD 3 Yes 5 months None
Yahata et al. (15) 2 h and 20 min POD 1 POD 6 Yes 6 months None
Mazziotti et al. (13) Median 2.0 h Median Median Symptoms Median None
(1.25– 3.25) POD 2 POD 2 Resolved in 5/7 pts 15 months
(10 –16)
Bax and van der Zee (7) 3 h first few pts NR POD 4 – 11 days Yes NR None
1 h for later pts
Malrotation with volvulus
Bax and van der Zee (7) 3 h first few pts NR POD 4 – 11 days Yes NR None
1 h for later pts
Van der Zee and Bax (6) 90 min POD 1 NR Yes NR None
Yamashita et al. (14) NR POD 1 NR Yes 6 months None
Note: NR, not reported.

279
Table 22.3 Group Characteristics From Chen et al. (12) Comparison of Laparoscopic to
Open Technique
Laparoscopic (n ¼ 18) Open (n ¼ 20)
Gender
Male 8 10
Female 10 10
Median age (months) 8.5 months 5.25 months
(3 days – 17 years) (1 day – 7 years)
Broad-based mesentery 6 8
Operatvie time (min) 70 (35 – 194) 68 (25 – 105)
IV narcotics (h) 24 46
Time to clear feeds (h) 18 68
Time to full feeds (h) 32 111
Hospital stay (days) 2.6 5.3
Cost ($1000) 4.3 4.5
Late complications
Small bowel obstruction 0 2

Note: p ¼ 0.05; p ¼ 0.001; p , 0.001.
that laparoscopic surgery is as safe and effective as traditional open technique in the pedi-
atric patient population. It was associated with a faster recovery time, which is exemplified
in the faster return to clear liquids (LS ¼ 18 h vs. OS ¼ 68 h, p , 0.001), faster tolerance
of full feeds (LS ¼ 32 h vs. OS ¼ 111 h, p , 0.001), and the shorter hospital stay
(LS ¼ 2.6 days vs. OS ¼ 5.3 days, p ¼ 0.001). The LS group had less postoperative
pain determined by a shorter time span for the use of intravenous narcotics (LS ¼ 24 h
vs. OS ¼ 46 h, p ¼ 0.05). Operative time was similar between the groups (LS ¼ 70 min
vs. OS ¼ 68 min, p ¼ NS), and there were no intraoperative or perioperative compli-
cations in either group. Hospital charges did not differ significantly between groups.
The symptoms resolved in all patients in the study. The mean follow-up was 22.1
months for all of the patients in the study. There were no long-term complications reported
in the LS group; however, in the OS group two patients developed adhesive small bowel
obstructions at 13 days and 21 months postoperatively. The patients both required lapar-
otomy for treatment.
This study supports the conclusions of the authors from the case reports and series.
The use of laparoscopic surgery is as safe and effective as the open Ladd procedure and is
also associated with faster recovery, less postoperative pain, and a potentially lower risk of
future adhesive bowel obstruction. While these data support the use of minimally invasive
techniques, a multi-institutional prospective randomized control study comparing the
laparoscopic approach to the traditional open technique would be needed to determine
the true benefit of this approach.
While most of the reports advocated a full Ladd’s procedure despite the width of the
mesenteric base (7 – 11,15 – 17), Chen et al. (12) differed in their management by not per-
forming the entire Ladd’s procedure on patients with a wide mesenteric base in the LS
treatment group. If a patient in the LS group had a broad based mesentery defined by a
mesentery greater than half the transverse diameter of the abdomen, then the patient under-
went appendectomy alone. Six (33%) patients of the LS group were found to have a broad-
based mesentery and managed with appendectomy alone. All patients in the open group
underwent a full Ladd procedure even when mesentery was broad enough to prevent vol-
vulus. After a mean follow-up of 27.1 months, there were no reports of late volvulus in any
patient in the LS group of the study. Thus, the laparoscopic approach appears to be ideal in
patients with “soft” radiologic findings of a rotation anomaly. In the report by Chen et al.
(12) more than one-third of all patients were determined intraoperatively to have a broad-
based mesentery and were felt not be at risk for volvulus. Thus, a full Ladd’s procedure
may be over treatment in these patients. Late follow-up in this patient population will
be critical to establish the safety of this approach.
8.4. Results in Patients with Volvulus

Malrotation with volvulus presents different challenges for the laparoscopic surgeon. In
malrotation with volvulus the bowel is often very friable and edematous; therefore,
great care must be taken to avoid injury with the laparoscopic instruments. Expeditious
detorsion of the bowel becomes a difficult task in the laparoscopic setting due to the
small amount of operative space and the limitations of the laparoscopic instruments. In
addition, speed may be the most critical element in preserving the viability of the
bowel. This may be hindered by the laparoscopic approach. Many authors have discour-
aged the use of minimal access techniques in the presence of malrotation with volvulus
(12,13). The laparoscopic management of patients with known midgut volvulus is contro-
versial. There have been three reports of the use of laparoscopic techniques in the manage-
ment of malrotation with established midgut volvulus (6,7,14). The studies describe
the care of four patients. Three patients were infants, and the fourth patient was a
13-year-old girl. The infants presented with the acute onset of bilious emesis, and upper
gastrointestinal contrast studies confirmed the presence of obstruction and volvulus.
The 13-year-old girl presented with severe abdominal pain after 1 year of multiple
hospitalization for intermittent abdominal pain.
The patients all underwent laparoscopic Ladd’s procedure with successful out-
comes. All of the patients tolerated a regular diet on postoperative day one. There were
no intraoperative or perioperative complications, and the patients were asymptomatic at
long-term follow-up.
Bax and van der Zee described the surgical technique employed by all three authors
(6,7,14). The laparoscopic treatment of malrotation with volvulus relies upon the same
principles outlined for treatment of malrotation without volvulus. In the care of patients
with volvulus the surgeon must pay greater attention to the detorsion of the bowel. To
detorse the bowel, Bax and van der Zee emphasize that the surgeon must first focus on
the identification of the second portion of the duodenum. After it is identified, peritoneal
bands are lysed, and the duodenum and jejunum are completely mobilized. According to
Bax and van der Zee (7), pulling the duodenum and jejunum to the right side of the patient
in a position underneath the liver will reduce the volvulus and place the bowel in a state of
nonrotation. All other steps of the procedure should be conducted as described for patients
with malrotation without volvulus.
While three reports have demonstrated success in four patients, most authors
discourage the use of laparoscopic techniques in patients with confirmed midgut volvulus
(9,11 –13,16). Detractors believe that complications will arise from the greater technical
difficulty (11) and the handling of ischemic bowel with laparoscopic instruments (9,12).
In addition, expeditious detorsion of bowel may not be feasible with laparoscopic tech-
niques. For the above reasons and the lack of sufficient evidence to support its safety,
minimal access surgery should not be used routinely in the management of patients
with malrotation with volvulus. If it is attempted, the surgeon must carefully choose
patients that are in an early state of volvulus. In addition, the surgeon must be very experi-
enced and adept at laparoscopic surgical techniques in pediatric patients.
9. SUMMARY
The data presented in this chapter concerning the laparoscopic treatment of malrotation
without volvulus show that it is both safe and effective in pediatric patients. The one avail-
able study to compare laparoscopic surgical technique to open surgical technique showed
favorable outcomes for the laparoscopic surgery treatment group. In addition, laparoscopy
may be most useful in assessing patients “soft” radiologic findings of rotational abnorm-
alities. Collectively the available data show support of minimal access surgical techniques
for the management of malrotation without volvulus; however, prospective studies with
larger sample sizes, long-term follow-up, and possibly randomization should be conducted
to provide confirmation of the conclusions from the present literature. Patients with
malrotation who have confirmed midgut volvulus should not undergo laparoscopic treat-
ment, except in highly selected circumstances, due to the great risk for intraoperative
complications.
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Situs Inversus and bowel malrotation: contribution of prenatal diagnosis and laparoscopy.
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the role of laparoscopy. J Am Coll Surg 1997; 185:172 – 176.
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Laparoscopic repair of intestinal malrotation complicated by midgut volvulus. Surg Endosc
1999; 13:1160 – 1162.
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23
Varicocele
Philippe Montupet
University Paris XI, Paris, France
Ciro Esposito
“Magna Graecia” University, Catanzaro, Italy
1. Introduction 285
2. Diagnostic Evaluation 286
3. Anatomy 286
4. Principles of Technique 286
5. Operative Set-Up 286
6.1. Laparoscopy 287
6.2. Retroperitoneoscopy 287
8. Discussion and Conclusions 288
References 289
1. INTRODUCTION
Varicoceles are considered to be the most identifiable cause of male infertility. The
incidence of varicocele in prepuberal age varies from 10% to 15%, according to different
series; the importance of early treatment, in childhood, to prevent testicular damage is
widely accepted (1). Treatment options include spermatic vein sclerotherapy or emboli-
sation, classical open surgical treatment via a scrotal, high retroperitoneal or inguinal
approach, microsurgical bypass, and more recently, laparoscopy (2 – 4).
The main problem for the adolescent patient is establishing objective criteria for
intervention. The decision for varicocele surgery in men usually is based on documented
infertility and abnormal semen analysis; in adolescents these criteria are not applicable. In
general, the intervention is indicated only when a persistent and measurable asymmetric
decrease in testicular size is documented, along with a readily apparent varicocele and
scrotal pain or discomfort (5,6).
285
286 Montupet and Esposito
2. DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION
Most varicoceles are detected during adolescence by routine physical examination. The
clinical classification of varicoceles is based on Horner’s (7) definition: grade I, palpable
but not visible; grade II, palpable and visible; and grade III, large varicocele. To confirm
the presence of a varicocele detected by physical examination, a scrotal ultrasound with
color-flow Doppler scanning is recommended. Other tests include thermography and
venography; the latter can be used in associated with a transvenous ablation procedure.
3. ANATOMY
The knowledge of the vascular anatomy of the varicocele is fundamental to guide the
surgical strategy. The venous drainage of the scrotum occurs via a superficial system
(the anterior and posterior scrotal veins, which drain into the saphenous vein) and a
deep system (which drains via the pampiniform plexus, the internal and external spermatic
veins, and the ductus deferens veins). These two systems anastomose with each other (8).
The left internal spermatic veins drain into the left renal vein, whereas the external
spermatic vein drains—via the inguinal canal—into the inferior epigastric vein near its
termination at the femoral vein (9). The ductus deferens vein drains into the internal
iliac vein.
Three forms of varicocele can be differentiated: type I, where the etiologic factor is
the internal spermatic vein itself (absence of competent valves in the proximal portion of
the internal spermatic vein); type II, with the presence of the proximal nutcracker phenom-
enon (the compression of the left renal vein between the aorta, from the posterior side, and
the superior mesenteric artery, from the anterior side); and type III, the presence of the
distal nutcracker phenomenon (due to the obstruction of the left common iliac vein
often because of compression from the left common iliac artery) (8,9). Two or three
types of varicocele may be present at the same time.
4. PRINCIPLES OF TECHNIQUE
Types I and II are the most frequent, comprising 90% of cases (1 –5). In these cases, the
surgical procedure for the correction of the varicocele consists of the ligation of the inner
spermatic veins alone (Ivanissevich procedure), or the ligation of the spermatic veins and
artery (Palomo procedure) in the suprainguinal region (10,11). In the case of a type III
varicocele, it is necessary to ligate both the internal spermatic veins and the deferential
veins (10,11). Both procedures can be performed via laparoscopy or retroperitoneoscopy.
5. OPERATIVE SET-UP
In case of the laparoscopic approach, the patient is placed in the supine position, in a Tren-
delemburg position of at least 15 –308, with the entire abdomen, genitalia, and upper legs
included in the operative field. For retroperitoneoscopy, the patient is positioned in lateral
decubitus. In laparoscopy, the surgeon stands on the patient’s side contralateral to the path-
ology, the assistant stands on the other side facing the surgeon, and the scrub nurse on the
same side as the surgeon (5). In retroperitoneoscopy, the surgeon stands in front of the
patient with the assistant on his/her right and the scrub nurse in front. For laparoscopy,
Varicocele 287
the screen is positioned at the patient’s feet and the laparoscope and video units on the
patient’s side contralateral to the pathology. For retroperitoneoscopy, the screen is posi-
tioned in front of the surgeon. Laparoscopy is performed using one umbilical trocar for
the telescope and two trocars in triangulation.
For retroperitoneoscopy, only one 10 mm trocar is necessary. This trocar is posi-
tioned half way between the costal margin and the superior iliac spine. An operative
telescope is used with a 5 mm operative channel. A 450 mm grasper, a hook, and scissors
are used to dissect and then coagulate the inner spermatic vessels (12,13).
6.1. Laparoscopy
The first step consists of the inspection of the abdominal cavity to identify the internal
inguinal ring and evaluate the course of the cord (5 – 12). The peritoneum above and
lateral to the inner spermatic vessels is opened with scissors at 5 cm above the inguinal
ring (2 –14). Sometimes, it may be necessary to mobilize the sigmoid colon to clearly
expose the spermatic cord. The testicular vascular pedicle is fully exposed using scissors
and atraumatic forceps. At this time, the surgeon must decide whether to perform an
Ivanissevich procedure and spare the spermatic artery or to perform a Palomo procedure
and ligate both spermatic veins and testicular artery (5 – 15,16).
Usually the spermatic vessels are sectioned between clips; alternatively, the vessels
can be ligated and then sectioned. It is also possible to use bipolar or tripolar energy, laser
energy, or ultrasonic scalpel. Any other vein around the spermatic bundle must be clipped
and sectioned to reduce the risk of recurrence. It is very important to examine the veins
around the vas deferens to assess whether they are macroscopically dilated. The incision
on the posterior peritoneum can be closed at the end of the procedure with one or two
stitches (5).
6.2. Retroperitoneoscopy
The retroperitoneal operative chamber can be created by Gaur’s balloon technique or with
the simple dissection of the retroperitoneal space using the tip of the telescope and with the
aid of the pneumodissection, as described by Valla (5 –13).
In retroperitoneoscopy, because of the small operative chamber, it is preferable to
adopt one trocar surgery.
The inner spermatic vessels are identified, bluntly dissected for 3 –4 cm of their
length, coagulated using monopolar or bipolar energy, and then sectioned.
7. COMPLICATIONS
Data from a large multicenter series (13) demonstrated that most authors (85.8%) prefer
the laparoscopic technique described by Palomo. This general tendency seems to be
related to the lower number of recurrences with this technique (1.6% in this series) as com-
pared with other procedures. As to the cause of recurrences in this series, postoperative
venography demonstrated that they were due to reflux through the deferential veins
related to an obstruction of the left common iliac vein. This extremely rare event, occur-
ring in 5 – 10% of children with varicocele, can be prevented by the routine use of veno-
graphy in the preoperative period or by also sectioning the deferential veins—should they
appear varicose when compared with the contralateral side—during the laparoscopic
examination (13 –15). This is not as easily visualized by retroperitoneoscopy. The 3.8%
incidence of intraoperative complications was due to bleeding from the inner spermatic
vessels during dissection, or instrument/light source/video-camera malfunction.
In the case of retroperitoneoscopic varicocelectomy, the main problem is linked to
the smaller operative field and the risk of entering the peritoneal cavity during dissection,
which would require conversion to the laparoscopic or to the open approach. Postoperative
complications include a high rate of hydrocele using Palomo’s procedure, (6.6%), related
to the ligation of the lymphatic vessels when the artery is ligated (17 –19).
The prevention of hydroceles seems to be most successful with Ivanissevich’s
procedure, because it spares the lymphatic vessels adherent to the spermatic artery and
thus reduces the rate of this complication. Unfortunately, the Ivanissevich procedure is
correlated with a higher rate of recurrence than that of Palomo’s (5 – 13). In this study,
which is in agreement with most reports in the literature, there were no cases of testicular
hypoplasia or atrophy using Palomo’s technique. This advantage is because of the collat-
eral blood supply to the testis from the gubernaculum, the anterior and posterior scrotal
vessels, the intra-scrotal anastomosis, and the deferential vessels (13). However, this
study cannot demonstrate any improvement in spermatogenesis, because ,5% of these
patients have undergone semen analysis because of their young age at the time of
surgery (20,21).
8. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Several other procedures can be used to treat pediatric varicoceles: venous embolization
by interventional radiologists, open surgical technique, and microsurgical venous
bypass (22 – 25). However, a review of the medical literature of the last 5 years shows
that an increasingly frequent approach for both adults and adolescents is laparoscopy
Table 23.1 Results of Different Procedures of Varicocelectomy in Pediatric Patients
Number of Level of Success

References Year patients evidence Type of procedure (%)
Luque Mialdea 1995 22 II Microsurgical anastomoses 100

et al. (22)
Ardela Diaz 1996 15 II Operative radiology 74
et al. (23)
Lima et al. (4) 1997 207 II Microsurgical anastomoses 97
Campobasso (25) 1997 172 II “Blue venography” open surgery 100
Minevich et al. (26) 1998 32 II Inguinal microsurgical 100
varicocelectomy
Mazzoni et al. (24) 1999 277 I Interventional radiology 79.4
Mazzoni et al. (24) 1999 124 I High ligation via open surgery 88.7
Cayan et al. (3) 2000 236 II MHIV 97.9
Cayan et al. (3) 2000 232 II High ligation via open surgery 84.5
Esposito et al. (5) 2000 28 II Laparoscopy – Ivanissevich 96.5
Esposito et al. (5) 2000 133 II Laparoscopy – Palomo 97.8
Poddoubnyi (2) 2000 180 II Laparoscopy – Ivanissevich 99.4
Cohen (12) 2001 40 II Laparoscopy – Ivanissevich 83
Note: I, prospective study; II, retrospective study, review, or anecdotal report.

Varicocele 289
(Table 23.1) (5 – 16). The most striking piece of evidence is a common trend among
several teams to adopt the laparoscopic Palomo’s technique (13 –16). This general
tendency is probably related to its low recurrence rate (2 – 3%) as compared with other
procedures (5 –14). The 5 –10% recurrence rate can be prevented by a systematic use of
preoperative venography (23 –25).
Critics of the laparoscopic method cite the high costs as a drawback (14 – 28). This
problem is virtually eliminated when reusable trocars and instruments are employed: the
only nondisposable instrument used in laparoscopy is the clip applier, and this is some-
times replaced by traditional low-cost ligatures.
The literature (5 – 13,28,29) demonstrates that the laparoscopic approach, in terms of
recurrence and complications rate, is comparable to, if not better than, those achieved with
the open surgical or radiological approach (28,29).
In addition, laparoscopy can assess and easily treat varicosed deferential veins
which would be a cause for recurrence if only spermatic vein ligation is performed.
REFERENCES
1. Kass EJ, Reitelman C. Adolescent varicocele. Urol Clin North Am 1995; 22:151– 154.
2. Poddoubnyi IV, Dronov AF, Kovarskii SL, Korznikova IN, Darenkov IA, Zalikhin DV.
Laparoscopic ligation of testicular veins for varicocele in children. Report of 180 cases.
Surg Endosc 2000; 14(12):1107– 1109.
3. Cayan S, Kadioglu TC, Tefekli A, Kadioglu A, Tellaloglu S. Comparison of results and
complications of high ligation surgery and microsurgical high inguinal varicocelectomy in
the treatment of varicocele. Urology 2000; 55(5):750 –754.
4. Lima M, Domini M, Libri M. The varicocele in pediatric age: 207 cases treated with microsur-
gical technique. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1997; 7(1):30 –33.
5. Esposito C, Monguzzi GL, Gonzalez-Sabin MA, Rubino R, Montinaro L, Papparela A,
Amici G. Laparoscopic treatment of pediatric varicocele: a multicenter study of the Italian
society of video surgery in infancy. J Urol 2000; 163(6):1944– 1946.
6. Kass EJ, Freitas JE, Bour JB. Adolescent varicocele: objective indications for treatment. J Urol
1989; 142:579 – 581.
7. Horner JS. The varicocele. A survey amongst secondary school-boys. The Medical Officer
1960; 104:377 – 382.
8. Beck EM, Schlegel PN, Goldstein M. Intraoperative varicocele anatomy: a macroscopic and
microscopic study. J Urol 1992; 148:1190 – 1193.
9. Coolsaet BLRA. The varicocele syndrome venography determining the optimal level for
surgical management. J Urol 1980; 124:833 –835.
10. Ivanissevich O. Left varicocele due to reflux: experience with 4,470 operative cases in forty-
two years. J Int Coll Surg 1960; 34:742– 747.
11. Palomo A. Radical cure of varicocele by a new technique: preliminary report. J Urol 1949;
61:604 – 607.
12. Cohen RC. Laparoscopic varicocelectomy with preservation of the testicular artery in adoles-
cents. J Pediatr Surg 2001; 36(2):394– 396.
13. Esposito C, Monguzzi G, Gonzalez-Sabin MA, Rubino R, Montinaro L, Papparella A, Esposito G,
Settimi A, Mastroianni L, Zamparelli M, Sacco R, Amici G, Innaro N. Results and complications
of laparoscopic surgery for pediatric varicocele. J Pediatr Surg 2001; 5:145–147.
14. Belloli G, Musi L, D’Agostino S. Laparoscopic surgery for adolescent varicocele: preliminary
report on 80 patients. J Pediatr Surg 1996; 31:1488 – 1490.
15. Kattan S. Incidence and pattern of varicocle recurrence after laparoscopic ligation of the
internal spermatic vein with preservation of the testicular artery. Scand J Urol Nephrol
1998; 32:335 – 337.
16. Humprey GM, Najmaldin AS. Laparoscopy in the management of pediatric varicoceles.
J Pediatr Surg 1997; 32:1470 – 1472.
17. Varma MK, Ho VB, Haggerty M, Bates DG, Moore DC. MR venography as a diagnostic tool in
the assessment of recurrent varicocele in adolescent. Pediatr Radiol 1998; 28:636 – 639.
18. Szabo R, Kessler R. Hydrocele following internal spermatic vein ligation: a retrospective study
and review of the literature. J Urol 1984; 132:924 – 926.
19. Kass EJ, Bodgan M. Results of varicocele surgery in adolescents: a comparison of tecniques.
J Urol 1992; 148:694 – 697.
20. Atassi O, Kass EJ, Steinert BW. Testicular growth after successful varicocele correction in
adolescent: comparison of artery sparing techniques with the Palomo procedure. J Urol
1995; 153:482 – 485.
21. Stern R, Kistler W, Scharli AF. The Palomo procedure in the treatment of boys with varicocele:
a retrospective study of testicular growth and fertility. Pediatr Surg Int 1998; 14:74 –77.
22. Luque Mialdea R, Sanabia J, Martin Crespo R, Cerda J, Aguilar F, Arrojo F. Microsurgical
treatment of varicocele in adolescents. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1995; 5(2):101 – 103.
23. Ardela Diaz E, Gutierrez Duenas JM, Martin Pinto F, Dominguez Vallejo FJ, Cano, Lopez C.
The spermatic venography in the treatment of varicocele in children. Cir Pediatr 1996;
9(3):108– 112.
24. Mazzoni G, Fiocca G, Minucci S, Pieri S, Paolicelli D, Morucci M, Bibbolino C, De Medici L,
Calisti A. Varicocele: a multidisciplinary approach in children and adolescents. J Urol 1999;
162(5):1755– 1757.
25. Campobasso P. Blue venography in adolescent varicocelectomy: a modified surgical approach.
J Pediatr Surg 1997; 32(9):1298 –1301.
26. Minevich E, Wacksman J, Lewis AG, Sheldon CA. Inguinal microsurgical varicocelectomy in
the adolescent: technique and preliminary results. J Urol 1998; 159(3):1022– 1024.
27. Frangi I, Keppenne V, Coppens L, Bonnet P, Andrianne R, de Leval J. Antegrad scrotal
embolisation of varicocele: results. Acta Urol Belg 1998; 66:5 – 8.
28. Abdulmaaboud MR, Shokier AA, Farage Y, Abd El-Rahaman A, El-Rakhawy MM,
Mutabagani H. Treatment of varicocele a comparative study of conventional open surgery,
percutaneous retrograde sclerotherapy, and laparoscopy. Urology 1998; 52:294 –297.
29. Cornud F, Belin X, Amar E, Delafontaine D, Helenon O, Moreau JF. Varicocele: strategies in
diagnosis and treatment. Eur Radiol 1999; 9:536 – 538.
24
Nonpalpable Undescended Testis
Philippe Montupet
University Paris XI, Paris, France
Ciro Esposito
“Magna Graecia” University, Catanzaro, Italy
1. Introduction 291
2. History 291
3. Anatomy 292
4. Principles of the Technique 292
5.1. Diagnostic Laparoscopy 293
5.2. Laparoscopic Two-Step FS Procedure for IAT 293
5.3. Laparoscopy-Assisted Orchidopexy Without Division
of the Spermatic Vessels 294
7. Discussion and Conclusions 295
References 296
1. INTRODUCTION
The incidence of cryptorchidism is 1– 3% in male infants, 20% of whom have a nonpalp-

able testis (NPT) at presentation (1). The treatment of a palpable cryptorchid testis is not
controversial and consists of a transinguinal orchiopexy. Laparoscopy has replaced ultra-
sound and magnetic resonance imaging for the localization of a NPT (2). Controversy
exists concerning the operative technique in the cases of an intra-abdominal testis
(IAT). The laparoscopy-assisted orchidopexy (LAO) without sectioning the spermatic
vessels and the two-stage Fowler – Stephens (FS) procedure seem to be the techniques
with the highest success rate (3,4) and have been rapidly gaining popularity.
2. HISTORY
The use of laparoscopy has brought about a remarkable improvement in the study and
management of the NPT. The laparoscopic procedure was first described by Cortesi
291
et al. (5) in 1977, who showed that an IAT could be located in the pelvic region close to the
bladder; in that position, the testis is practically unidentifiable with a traditional open
approach performed via an inguinal incision. At the end of the 1980s, Bloom (6) and
Elder (7) proposed the use of a laparoscopic FS orchidopexy for the management of the
NPT, with the first step via laparoscopy and the second via open surgery. In 1994,
Jordan and Caldamone reported the possibility of mobilizing laparoscopically an IAT
and of accomplishing also the second phase of the two-step FS procedure laparoscopically
(8 –10). More recently, Esposito and Baker proposed a laparoscopy-assisted orchidopexy
without sectioning the spermatic vessels (4 –11).
3. ANATOMY
The knowledge of the anatomy and the embryology of the testis is fundamental to the
accurate interpretation of the laparoscopic findings. The development of the testis may
be divided into three phases: an intra-abdominal (1 –7 months), a canalicular (7 –8
months), and a scrotal phase (8 – 9 months). The failure of the testis to migrate in any
one of these three phases causes cryptorchidism, the position of the cryptorchid gonad
depending on the phase in which the migration stops. Concerning vascularization,
blood flow occurs through the inner spermatic artery and inner spermatic veins. The
inner spermatic artery derives directly from the aorta, and at 3– 4 cm proximally to the
testis, it anastomoses with the deferential arteries; these anastomoses are very important
for the success of the FS intervention (6 – 8).
In the case of a high IAT, the testicular vessels are short, but the vas deferens and its
companion vessels are longer than normal. The secondary vascular loop develops from the
vessels of the vas deferens, the collaterals arise from the deep epigastric vessels, and
the myriad branches enter the posterior wall of the processus vaginalis from the area
of the gubernaculum testis. This vascular network results in a rich collateral circulation.
The inner spermatic veins go directly into the vena cava on the right side and into the
renal vein on the left.
4. PRINCIPLES OF THE TECHNIQUE
In all cases of NPT, the clinical examination under general anesthesia is essential and
should be followed by laparoscopy. On the basis of the laparoscopic findings, the
surgeon can easily select the most appropriate surgical strategy (Fig. 24.1). When there
are blind ending cord structures, no inguinal surgical exploration is necessary. In the
case of cord structures entering the internal inguinal ring (IIR), an open inguinal explora-
tion is necessary to identify, and remove if necessary, an atrophic intracanalicular or
ectopic testis (2). Interestingly, malignancy developing in a remaining atrophic testis
has only been reported once in the international literature (11).
Concerning the surgical treatment of IAT, there is no general agreement over the
procedure to adopt—the choices are an open groin exploration with abdominal extension
for all cases, an FS procedure, microvascular transplantation, and laparoscopy (12,13).
Presently, the best outcomes are reported with the two-step FS procedure (with both
steps laparoscopically) and the LAO with the spermatic vessels intact (4 –14). These
will be described in the subsequent paragraphs.
Nonpalpable Undescended Testis 293
Patient with a NPT
NPT=non-palpable testis Clinical examination

IIR=internal inguinal ring
Clinical examination under anesthesia
Laparoscopy
Vanishing testis Intraabdominal testis Cord structures enter the IIR
No exploration Laparoscopic orchidopexy Open orchidopexy Inguinal exploration
Figure 24.1 Algorithm for the workup of patient with a NPT.
The patient is placed supine with slight Trendelenburg. The entire abdomen, genitalia, and
upper legs are included in the operative field (7). The bladder is drained. The surgeon
stands opposite the side of the NPT. The assistant stands on the other side, facing the
surgeon. The video monitor is positioned at the patient’s feet. The telescope is placed
transumbilically and two 3 or 5 mm trocars are placed in the right and left iliac fossae,
at 3– 4 cm below the umbilicus. The exact position of the trocars always depends
upon the patient’s age and size. If an IAT is found, a fourth trocar is placed in the ipsilat-
eral hemiscrotum (11).
5.1. Diagnostic Laparoscopy

There are three principle laparoscopic findings: IAT (37%), abdominal blind-ending cord
structures (14%), and cord structures entering the IIR (49%) (2). In cases of blind-ending
cord structures (also called vanishing testis), there is no need for an open inguinal explora-
tion. When cord structures enter the IIR, an inguinal exploration is necessary to look for an
ectopic or an intracanalicular atrophic testis (1,2) or a nonpalpable but normal testis.
5.2. Laparoscopic Two-Step FS Procedure for IAT

The first step of the FS is very simple: two or more clips are positioned on the intra-
abdominal spermatic vessels 3 –4 cm away proximally to the testis. Collateral vasculari-
zation is derived from the vas deferens which provides blood to the last 2 cm of the
intra-abdominal spermatic vessels (6,7). The second step of the FS procedure is performed
6 – 12 months later. This interval is necessary for the development of the collateral circula-
tion. Laparoscopically, a wide peritoneal pedicle flap is created using scissors, and a blunt
dissection is performed laterally to the internal spermatic vessels, near the clips placed
closest to the testis during the first operation. The dissection is continued distally to the
clips, around the internal ring; it is then extended medially to the umbilical ligament as
far as 1 cm from the vas deferens (14,15). At this point, the spermatic vessels are sectioned
near the clips and the dissection then extended medially, as far as 1 cm from the other side
Table 24.1 Results of FS Orchidopexy
No. of Only one Success

references Year Testes intrevention Two-step procedure (%)
Elder (7) 1992 12 — 12 (1st lap. 2nd open) 92

King (16) 1996 22 22 (open) — 100
Law et al. (15) 1997 20 — 20 (1st lap. 2nd open) 95
Esposito and 1997 33 — 33 (both laparocopy) 100
Garipoli (14)
Kirsch et al. (12) 1998 38 33 (open) 5 (1st lap. 2nd open) 74
Baker et al. (4) 2001 50 — 50 (both laparoscopy) 87.9
Chang et al. (3) 2001 29 20 (laparoscopy) 9 (both laparoscopy) 85
Baker et al. (4) 2001 20 20 (laparoscopy) — 74.1
of the vas deferens. The testis is thus supported on a peritoneal flap attached to the peri-
deferential peritoneum (15,16).
A blunt grasper is introduced deep into the hemiscrotum via the internal inguinal ring
(14). A dartos pouch is then created through an open scrotal incision; a 5 mm trocar is
inserted at the level of the bottom of the corresponding hemiscrotum and pushed into the
abdominal cavity along the blunt grasper. With the use of a fenestrated forceps introduced
through the scrotal trocar, the testis is grasped and brought down into the scrotum, carefully
avoiding any torsion of the new vascular pedicle (14). The intra-abdominal portion of
the procedure is completed by transperitoneal closure of the IIR. This technique consists
of bringing the conjoined tendon closer to the crural arch with a nonabsorbable suture
(6 –14). The results of the FS procedure are presented in Table 24.1.
5.3. Laparoscopy-Assisted Orchidopexy Without Division

of the Spermatic Vessels
This technique consists of sectioning the gubernacular attachment, opening the posterior
peritoneum laterally to the spermatic vessels, and in mobilizing the testicular vessels and
the vas deferens in a retroperitoneal position for 8 – 10 cm (11 – 19). The vessels are pre-
served by performing a blunt dissection using a peanut or grasping forceps, without using
any type of thermal energy. At the end of the dissection, the testis is free from adhesions to
the posterior abdominal wall and pedicled onto the inner spermatic vessels and the vas
(12 –19). At this point, if the inner inguinal ring is open, a grasping forceps is introduced
from inside the abdomen through the IIR into the scrotum. After creating a dartos pouch, a
5 mm trocar is introduced from the scrotum into the abdomen using grasping forceps (11).
If the inner inguinal ring is closed, a neo inguinal ring is created medially to the obliterated
umbilical artery and between the bladder, using the same procedure as described earlier; a
5 mm trocar is then introduced from the scrotum into the abdomen (17,18). At the end of
the procedure, the testis is then brought down into the scrotum through either an already
open IIR or a newly created inguinal ring. The results of the LAO are reported in
Table 24.2.
6. COMPLICATIONS
In both the FS and the LAO procedures, a delicate dissection avoids injury to the iliac
vessels, the ureter, and bladder. Concerning the FS procedure, atrophy of the testis after
Nonpalpable Undescended Testis 295
Table 24.2 Results of Orchidopexy Performed Without Sectioning the Spermatic

Vessels
No. of references Year Testis Technique Success (%)
Poppas and Lemack (18) 1996 10 LAO 100

Lindgren et al. (17) 1998 31 LAO 93
Kirsch et al. (12) 1998 33 Open inguinal 97
Esposito et al. (11) 2000 20 LAO 95
Baker et al. (4) 2001 140 LAO 97
Chang et al. (3) 2001 72 LAOa 92
a
LAO, laparoscopy-assisted orchidopexy.
the first step of the procedure is an extremely rare event, whereas its incidence is 20– 30%
after the second step (7 – 12). Concerning the LAO procedure, once the spermatic vessels
are isolated from the posterior peritoneum, they are very susceptible to injury when the
testis is pulled down (11). A clinical assessment of all patients in the postoperative
period is mandatory to evaluate for hypoplasia and atrophy, which when present, occurs
several months later.
7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
To date, the pediatric surgery literature is devoid of sound evidence on this topic, as there
are no meta-analyses, or randomized or prospective studies. On the contrary, there are
several retrospective studies of single center experiences (2 – 4). The literature demon-
strates that most authors consider laparoscopy the best type of diagnostic exploration in
case of a boy with a NPT (2 –11 – 20,21). Concerning the operative approach, laparoscopic
orchidopexy seems to be better than the open procedure in correctly placing the abdominal
testis in the scrotum, whereas it is difficult to find evidence regarding the best operative
technique to adopt in case of IAT (3 –22). On the basis of several publications reviewed,
we believe that the inner spermatic vessels should be spared whenever possible to guaran-
tee a good vascularization of the testis, and the laparoscopic mobilization of the spermatic
vessels seems a good method to achieve this (21 – 23). In cases of very high IAT, with a
distance between the testis and the IIR .3 – 5 cm, a two-stage laparoscopic FS procedure
is the procedure of choice. If the inner spermatic vessels are very short, a high retroperi-
toneal dissection (as in the LAO procedure) will cause critical tension when pulling the
testis down into the scrotum (11 – 25).
An important criticism of all the reports on NPT published in the international lit-
erature is that most have a short or inaccurate follow-up period, with the patients some-
times followed only by means of clinical examinations. Also, for each procedure there
are sometimes similar results published using different procedures, via laparoscopy, via
open surgery, or via microsurgery; this suggests that each author seems to prefer the
technique adopted by his/her team. This point is very important as, except for the rare
intraoperative complications related to the laparoscopic procedure, problems are rarely
reported. We would like to stress the importance of a proper follow-up to verify the
status and position of the testis and to identify hypoplasia or atrophy related to the pro-
cedure. The authors believe that a well-designed multicenter prospective study with
long-term follow-up is necessary.
REFERENCES
1. Cisek LJ, Peters CA, Atala A, Bauer SB, Diamond DA, Retik AB. Current findings in diagnos-
tic laparoscopic evaluation of the non palpable testis. J Urol 1998; 160:1145 – 1149.
2. Vaysse P. Laparoscopy and impalpable testis A. Prospective multicentric study (232 cases).
Geci Groupe d’etude en Coeliochirurgie infantile. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1994; 4(6):329 – 332.
3. Chang B, Palmer LS, Franco I. Laparoscopic orchidopexy: a review of a large clinical series.
BJU 2001; 87:490– 493
4. Baker LA, Docimo SG, Surer I et al. A multi-istitutional analysis of laparoscopicc orchido-
pexy. Brit J Urol 2001; 87:484– 489.
5. Cortesi N, Ferrari P, Eambarda E, Manenti A, Baldini A, Morano FP. Diagnosis of bilateral
abdominal cryptorchidism by laparoscopy. Endoscopy 1976; 8(1):33 – 34.
6. Bloom DA. Two-step orchiopexy with pelviscopic clip ligation of the spermatic vessels. J Urol
1991; 145:1030 – 1034.
7. Elder JS. Two-stage Fowler – Stephens orchiopexy in the management of intra-abdominal
testes. J Urol 1992; 148:1239– 1242.
8. Fowler R, Stephens FD. The role of testicular vascular anatomy in the salvage of the high
undescended testis. Aust New Zeal J Surg 1959; 29:92 – 96.
9. Caldamone AA, Amaral JF. Laparoscopic stage 2 Fowler – Stephens orchiopexy. J Urol 1994;
152:1253 – 1255.
10. Jordan GH, Winslow BH. Laparoscopic single stage and staged orchiopexy. J Urol 1994;
152:1249 – 1252.
11. Esposito C, Vallone G, Settimi A, Gonzalez Sabin MA, Amici A. Laparoscopic orchiopexy
without division of the spermatic vessels: can it be considered the procedure of choice in
case of intrabdominal testis? Surg Endosc 2000; 7:638– 640.
12. Kirsch AJ, Escala J, Duckett JW, Smith GH, Zderic SA, Canning DA, Snyder HM III. Surgical
management of the nonpalpable testis: the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia experience.
J Urol 1998; 159(4):1340– 1343.
13. Canavese F, Cortese MG, Gennari F, Gesmundo R, Lala R, de Sanctis C, Costantino S. Non
palpable testes: orchiopexy at single stage. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1995; 5:104 – 107.
14. Esposito C, Garipoli V. The value of 2-step laparoscopic Fowler – Stephens orchiopexy for
intra-abdominal testes. J Urol 1997; 158(5):1952– 1954.
15. Law GS, Perez LM, Joseph DB. Two-stage Fowler –Stephens orchiopexy with laparoscopic
clipping of the spermatic vessels. J Urol 1997; 158:1205 – 1209.
16. King LR. Orchiopexy for impalpable testis: high spermatic vessel division is a safe maneuver.
J Urol 1997; 160(6 Pt 2):2457– 2460.
17. Lindgren BW, Darby EC, Faiella L, Brock WA, Reda EF, Levitt SB, Franco I. Laparoscopic
orchiopexy: procedure of choice for the nonpalpable testis? J Urol 1998; 159:2132 – 2135.
18. Poppas DP, Lemack GE. Laparoscopic orchiopexy: clinical experience and description of tech-
nique. J Urol 1996; 155:708– 711.
19. Youngson GG, Jones PF. Management of the impalpable testis: long-term results of the preper-
itoneal approach. J Pediatr Surg 1991; 5:618 – 620.
20. Cortes D, Thorup JM, Lenz K, Beck BL, Nielsen OH. Laparoscopy in 100 consecutive patients
with 128 impalpable testes. Br J Urol 1995; 75(9):281 – 287.
21. Fleet ME, Jones PF, Youngson GG. Emerging trends in the management of the impalpable
testis. Br J Surg 1999; 86(10):1280– 1282.
22. Docimo SG. The results of surgical therapy for cryptorchidism: a literature review and
analysis. J Urol 1995; 154:1148– 1152.
23. Jordan GH. Will laparoscopic orchiopexy replace open surgery for the non palpable
undescended testis? J Urol 1997; 158:1956– 1958.
24. Humphrey GM, Najmaldin AS, Thomas DF. Laparoscopy in the management of the
impalpable undescended testis. Br J Surg 1998; 85:983 – 986.
25. Bachy B, Bawab F, Mitrofanoff P. Testicules inabaissables: abaissement en deux temps ou
technique de Fowler. Chir Pediatr 1987; 28:310 – 313.
25
Lung Biopsy, Lung Resection, and
Pneumothorax
Presbyterian-St. Lukes Hospital, Denver, Colorado, USA
1. Introduction 297
2. Lung Biopsy 298
3. Lobectomy 299
4. Pneumothorax 300
References 301
1. INTRODUCTION
While minimal access surgery (MAS) in infants and children is a relatively new phenom-
enon, thoracoscopy has been performed in adults since the early 1900s (1). Jacobeus first
described its use in 1910 when he reported on a series of thoracoscopic pleural adhenolysis
in patients with tuberculosis using a rigid trocar and a cystoscope. Over the next 50 years
there was limited experience with thoracoscopy and few advances (2). The technique
remained limited to use in adults and consisted only of small biopsies of pleural-based
lesions and limited explorations (3). The complexity of the procedures performed was
restricted because of the simplistic nature of the optic system, light sources, and instru-
mentation. Procedures were limited to a single-port system with a working forceps
inserted through or around the telescope sheath.
The first physician to make significant advances with the use of thoracoscopy in the
pediatric population was Rodgers, who wrote of his initial experience in the mid-1970s
(4). He used slightly modified cystoscopy equipment and newly developed instruments
to perform small biopsies, evaluate intra-thoracic lesions, and perform limited pleural deb-
ridement in the cases of empyema (5,6). While his reports were landmark in nature, there
was very little acceptance in the pediatric surgical community for these techniques. It was
not until the early 1990s with the revolution in surgery that was spawned by the first suc-
cessful reports of laparoscopic cholecystectomy and the technological advances in MAS
technology that thoracoscopy in children gained more interest (7,8).
297
298 Rothenberg
Numerous technological advances facilitated the advancements in pediatric MAS.

These included improved camera systems, light sources, and optics. Also specific pediatric
instrumentation was developed that was shorter (18 – 20 cm) and of smaller diameter
(3 mm). However, a few specifically designed instruments greatly improved the ability
to perform more complex thoracic procedures. The instrument with probably the greatest
impact was the development of an endoscopic linear stapler. This instrument had an
immediate impact on the management of patients with interstitial lung disease and, to a
lesser extent, those with pulmonary metastatic lesions (9). The stapler allowed the
surgeon to obtain large wedges of lung tissue without significant risk of air-leak or bleed-
ing. This instrument along with later development of 5 mm endoscopic clips and various
hemostatic energy devices set the stage for successful completion of even the most
complicated thoracic procedures.
2. LUNG BIOPSY
The first successful thoracoscopic lung biopsies were performed in adults and one of the
first large reports was by Bensard et al. in 1993 (9). They compared thoracoscopic vs. open
lung biopsy in a series of patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD). They showed that the
procedure was relatively easy to perform, was associated with minimal morbidity, and had
a high rate of diagnosis. The morbidity, complication rate, and hospital stay were all less in
the thoracoscopic group.
Unfortunately the linear stapler was too large (12 mm) for many pediatric patients
and made universal application of this technique in small children difficult. A method
using pre-tied ligatures to loop a tongue of lung tissue proved to be equally effective
and required only a 5 mm port. Rothenberg et al. (10) reported the first large series of thor-
acoscopic lung biopsy (TLB) in infants and children in 1996. Adequate tissue for histology
and diagnosis was obtained in 97% of cases and therapy was altered based on the results of
the biopsy in 83% of cases. There were no complications and the average length of stay
was 1.5 days.
Fan et al. (11), in a comparison of transbronchial, open, and thoracoscopic lung
biopsy, further supported the use of thoracoscopic lung biopsy as a diagnostic tool in chil-
dren with ILD. They showed that the highest diagnostic yield and lowest morbidity was in
the group undergoing TLB. Similar results have been demonstrated in the use of TLB for
metastatic pulmonary nodules. There is a large volume of evidence in the adult thoracic
literature supporting thoracoscopic resection of single pulmonary metastasis. Swanson
et al. (12) reported a large series of patients with suspect pulmonary nodules. They
found that the sensitivity and specificity of TLB in this situation approached 100%. The
morbidity was low in this group and the length of stay was less then three days. Similarly,
Ginsberg et al. (13) from Memorial Sloan-Kettering had similar results in 426 patients.
While their conversion rate was relatively high (25%), the operative mortality was very
low (0.25%) and there was only one port site recurrence. There is larger controversy
about this approach when there is more than one nodule, but most authors and series
are relatively supportive of using this approach if there are only two to four nodules.
There is still little long-term data to document outcomes in these patients.
Similar results have been documented in the pediatric population in dealing with
pulmonary metastasis. In a series reported by Holcomb et al. (14) for the Children’s
Cancer Study Group, diagnostic material was obtained in 97% of cases. However, this
was an early series from multiple institutions and the complication rate and conversion
rate were 10%. Rothenberg reported similar accuracy of 98% with no complications
Lung Biopsy, Resection, and Pneumothorax 299
and a conversion rate of only 3% (15). These series, as well as others, report success rates
for lesions approaching 1 cm in diameter and which are relatively peripheral as 100%.
Smaller lesions, especially those ,0.5 cm or those deep in the parenchyma, are more dif-
ficult to identify thoracoscopically. This problem has been addressed to some degree by
the use of CT-guided preoperative localization with either a pleural patch (blood or
dye) or needle localization. A report by Smith et al. (16) documented success rates of
.90% using these techniques.
The real disadvantage of TLB in metastatic disease is the inability to palpate the
lung to detect unsuspected lesions. As yet neither intraoperative ultrasound nor any
other imaging modality is sensitive enough to identify small parenchymal lesions,
which are not pleural based and easily visualized. Significant controversy exists over
whether undetected lesions are being left behind when only a thoracoscopic approach is
being used, especially in cases of osteogenic sarcoma. The question is whether or not
this will affect long-term survival. Most reports are anecdotal and there are no good
studies to decide the controversy at this time.
Smith et al. (16) reported on an 8 year experience of thoracoscopy in pediatric oncol-
ogy patients including resection of isolated lesions in patients with osteosarcoma. In this
relatively large series from one institution there is no difference in recurrence or survival
in this group of patients. However, further follow-up and review will be required before
any meaningful conclusion can be reached. What is clear in all of these studies is that
the procedure has an excellent diagnostic yield and much lower morbidity than the
traditional open lung biopsy.
3. LOBECTOMY
There are relatively few reports in the pediatric surgical literature concerning more exten-
sive resections such as lobectomy or segmentectomy. There are more reports in the adult
thoracic literature and the results are generally favorable. These procedures are more tech-
nically difficult and require that the surgeon have very advanced dissecting and suturing
skills. Therefore the results may differ considerably, based on the experience of the
surgeon.
Many of these procedures have been performed using a combination of thoraco-
scopic ports and a mini-thoracotomy. However, with the development of improved instru-
mentation and energy sources for vessel ligation and tissue sealing, many can now be
performed completely endoscopically.
The early reports, primarily in adult lung cancer patients, showed significantly
longer operative times and conversion rates of 15 – 25% (17,18). However, the patients
had a lower postoperative morbidity and a quicker recovery. Kirby et al. (19) compared
video-assisted (VATS) lobectomy with a muscle-sparing thoracotomy and found signifi-
cant advantages to the VATS approach. There was a significantly less postoperative
pain and hospital stays where decreased on the average by 20%. McKenna et al. (20)
showed similar results in patients undergoing lobectomy and mediastinal lymph node dis-
section. More recent studies have also suggested VATS lobectomy is also associated with
a significantly reduced postoperative release of cytokines compared to a traditional open
approach (21). This maybe a factor in the decreased morbidity associated with this group
of patients. These studies all suggest that VATS lobectomy is preferable to open thoracot-
omy in selected adult patients with primary lung cancer.
The majority of pediatric patients requiring lobectomy are not oncology patients
but instead have congenital lung lesions or infectious complications, such as severe
300 Rothenberg
bronchiectasis. The issues in pediatric patients are more variable because of the varied
etiology of the pathology and the size of the patients. Many of the instruments that
were critical in the successful development of VATS lung resections in adults, such as
the endoscopic stapler, have no role in smaller infants and children, since the stapler’s
cartridge often spans the entire width of the infant’s hemithorax. This has required the
development of alternate techniques, as well as instruments, to provide hemostasis and
tissue sealing. The Ligasurew (Valleylab; Boulder, CO) is a 5 mm curved bipolar
sealing device that can seal vessels up to 7 mm in size and can also seal lung parenchyma,
which is quite useful when there is an incomplete fissure.
The first reported large series (n ¼ 113) of thoracoscopic pulmonary procedures in
infants and children was by Rothenberg in 2000 (15). The vast majority of these were pul-
monary biopsies and wedge resections. Lobectomies were performed with a hybrid
approach of thoracoscopy and mini-thoracotomy. This was before the advent of the
Ligasurew. In 2003, Rothenberg (22) and Albanese (23) independently reported relatively
large series of completely thoracoscopic lobectomies, mainly for congenital lung lesions.
The majority of these are lower lobe resections, which are technically less difficult. In
Rothenberg’s series of 45 patients, the mean operating time for the three-port procedure
was 125 min. There was one conversion to an open procedure due to an intraoperative
complication related to application of the endoGIA stapler. The mean hospital stay was
2.4 days. Albanese’s series comprised 14 patients, all of whom had a prenatal diag-
nosis of cystic adenomatoid malformation (12) or sequestration (2), with a mean age of
6 months at operation. There were no conversions to the open procedure and no intra-
operative complications. Follow-up ranged from 4 to 35 months. The results of these
studies compare quite favorably with standard open technique. This does not take into
account the long-term benefits of avoiding a thoracotomy early in life, which is known
to be associated with a higher incidence of shoulder girdle weakness and scoliosis (24).
4. PNEUMOTHORAX
Pneumothorax is a relatively common problem in adults and children occurring in 8 per

100,000, and is one that is well suited to treatment by thoracoscopy. The etiology in chil-
dren and adolescents is generally a small subpleural bleb that ruptures and causes the air
leak. This may or may not be associated with more significant parenchymal disease such as
cystic fibrosis, or in older patients, emphysema. Standard therapy has consisted of chest
tube placement with some type of surgical intervention if the air leak persists for more
than 5– 7 days, or earlier intervention in cases of recurrence.
Procedures routinely employed have included various types of chemical or talc
pleurodesis, mechanical abrasion, pleurectomy, and bleb resection. These types of inter-
ventions are well suited to a thoracoscopic approach. The endoscopic linear stapler
allows for easy resection of apical blebs and in smaller patients pre-tied suture ligatures
(Endo-loops) can be used to snare and ligate the bleb. Electrocautery and laser have
also been used to obliterate smaller blebs. Pleural irritants are easily inserted via the endo-
scopic ports and apical pleurectomy can be performed without significant difficulty.
One of the first reports on the thoracoscopic treatment of spontaneous pneumothorax
in adults was by Hazelrigg et al. (25). They performed stapled bleb resections and pleural
abrasion with minimal morbidity and recurrence. There have since been numerous reports
in adults with recurrence rates of 0– 12% (26,27). There has been no mortality and the pro-
cedure is associated with the same decreased morbidity and recovery as other thoraco-
scopic procedures. The only randomized study between thoracotomy and thoracoscopy
Lung Biopsy, Resection, and Pneumothorax 301
was reported by Waller et al. (28). This study showed a VATS approach to be superior in
patients with primary spontaneous pneumothoracies, but was associated with a higher
recurrence in patients with secondary pneumothorax.
There are only a few reports dealing with this subject in the pediatric literature (29).
The largest is by Rodgers et al. (30) and involves 27 cases over 12 years. There were no
operative complications and there were two recurrences (7.4%), which were treated by
repeat thoracoscopy. These studies suggest that thoracoscopic management of spon-
taneous pneumothorax is the preferable method of treatment.
The one question which has not been adequately answered is the timing of interven-
tion. Most standard approaches involve the initial placement of a chest tube with surgical
intervention if an air leak persists after a few days. However, chest tube placement in a
child often involves significant sedation at times with general anesthesia. The question
then arises, since thoracoscopy adds little morbidity, whether or not VATS should be
used at the time of initial presentation in order to expedite the patient’s care, shorten
hospital stay, and decrease the need for a second surgical intervention.
REFERENCES
1. Jacobeus HC. The practical importance of thoracoscopy in surgery of the chest. Surg Gynecol
Obstet 1921; 4:289 – 296.
2. Bloomberg HE. Thoracoscopy in perspective. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1978; 147:433 –443.
3. Page RD, Jeffrey RR, Donnelly RJ. Thoracoscopy. A review of 121 consecutive surgical
procedures. Ann Thoracic Surg 1989; 48:66– 68.
4. Rodgers BM, Moazam F, Talbert JL. Thoracoscopy in children. Ann Surg 1979; 189:176 – 180.
5. Ryckman FC, Rodgers BM. Thoracoscopy for intra-thoracic neoplasia in children. J Pediatr
Surg 1982; 17:521 –524.
6. Kern JA, Rodgers MB. Thoracoscopy in the management of empyema in children. J Pediatr
Surg 1993; 28:1128 –1132.
7. Rodgers BM. Pediatric thoracoscopy. Where have we come, what have we learned? Ann
Thoracic Surg 1993; 56:704 – 707.
8. Rothenberg SS. Thoracoscopy in infants and children. Semin Pediatr Surg 1994; 3:277– 288.
9. Bensard DB, McIntyre RC, Waring BJ et al. Comparison of video thoracoscopic biopsy to open
lung biopsy in the diagnosis of interstitial lung disease. Chest 1993; 103:765 – 770.
10. Rothenberg SS, Wagener JS, Chang JHT et al. The safety and efficacy of thoracoscopic
lung biopsy for the diagnosis and treatment in infants and children. J Pediatr Surg 1996;
31:100 – 104.
11. Fan LL, Kozinetz CA, Wojtczak HA et al. Diagnostic value of transbronchial, thoracoscopic,
and open lung biopsy in immunocompetent children with interstitial lung disease. J Pediatr
1997; 133:565 – 568.
12. Swanson SJ, Jaklitsch MT, Mentzer SJ et al. Management of the solitary pulmonary nodule:
the role of thoracoscopy in diagnosis and therapy. Chest 1999; 116:523S – 524S.
13. Ginsberg MS, Griff SK, Go BD et al. Pulmonary nodules resected at video-assisted thoraco-
scopic surgery: etiology in 426 patients. Radiology 1999; 213:277 – 282.
14. Holcomb GW, Tomita SS, Hasse GM et al. Minimally invasive surgery in children with cancer.
Cancer 1995; 76:121 – 128.
15. Rothenberg SS. Thoracoscopic lung resection in children. J Pediatr Surg 2000; 35:271– 275.
16. Smith TJ, Rothenberg SS, Brooks M. Thoracoscopic surgery in childhood cancer. J Pediatr
Hematol Oncol 2002; 24:429 – 435.
17. McKenna RJ. Lobectomy by video-assisted thoracic surgery with mediastinal node sampling.
J Thoracic Cardiovasc Surg 1994; 107:879 – 882.
302 Rothenberg
18. Walker WS. Video-assisted thoracic surgery. Pulmonary lobectomy. Semin Laparoscopic Surg
1996; 3:233 – 244.
19. Kirby TJ, Mack MJ, Landreneau RJ et al. Lobectomy—video-assisted thoracic surgery
versus muscle sparing thoracotomy. A randomized trial. J Thoracic Cardiovasc Surg 1995;
109:619 – 626.
20. McKeena RJ. Lobectomy by video-assisted thoracic surgery with mediastinal lymph node
sampling. J Thoracic Cardiovasc Surg 1994; 107:879– 882.
21. Nagahiro I, Andou A, Aoe M et al. Pulmonary function, post-operative pain, and serum cyto-
kine level after lobectomy: a comparison of VATS and conventional procedure. Ann Thoracic
Surg 2001; 72:362 –365.
22. Rothenberg SS. Experience with thoracoscopic lobectomy in infants and children. J Pediatr
Surg 2003; 38:102 –104.
23. Albanese CT, Sydorak RM, Tsao K, Lee H. Thoracoscopic lobectomy for prenatally diagnosed
lung lesions. J Pediatr Surg 2003; 38:553 – 555.
24. Rothenberg SS, Pokorny WJ. Experience with a total muscle-sparing approach for thoraco-
tomies in neonates, infants, and children. J Pediatr Surg 1992; 27(8):1157– 1159.
25. Hazelrigg SR, Landreneau RJ, Mack M et al. Thoracoscopic stapled resection for spontaneous
pneumothorax. J Thoracic Cardiovasc Surg 1993; 105:389 – 393.
26. Weissberg D, Refaely Y. Pneumothorax: experience with 1199 patients. Chest 2000;
117:1279 – 1285.
27. Waller DA. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery for spontaneous pneumothorax: a seven year
learning experience. Ann Royal College Surg Engl 1999; 81:387– 392.
28. Waller DA, Forty J, Morrit GN. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery versus thoracotomy for
spontaneous pneumothorax. Ann Thoracic Surg 1994; 105:372 – 377.
29. Stringel G, Amen NS, Dozar AJ. Video-assisted thoracoscopy in the management of recurrent
spontaneous pneumothorax in the pediatric population. J Soc Laparoendosc Surgeons 1999;
3:113 – 116.
30. Rodgers BM, Burns RC, McGahren ED. Thoracoscopy for treatment of spontaneous
pneumothorax in children. Pediatr Endosurg Innov Tech 2001; 5:101– 107.
26
Minimal Access Surgery in the
Management of Empyema
Brian Cameron
McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
1. Introduction 303
2. Principles of Empyema Management 303
3. Fibrinolytic Therapy 305
4. The Evolution of Surgical Approaches to Empyema Drainage 305
5. Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Debridement for Empyema 306
5.1. Safety and Effectiveness of VATD 306
5.2. Comparison of VATD with Thoracotomy for Empyema 309
5.3. VATD as First-Line Treatment for Empyema 310
6. Conclusions 310
References 311
1. INTRODUCTION
The principle of adequate closed drainage for pleural empyema has been a surgical axiom
since the early 1900s. Sir William Osler identified the importance of pleural drainage for
empyema, but ironically succumbed to inadequately drained pleural sepsis (1).
Many surgeons are now using video-assisted thoracoscopy to treat empyema. There
are a number of studies documenting its safety and effectiveness in children, and evidence
has accumulated that thoracoscopy can replace thoracotomy when empyema debridement
is indicated in adults (2). Although it is being used more liberally, thoracoscopy remains
controversial as the initial treatment for all children with empyema. This chapter will
delineate the principles behind the management of children with empyema and review
current evidence for the use of minimal access surgery in this disease.
2. PRINCIPLES OF EMPYEMA MANAGEMENT
Most empyemas in children arise as a complication of a parapneumonic pleural effusion,

usually secondary to streptococcal or other bacterial forms of pneumonia. Others may
303
304 Cameron
follow surgery or trauma or may be associated with underlying lung or gastrointestinal

pathology.
Pneumonia with parapneumonic effusion is typically managed with appropriate
intravenous antibiotics, physiotherapy, and oxygen as needed. Thoracentesis is indicated
for a large, symptomatic or loculated effusion and can help to determine whether the fluid
is a transudate or an exudate. An exudative effusion, with or without identifiable bacteria,
is equivalent to an empyema, “pus in the pleural space.” An exudative effusion has low
glucose (,2 mmol/L), low pH (,7.2), and high LDH (.1000 IU/L), and the presence
of leukocytes (3). Bacteria, usually gram-positive cocci, may be identified on Gram
stain or by culture.
The natural history of undrained empyema can be classified into three stages:
1—exudative, 2—fibrinopurulent, and 3—organizing (4). The transition from exudative
to fibrinopurulent empyema may occur within a few days, whereas the organizing phase
may persist for weeks. When undrained, the empyema either resolves or can lead to
chronic complications such as sepsis, bronchopleural fistula, and erosion into neigh-
bouring vital structures or through the chest wall. Death from empyema is rare in the
antibiotic era.
Early and adequate drainage of empyema allows lung re-expansion, promotes
normal pulmonary function, restores normal mobility of the chest wall and diaphragm,
reduces the length of illness and hospital stay, and minimizes the associated morbidity
of treatment (5). Traditionally, this has been done with thoracentesis or thoracostomy tube.
The presence of loculations predicts a poorer prognosis with chest tube drainage
alone (6). Ultrasound and CT scan may be useful in identifying loculations and pleural
thickening (Figs. 26.1 and 26.2), although the CT scan does not reliably differentiate
empyema from transudative effusion (7).
When fever and loculated empyema persist in spite of chest tube drainage, the
current options for further treatment are (a) intrapleural instillation of fibrinolytics,
(b) thoracotomy with pleural debridement or decortication, or (c) video-assisted pleural
debridement.
Figure 26.1 Ultrasound of loculated pleural effusion.

MAS in Empyema Management 305
Figure 26.2 CT scan confirming loculated empyema.
3. FIBRINOLYTIC THERAPY
Pleural instillation of fibrinolytics, such as urokinase and streptokinase, has been used to
either forestall or prevent the need for decortication, or as an adjunct to surgical debride-
ment or decortication in children (8 –10). A Cochrane review found three randomized
controlled studies of intrapleural fibrinolytics for empyema in adults (11). The pooled
data found small benefits with fibrinolytics, but insufficient evidence to support their
routine use. The risks of allergic reactions may outweigh the potential benefits of strepto-
kinase, and urokinase is currently unavailable because of concerns about its safety.
In some centers, TPA has now become the fibrinolytic of choice (JC. Langer, personal
communication).
4. THE EVOLUTION OF SURGICAL APPROACHES TO

EMPYEMA DRAINAGE
Prior to the advent of antibiotics, the major innovation in empyema treatment was the
introduction of closed pleural drainage, which decreased the mortality rate from 60% to
10% (12). Since then, chest tubes connected to closed drainage systems have become
the standard of care. Open drainage is still preferred by some physicians for longstanding
chronic empyema when the lung is no longer at risk of collapse and may allow outpatient
follow-up.
Empyema patients with chest tubes who have persistent fever, toxicity, and inac-
cessible undrained or loculated empyema over many weeks have been traditionally
treated with surgical decortication and pleurectomy to evacuate the empyema and
remove its “peel” (5,13,14). This is usually accomplished through a standard postero-
lateral thoracotomy and may require rib resection for adequate exposure. Open decortica-
tion is bloody, and transfusion is frequently required. Because of the high accompanying
morbidity, the operation may be delayed and prolong hospitalization hoping that the
empyema will resolve without surgery. One review of 70 children with stage 2 or 3
306 Cameron
empyema found that 70% required surgical intervention and that a delay in surgery was
associated with more procedures, more radiographs, and an increased length of stay in
hospital (15).
Proponents of early aggressive surgical drainage have decreased the postoperative
morbidity of thoracotomy by using a muscle-sparing thoracotomy or limited mini-
thoracotomy for pleural debridement. This approach depends on accurate localization of
the empyema and the blind educated digit to clean out the cavity (16). The success and
lower morbidity of early mini-thoracotomy led to its wider acceptance. There is evidence
from two retrospective studies using historical controls that this approach has decreased
the overall morbidity by allowing earlier recovery and averting subsequent full decortica-
tions (17,18).
5. VIDEO-ASSISTED THORACOSCOPIC DEBRIDEMENT

FOR EMPYEMA
Pleuroscopy was invented early in the 20th century, but had to await improvements in
optical telescopes to become more widely utilized. Dr. Stephen Gans led the development
of the Hopkins rod-lens telescope in the early 1970s and was the first to apply this tech-
nology to visualization of intrathoracic pathology in children (19). The addition of
video-enhancement technology in the 1980s made thoracoscopy more practical and it is
now widely available.
The procedure is done in the operating room with the patient intubated under general
anesthetic. The child is placed in the lateral decubitus position with the affected hemithorax
up. Single lung ventilation will often not be tolerated or necessary, and positive pressure
pleural insufflation is generally not required. The initial port is placed at the anterior axil-
lary line through the fifth or sixth interspace, using blunt technique. If a chest tube has pre-
viously been placed, the chest tube site can be used for the initial camera port. It is useful to
make the initial opening into the pleural space large enough to accommodate the surgeon’s
finger to facilitate exposure and debridement. A flexible port may be used, through which
the angled telescope is inserted. The consolidated lung may not collapse, and visualization
can be awkward. Once some initial adhesions are cleared, one or two more 5 mm ports can
be inserted under direct vision. The process of breaking down loculations and debridement
of fibrinous exudate is facilitated by blunt thoracoscopic graspers, suction/irrigator, and
ovum forceps (Figs. 26.3 –26.6). This avoids some of the practical difficulties of using
only 5 mm instruments. After removing as much of the empyema as possible, the pleural
space should be examined especially laterally and inferiorly to ensure that all loculated
fluid pockets are opened and drained and the pleural space is irrigated generously with
saline. One or two chest tubes are placed dependently, and the lung is re-expanded. The
procedure usually takes at least an hour or more depending on the amount of pleural
disease. The chest tube is removed usually within 4 –5 days (Fig. 26.7).
The potential complications of thoracoscopy are the same as for thoracotomy, with
bleeding and bronchopleural fistula reported complicating pediatric video-assisted thora-
coscopic debridement (VATD) (20).
5.1. Safety and Effectiveness of VATD

Anecdotal reports of the use of thoracoscopy to treat empyema were published in the dis-
cussion of Raffensperger’s 1992 paper (16). The first pediatric case series published in 1992
by Kern and Rogers reviewed a 10-year successful experience of treating nine children with
Figure 26.3 Video-thoracoscopy of pleural loculations.
empyema using thoracoscopy (21). Other pediatric centers quickly followed with reports
of small case series demonstrating the safety and effectiveness of VATD for empyema
(22 –27).
One dissenting report documented an unsuccessful experience using VATD for
empyema in seven children, five of who required a thoracotomy (28). The reasons for
VATD failure included thick loculations, difficulty aspirating through a 5 mm suction,
Figure 26.4 Fibrinopurulent stage of empyema.

308 Cameron
Figure 26.5 Pleural irrigation under video-thoracoscopic guidance.
Figure 26.6 Gelatinous fibrinopurulent pleural debris removed by VATD.

Figure 26.7 Minimal scarring 1 month after VATD.
bleeding, stiff pneumonic lung preventing access, and thick hard pleura. Some of these dif-
ficulties may have been because of advanced disease and the learning curve of the procedure.
Variations in the reported success rates with VATD can be attributed to inconsis-
tency in definitions and indications for surgery. Some reports refer to “decortication”
(removal of the visceral pleura with the empyema peel of an organizing empyema)
when the described procedure was in fact pleural debridement of the empyema at an
earlier fibrinopurulent stage. Few studies record the duration of symptoms and effusion
prior to intervention, but most agree that surgery is technically easier during the fibrino-
purulent stage and that VATD may not even be indicated for the organized stage.
5.2. Comparison of VATD with Thoracotomy for Empyema

Prior to the advent of thoracoscopy, the high failure rate of chest tube drainage for stage 2
fibrinopurulent empyema prompted some surgeons to advocate earlier thoracotomy for
nonresolving empyema. Video-assisted thoracoscopy allowing direct inspection of the
pleural space, and visualization of surgical maneuvers has quickly supplanted thoraco-
tomy for empyema without the evidence of randomized prospective trials. A few studies
have used historical controls to compare VATD with limited thoracotomy for patients with
fibrinopurulent empyema.
One report compared 22 children with empyema treated by VATD with 17 historical
controls treated by thoracotomy (20). The VATD group was also treated at an earlier
stage of disease. The VATD group had significantly fewer blood transfusions, shorter dur-
ation of postoperative fever, shorter duration of postoperative chest tube drainage, lower
amount of postoperative analgesia, and shorter postoperative length of hospital stay. Two
310 Cameron
VATD patients were converted to open thoracotomy to allow lung resection for paren-
chymal necrosis and bronchopleural fistula.
5.3. VATD as First-Line Treatment for Empyema

The overall rate of operative treatment is obviously greater when VATD is used liberally,
which has raised concern that some of the operations might not be necessary since many
empyemas ultimately resolve. With the establishment of its safety and effectiveness,
VATD has evolved from being a delayed second-line treatment used only after traditional
chest tube drainage has failed to being a primary first-line treatment used at the time the
empyema is diagnosed.
Because the stage of empyema and presence of loculations may be difficult to deter-
mine at the outset, some centers now advocate early VATD at the time of the initial chest
tube placement (29 – 31). Placement of the initial chest tube under general anesthetic is
better tolerated in an anxious child and allows VATD to be done at the same time.
One prospective randomized controlled study of stage 2 fibrinopurulent empyema in
20 adults compared primary VATD with chest tube drainage and intrapleural fibrinolytics
(32). Primary VATD was associated with significantly greater efficacy and shorter hospital
duration. However, all fibrinolytic treatment failures were salvaged with VATD.
Others have found that not all empyemas that fail chest tube and fibrinolytic treat-
ment can be cured with VATD. A large series compared 41 children with parapneumonic
effusions treated by primary VATD with 98 historical controls treated with primary chest
tube drainage (29). No child in the primary VATD group required a thoracotomy, and the
duration of chest tube drainage and hospital stay were significantly shorter in the VATD
group than in the historical controls. However, 38/98 children whose empyema did not
resolve with chest tube drainage required delayed VATD and three of these ultimately
needed a thoracotomy.
If VATD is used to salvage chest tube failures, it is important to intervene early. One
series of 21 children with empyema treated by VATD concluded that VATD was most
likely to succeed when undertaken within a week of diagnosis of an exudative effusion
(33). There is no convincing evidence that undertaking VATD at the time of the initial
chest tube placement for a parapneumonic effusion has any advantage over waiting
several days to see whether the chest tube alone leads to rapid clinical resolution.
Potential disadvantages of undertaking routine early VATD are the extra-anesthetic
morbidity and operating room procedure costs. One series looked at the costs incurred with
VATD and found that the overall hospital charges with primary VATD were less than the
charges when VATD was reserved for failures of conventional chest tube drainage (34).
The initial costs of a protocol in which VATD is used liberally for early empyema are
greater, but are offset by shorter hospital stays and fewer thoracotomies.
The accumulating evidence has led one institution to introduce a critical pathway
that selects children for VATD based on either early identification of loculated pleural
fluid by ultrasound or failure of chest tube drainage. This protocol has led to an average
hospital stay of only 4 –5 days and decreased cost when compared with historical controls
and a national children’s hospital database (35).
6. CONCLUSIONS
VATD is a safe and effective modality to treat fibrinopurulent empyema. The advantages
over thoracotomy include smaller incisions, less pain, and less interference with
pulmonary mechanics. It is most likely to be successful when undertaken early in the

disease process within a week of the diagnosis. Early VATD can decrease the likelihood
of open decortication and its attendant morbidity of thoracotomy, transfusion, and pro-
longed hospitalization. Although early VATD appears to be more effective than intra-
pleural fibrinolytics in treating fibrinopurulent empyema, there is some evidence that
routine VATD at the time of initial chest tube insertion for loculated parapneumonic effu-
sion shortens hospital stay and is cost effective. Controlled studies looking at the role of
newer fibrinolytics and the morbidity and cost-benefit of routine primary use of VATD for
pediatric empyema are needed.
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27
Mediastinum, Esophagus, and Diaphragm
Presbyterian-St. Lukes Hospital, Denver, Colorado, USA
The application of thoracoscopic techniques in the treatment of various lung diseases has
already been discussed. The same advances which have allowed surgeons to approach the
most complex lung pathology using minimal access surgery (MAS) techniques has also
expanded the indications in other intrathoracic lesions involving the mediastinum and
esophagus. Standard approaches to the mediastinum and esophagus have included medias-
tinoscopy, anterior thoracotomy, sternotomy, and posterolateral thoracotomy. Each tech-
nique has its advantages and limitations but all can be associated with significant
morbidity and recovery. The least invasive approach to the anterior mediastinum, medias-
tinoscopy, is severely limited by the degree of access and control it allows the surgeon, and
the visual field is extremely confined. This procedure allows the surgeon to perform only
limited evaluations and biopsies of the paratracheal space and is a difficult technique to
master. Anterior thoracotomy provides greater access but the visual field is still signifi-
cantly limited. The greatest advantage of these approaches is that they allow the
surgeon to stay extrapleural. However, if bleeding or other problems are encountered
the surgeon has little choice but to hope the bleeding tamponades or to perform a sternot-
omy. Posterolateral thoracotomy and sternotomy greatly improve the surgeons’ access and
visualization but both have significant morbidity and recovery.
With minimal morbidity (1), thoracoscopy provides much better visualization and
access to the anterior and posterior mediastinum than the aforementioned open
approaches. Through three or four small ports, the surgeon can access anywhere from
the thoracic inlet to the diaphragm with excellent visualization. This allows for critical
evaluation of mediastinal structure as well as diagnostic or therapeutic procedures. The
theoretical disadvantage of a transpleural approach seems to far outway the disadvantages
of the limited access provided by other techniques.
There are now numerous reports in the adult and pediatric literature that support the
use of thoracoscopy in the evaluation and treatment of anterior mediastinal structures. Early
reports in the adult literature (2–4) documented the safety and efficacy of this approach for
diagnosis and treatment of solid and cystic lesions. The sensitivity in diagnosing lymphoma,
teratoma, and other malignancies approached 100% with little associated morbidity. The
greater visual field also aided in the staging of primary lung malignancies because the
entire hilum as well as the paratracheal area can be accessed. Gosset et al. (5) compared thor-
acoscopy with mediastinoscopy for biopsy of mediastinal tumors and found thoracoscopy to
313
314 Rothenberg
be more accurate with no greater morbidity. Later reports documented success with more
aggressive therapeutic procedures such as resection of thymic cysts and tumors, thyroid
lesions, teratomas, and other solid tumors (6). The conversion rate to sternotomy has
been documented at 0% to 20% and appears to be associated in some degree to the experi-
ence of the surgeon. There have been no documented deaths, and the same benefits of
decreased recovery and pain as seen with other MAS procedures. A similar experience
has been documented with posterior mediastinal tumors, primarily neurogenic, in adults.
Reardon et al. (7) and Liu et al. (8) have reported large series with successful resection of
ganglioneuromas with few complications and no recurrences reported to date. In one of
the few comparative studies of open vs. a thoracoscopic approach for mediastinal masses,
Bousamra et al. (9) reviewed the management of benign neurogenic tumors. He found
that operative times were moderately longer in the thoracoscopy group (171 vs. 112 min)
but hospital stay (2.6 vs. 4.5 days) and return to work (4.3 vs. 7.7 weeks) were significantly
shorter. Often the biggest challenge in dealing with these lesions is their size and extracting
them after resection. Generally, these lesions can be placed in a sac and brought out piece-
meal through an enlarged trocar site without compromising the integrity of the procedure or
the pathologist’s ability to accurately analyze them.
A similar experience has been documented in the pediatric population. Lesions most
appropriate for primary resection in the anterior mediastinum include teratomas, thymic
masses, and aberrant thyroid tissue. In the posterior mediastinum foregut duplications,
ganglioneuromas and neuroblastomas are the masses most commonly encountered.
These are generally amenable to complete resection or biopsy, when indicated. The first
report of thoracoscopic evaluation of these lesions was by Rodgers et al. (10) in the
early 1980s. Even with very rudimentary equipment he was able to approach 100% speci-
ficity and sensitivity in obtaining adequate tissue for diagnosis. He also noted that more
extensive disease than expected was found in 45% of patients, supporting the use of thor-
acoscopy over mediastinoscopy or mini-thoracotomy. After this there were only a few
case reports and limited series until the late 1990s and 2000. Partrick and Rothenberg
(11) have reported the single largest series of mediastinal masses treated by thoracoscopy
in children. This study included 39 anterior and posterior mediastinal masses. Ninety-
seven percent of the procedures were completed successfully and diagnosis was obtained
in 100%. Postoperative morbidity and recovery were favorable when compared with open
thoracotomy. Sandoval and Stringel (12) and Moffat et al. (13) documented similar results
in a smaller series of primarily diagnostic thoracoscopies. The sensitivity was 100% and
there were two conversions to an open procedure
There are two large studies (14,15) documenting the use of thoracoscopy in pediatric
oncology patients. Both report 100% diagnostic accuracy with thoracoscopic biopsy of
anterior and posterior mediastinal tumors with no operative complications. Posterior
tumors, especially ganglioneuromas, were easily excised with little morbidity and short
hospital stays and recovery periods. These reports suggest that thoracoscopy should be
the procedure of choice in children with mediastinal disease. However, because thor-
acoscopy requires at least partial collapse of the lung on the ipsilateral side, attempted
resection of a giant anterior tumor with evidence of respiratory compromise, is a contra-
indication to this approach.
Case reports and small series over the last decade suggest that bronchogenic cysts
and esophageal duplications are particularly suited for thoracoscopic resection. In
general, these lesions may share a common wall with the native esophagus or trachea,
but rarely there is a communication between the two structures. Resections can be
achieved bloodlessly without the need for complicated reconstruction. Several reports
(11,16,17) demonstrated that these lesions can be resected with minimal morbidity
Mediastinum, Esophagus, and Diaphragm 315
(,5%), reasonable operative times (,2 h), and shorter hospital stays (range 1 – 2 days).
The only significant complication reported was the recurrence of a bronchogenic cyst
that was incompletely excised (17).
The other disease worth separate mention is total thymectomy for myasthenia
gravis. Thoracoscopy provides superior access and visualization compared with the
open cervical approach, and avoids the morbidity of a sternotomy in a patient with wea-
kened respiratory muscles. One of the initial reports in adults by Mack et al. (18) con-
firmed the benefits of this approach exhibiting minimal complications. Thirty-three
consecutive thoracoscopic thymectomies were performed with only one conversion to
open. The mean hospital stay was 3 days and there was clinical improvement in 88%.
In children, Kogut et al. (19) reported the largest series of thoracoscopic thymectomies
for myasthenia gravis. In 10 patients, there were no intra- or postoperative complications,
and the mean operating time was 114 min. All patients were extubated at the end of the
procedure and discharged on the first postoperative day. After an average of 10 months
follow-up, all patients were off their medications and symptom-free. The one serious com-
plication of this operation is injury to the phrenic nerve. It is easily visualized on the side
ipsilateral to the thoracoscope (left) but not on the contralateral side. The surgeon must
take care to avoid either direct or indirect injury to this structure during the dissection.
Phrenic nerve injury has also been reported following the open transcervical and
median-sternotomy techniques, so the same care must be exerted in all approaches.
In addition to foregut duplications, there are two other esophageal lesions in children
that have been dealt with using MAS. This includes achalasia and esophageal atresia. The
debate as to whether an abdominal approach or a thoracic approach for achalasia is a long
standing one and the application of MAS has not changed that. Both laparoscopy and thor-
acoscopy provide excellent access to the lower third of the esophagus and the myotomy
can be performed without significant difficulty. The most important technical point is to
extend the myotomy adequately through the gastroesophageal junction in order to
prevent an incomplete myotomy. The real point of controversy is whether an antireflux
procedure needs to be performed at the same time as the myotomy. Reports by Patti
et al. (20) suggest that the incidence of reflux postmyotomy reaches 80%. Albanese and
coworkers (21) and Rothenberg et al. (22) have reported similar findings in the pediatric
population. The specifics of this are discussed in another chapter.
The last esophageal lesion common to pediatric surgery is the treatment of esopha-
geal atresia. The application of MAS techniques to this disease process is still in its infancy
and the number of patients treated and their outcomes are too small to derive definitive
conclusions. The first report of a successful repair was of a pure esophageal atresia by
Lobe et al. (23) in 2000. This child had a long gap, which had been dilated antegrade
and retrograde for 3 months. The procedure took 4 h and the patient had a stricture
that eventually resolved with dilatation. The first tracheoesophageal fistula repair was
reported the next year (24). Rothenberg (25) reported the first series of eight patients in
2001. The mean operating time was 90 min and there were no operative complications.
One patient developed a leak that resolved spontaneously on postoperative day 8.
Seven patients were started on feeds on postoperative day 5. Three patients required
at least one anastomotic dilatation. In 2002, Bax and van der Zee (26) published a
series of eight patients, all of whom had a tracheoesophageal fistula, and had an uncom-
plicated thoracoscopic operation in a mean of 198 min. There was one leak that closed
without reoperation and four anastomotic strictures that required dilation. Feeds were
begun a median of eight days after surgery. No long-term follow-up was reported. That
same year, Martinez-Ferro et al. (27) reported their first consecutive nine patients who
underwent primary thoracoscopic repair of esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal
316 Rothenberg
fistula. There were no intraoperative complications and no conversion to an open procedure;

the mean operating time was 105 min. There were two leaks and three strictures at the ana-
stomosis, all of which were successfully treated nonoperatively. Although the four reports
do not provide firm conclusions, the results are promising. The greatest advantage is the
avoidance of a posterolateral thoracotomy incision in infancy with its associated incidence
of scoliosis, chest wall asymmetry, and shoulder girdle weakness (28). Clearly, further
evaluation and follow-up will be necessary before definitive conclusions can be made.
The other structure amenable to intervention by thoracoscopy is the diaphragm.
Evaluation of traumatic injury to the diaphragm using thoracoscopy was documented as
early as the 1940s (29). In the early 1980s, Jones et al. (30) reported the first large
series of 36 patients. The sensitivity of this approach is .95% with little morbidity.
More interventional procedures to the diaphragm were documented in the mid-1990s.
There were case reports of both congenital and traumatic diaphragmatic hernia repair
using a thoracoscopic approach in children and adults (31,32). Using the laparoscope,
Hendrickson et al. (33) reported 11 patients with congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Nine
were infants and two were older children. There were eight Bochdalek and three Morgagni
hernias. The mean operating time was 90 min and there were no conversions to an open
procedure. Of note is that all 11 patients tolerated intra-abdominal insufflation and there
were no complications referable to the insufflated gas being in both the hemithorax and
the abdomen simultaneously. There was one recurrence in a neonate at 9 months of
age. A European multicenter retrospective study (34) analyzed the outcome of 22 patients
in whom a laparoscopic Morgagni hernia was repaired. In 18 of the 22 patients, a pros-
thetic patch was necessary. One iatrogenic small bowel injury was repaired during the
procedure. There were no conversions to an open technique and the mean operating
time was 94 min. The mean duration of follow-up was 13.5 months and in this time,
one patient developed a recurrence and underwent successful laparoscopic reoperation.
These initial results suggest that this approach is acceptable in patients who are not in
severe respiratory distress.
MAS has been used for diaphragmatic plication. There are single case reports of a
thoracoscopic approach with good results (35 – 37). Again the operative times are slightly
prolonged but the recovery and hospitalization are shorter. Partrick and Rothenberg (38)
reported laparoscopic placation of three ventilator dependant children. The average oper-
ative time was 40 min and there were no complications. The respiratory status improved in
all three patients allowing extubation and follow-up chest radiograph at 1 month showed
the repairs to be intact. The real debate is not so much whether an MAS approach is ben-
eficial in the treatment of diseases of the diaphragm but which approach, laparoscopic or
thoracoscopic, should be used. Most of the reports and the author’s own experience would
favor a laparoscopic approach especially when suturing is necessary. The rib cage pro-
vides a fixed point for the trocars and instruments, and can make fine motions, especially
suturing, difficult. Also the angles can often be awkward. Abdominal insufflation provides
a self-retaining retractor and gives excellent visualization of the entire diaphragm, even
over the dome of the liver. The pliability of the abdominal wall also allows more flexibility
for trocar placement and instrument movement. Whichever route the surgeon chooses, it
would appear that the MAS approach to the diaphragm is beneficial to the patient.
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2. Sugarbaker DJ. Thoracoscopy in the management of anterior mediastinal masses. Ann

Thorac Surg 1993; 56:653 – 656.
3. Hazelrigg SR, Landreneau RJ, Mack M et al. Thoracoscopic resection of mediastinal cysts.
Ann Thorac Surg 1993; 56:659 – 660.
4. Kern JA, Daniel TM, Tribble CG et al. Thoracoscopic diagnosis and treatment of mediastinal
masses. Ann Thorac Surg 1993; 56:92 – 96.
5. Gosset D, Toledo L, Fritsch S et al. Mediastinoscopy versus thoracoscopy for mediastinal
biopsy. Chest 1996; 110:1328 – 1331.
6. Rovario G, Rebuffat C, Varoli F et al. Videothoracoscopic excision of mediastinal masses:
indications and technique. Ann Thorac Surg 1994; 58:1679– 1683.
7. Reardon MJ, Conklin LD, Fabre J et al. Thoracoscopic approach to posterior mediastinal
neurogenic tumors in the adult. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech 1999; 9:187 – 192.
8. Liu HP, Yim AP, Wan J et al. Thoracoscopic resection of intra-thoracic neurogenic tumors.
A combined Chinese experience. Ann Surg 2000; 232:187 – 190.
9. Bousamra M, Haasler GB, Patterson GA et al. A comparative study of thoracoscopic vs. open
removal of benign mediastinal tumors. Chest 1996; 109:1461 – 1465.
10. Rodgers BM, Ryckman FC, Moazam F et al. Thoracoscopy for intra-thoracic tumors. Ann
Thorac Surg 1981; 31:414 – 420.
11. Partrick DA, Rothenberg SS. Thoracoscopic resection of mediastinal masses in infants and
children: an evaluation of technique and results. J Pediatr Surg 2001; 36:1165 – 1167.
12. Sandoval C, Stringel G. Video-assisted thoracoscopy for the diagnosis of mediastinal masses in
children. J Soc Laparoendosc Surg 1997; 1:131 – 133.
13. Moffat GS, Walton JM, Fitzgerald PG. Thoracoscopy for diagnosis and excision of mediastinal
masses in children. Pediatr Endosurg Innov Tech 2002; 6:177– 180.
14. Smith TJ, Rothenberg SS, Brooks M. Thoracoscopic surgery in childhood cancer. J Pediatr
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15. Rao BN. Present day concepts of thoracoscopy as a modality in pediatric cancer management.
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16. Michel JL, Revillon Y, Montupet P et al. Thoracoscopic treatment of mediastinal cysts in chil-
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28
Bariatric Surgery
Evan P. Nadler and Timothy D. Kane
Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
1. Introduction 319
2. Principles of Bariatric Surgery 320
2.1. Bypass Procedures 320
2.2. Restrictive Procedures 321
3. Malabsorptive vs. Restrictive Procedures 321
4. Pediatric Obesity Defined 322
5. History of Bariatric Surgery in Adolescents 324
6. Rationale for Bariatric Surgery in Adolescents 324
7. Recommended Components of a Multidisciplinary Team 325
8. Summary 326
References 326
1. INTRODUCTION
Adult bariatric surgical procedures on morbidly obese patients are on the verge of becom-
ing the most commonly performed operations by general surgeons. An estimated 90,000
adults in the United States will undergo bariatric operations in 2003, which is twice as
many those performed in 2002 and almost three times the number done in 2000 (1).
Part of this increase in the volume of bariatric procedures is supply related in that
obesity has become an epidemic affecting over 300 million adults across the world (2).
Furthermore, bariatric surgery is currently the only successful long-term treatment for
the severely obese patient. It has been well established that improved outcomes and favor-
able results in patients undergoing these procedures are documented by the resolution of
multiple medical comorbidities of obesity following surgically induced weight loss. The
introduction of minimally invasive surgical techniques to obesity surgery with reduction
of wound complications and operative morbidity has been a major contributor to the
logarithmic growth of bariatric surgery in the treatment of morbid obesity.
319
320 Nadler and Kane
Since almost 50% of adults in the United States are considered overweight and 20%
clinically obese (3), it is not surprising to learn that .15% of children and adolescents are
overweight (4). The objectives of this section will be to review the general principles of
bariatric surgery as they have been applied to morbidly obese adults and determine how
these principles may apply to obese children or adolescents, as well as review the evidence
for the efficacy of the application of bariatric procedures in adolescents at the present time.
2. PRINCIPLES OF BARIATRIC SURGERY
An extensive review of bariatric surgery is beyond the scope of this chapter; however, a
review of the various operations and outcomes is necessary to understand the rationale
for the application of these techniques in younger patients, specifically the adolescent
patient.
Bariatric surgery has been validated as an effective strategy for long-term manage-
ment of morbid obesity since the publication of the proceedings of the National Institute of
Health Consensus Development Conference on gastrointestinal surgery for severe obesity
in 1991 (5). In this statement, both gastric bypass and gastric restrictive procedures are
included as viable options for motivated patients who have reasonable operative risk.
Since that time, the medical literature has been replete with various reports from multiple
institutions in an effort to provide evidence that one approach is superior to the other. The
goal of bariatric surgery is to help patients lose their excess body weight and to prevent,
control, or resolve any obesity associated comorbid conditions. The most common comor-
bidities associated with severe obesity are fairly well recognized and include type 2 dia-
betes mellitus (6), hypertension (3), obstructive sleep apnea (7), degenerative joint disease
(8), and an overall decrease in life expectancy (9). The following paragraphs outline the
recent available literature with respect to the effectiveness of both gastric by pass pro-
cedures and gastric restrictive procedures in providing sustained weight loss, correction
of comorbid conditions, and overall success and complication rates.
2.1. Bypass Procedures

There are several gastric bypass procedures that can be performed that provide substantial
weight loss; however, the most commonly performed procedure in the United States is the
Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (10). All bypass procedures, including the biliary-pancreatic
diversion with or without duodenal switch and the distal gastric bypass, stimulate weight
loss, to some degree, by including malabsorption. Procedures other than the Roux-en-Y
gastric bypass have a high rate of adverse nutritional sequelae and thus would not be appli-
cable to the pediatric or adolescent population (11,12). Still, there are groups who contend
that malabsorptive procedures can be performed safetly without long-term nutritional com-
plications; however, these studies are in adult patients (13,14). Until this controversy is
resolved, the conservative approach for adolescents would be the Roux-en-Y gastric
bypass and thus the remainder of the discussion of bypass procedures will focus on this
technique.
The Roux-en-Y gastric bypass has been established as a safe and effective means to
achieve significant and sustained weight loss in the adult population (15). In 2003, two
large series documented that laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass results in approxi-
mately a 60 –66% loss of excess body weight, 80 – 66% resolution of type 2 diabetes
mellitus, and control of hypertension in nearly two-thirds of patients (16,17). The out-
come are equally encouraging for the treatment of other comorbidities. The group at
Bariatric Surgery 321
Emory University reported their experience with both laparoscopic and open procedures in
patients over 50 years of age and found that Roux-en-Y gastric bypass resulted in a marked
reduction in the incidence of degenerative joint disease, gastro-esophageal reflux disease,
and CPAP-dependent obstructive sleep apnea, in addition to a 66% loss of excess body
weight and control of hypertension and diabetes (18).
2.2. Restrictive Procedures

Restrictive operations such as vertical-banded gastroplasty and laparoscopic adjustable
gastric banding (“Lap-band”) work by creating a very small gastric reservoir, without
any malabsorptive component. Proponents of restrictive obesity procedures cite excellent
results in the management of the complications of obesity. Groups from Australia (19,20)
and Italy (21) have reported durable weight loss with resolution of hypertension and dia-
betes similar to that seen with Roux-en-Y gastric bypass using laparoscopic adjustable
gastric banding.
Similarly, Israeli surgeons have reported that laparoscopic adjustable gastric
banding can produce a 100% reduction in the incidence of obstructive sleep apnea (22).
Whichever bariatric surgical option is undertaken, it is clear that comorbid conditions
and overall quality of life can be markedly improved with substantial and sustained
weight loss.
3. MALABSORPTIVE VS. RESTRICTIVE PROCEDURES
The debate regarding which surgical approach is preferable mostly focuses on geography.
The majority of centers that advocate the adjustable gastric band are from overseas
while the mainstay of bariatric surgery in the United States remains the Roux-en-Y
gastric bypass (10). There are relatively by few studies that directly compare restrictive
and bypass procedures. Sugerman et al. (23) published the landmark paper comparing
Roux-en-Y gastric bypass with vertical-banded gastroplasty in 1987. This randomized
prospective study was stopped early because patients with Roux-en-Y gastric bypass
lost significantly more weight than those with gastroplasty. “Sweet-eaters” had the
poorest response to gastroplasty and some have used these results to suggest that gastro-
plasty may not be useful in adolescents (11). Vertical-banded gastroplasty has basically
been replaced by the adjustable gastric band, especially overseas. This technique has
gained widespread popularity in Europe (24) and Australia (25) with favorable results.
Until recently, the adjustable gastric band was not approved for use in the United
States. Since its availability, most of the results in the U.S are not as encouraging as the
foreign data and much of the enthusiasm for this technique has dampened (26,27). In
fact, one center has converted many patients with the adjustable band to Roux-en-Y
gastric bypass due to unfavorable results (28). Another comparison of laparoscopic adjus-
table gastric banding and laparoscopic gastric bypass revealed that patients after bypass
had a higher excess weight loss but more early postoperative complications than patients
after gastric banding (29). However, other centers have found that they could duplicate the
foreign experience with the laparoscopic adjustable gastric band in the United States
(30,31). There are some theoretical advantages of the adjustable gastric band over
Roux-en-Y gastric bypass for adolescents with morbid obesity. The weight loss after
adjustable gastric banding is somewhat more gradual when compared to Roux-en-Y
gastric bypass (17,20), and the band could be loosened during times when nutritional
needs are increased, such as pregnancy (32). Furthermore, placement of the adjustable
322 Nadler and Kane
band would not preclude conversion to bypass (28). However, a prospective randomized
study comparing the two techniques with long-term follow-up would be needed to defini-
tively address the issue.
Both the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and the adjustable band techniques may be
associated with significant complications. The complication most commonly associated
with the open Roux-en-Y gastric bypass had been wound infections that occur in up to
15% of patients (33). However, most bariatric surgeons now perform this procedure
laparoscopically, which may decrease major complication rates. A meta-analysis of over
3400 laparoscopic cases compared to over 2700 open cases revealed that the laparoscopic
procedure was associated with a decreased incidence in not only wound infections, but
also iatrogenic splenectomy, incisional hernias, and mortality when compared to the
open technique (34). However, there was an increased incidence of early and late
bowel obstruction, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, and stomal stenosis in procedures per-
formed laparoscopically. There was no difference in anastomotic leak rates that typically
occur in about 2% of patients following either approach. The major complication associ-
ated with the laparoscopic approach appears to be internal hernia, which occurs in approxi-
mately 3% of patients (34,35). The presenting symptoms may be vague and the diagnosis
must be suspected in all patients with abdominal pain after laparoscopic Roux-en-Y
gastric bypass (35). It has been suggested that surgeon experience, sleep apnea, and hyper-
tension may be predictors of complications after laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass,
and that a history of diabetes mellitus may be associated with poorer weight loss (36),
although a much larger series would be needed to confirm these results.
In general, laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding has been associated with lower
morbidity and mortality rates than gastric bypass procedures (25,37). The complications
that occur are most often related to migration, erosion, or mechanical failure, which
occur in 12.5%, 2.8%, and 3.6% of patients, respectively, in one prospective study (20).
Pouch dilation can also occur (38). Most problems can be dealt with using a laparoscopic
approach by either re-banding, removal of the band, conversion to bypass operation, or
revision of the access port (37,39,40). The morbidity associated with reoperation was
5%. Some authors report that the placement of a larger band (11 cm) may prevent the
majority of complications (39,41).
4. PEDIATRIC OBESITY DEFINED
Body mass index (BMI), designated as kilograms per meters squared (kg per m2), is a rela-
tively simple means to define overweight in adults who have attained full growth. An adult
with a BMI 30 kg/m2 is considered obese. In children and adolescents who are still
growing, there is no definitive BMI that can be used as a marker for obesity. Thus, the
application of growth charts and multiple percentiles are necessary to determine over-
weight and obesity for age and sex in this group (42). Pediatric obesity has been
defined as a BMI greater than the 95th percentile for age and sex. Currently, this consti-
tutes approximately 10% of all children and adolescents with another 10% falling into the
category of overweight, or at risk for overweight, with a BMI . 85th percentile (43,44).
The health implications of obesity in adults are well known to be increased risk of
cardiovascular disease (especially hypertension), dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, gall
bladder disease, increased prevalence’s and mortality ratios of selected types of cancer,
and socioeconomic and psychosocial impairment (45). This leads to the question of
what are the medical consequences of obesity in children as well as the persistence of
obesity into adulthood. In fact, obese children have an overwhelming chance of carrying
their obesity into adulthood. Studies report that on average 50– 77% of obese children
become obese adults, with this percentage increasing to .80% if only one parent is
obese (46 – 49).
The magnitude of the adverse health consequences of obesity in adults is under-
scored by multiple studies that demonstrate an increased incidence of morbidity, mor-
tality, and specifically early death in obese adults (50 – 52). Similar evidence is reported
in a longitudinal study in adolescents by Must et al. who found that overweight increased
all-cause mortality by 1.8-fold (53). Furthermore, deaths from coronary artery disease,
cerebrovascular disease, and colon cancer were all increased in adults who were obese
adolescents. The incidence of premature disease in obese adolescents is shown to be
increased over the baseline population with its effects spread over many organ systems
(54). Risk factors for atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease coexist in obese adoles-
cents with hyperlipidemia also being more common in this group (55,56). Almost 60% of
obese children in the Bogalusa Heart Study had one risk factor for cardiovascular disease,
with 20% having two or more risk factors (57).
Glucose introlerance is a frequent consequence of adult obesity as manifested by
noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). In one pediatric center, an increasing
percentage of individuals with newly diagnosed NIDDM were obese (58). Certainly, the
adverse health consequences of glucose intolerance and diabetes are well known and
this trend may signify the effects of the increased prevalence of pediatric obesity in general.
Other health problems associated with obesity include sleep disorders and obstruc-
tive sleep apnea syndrome. There are data to suggest that children with obstructive sleep
apnea exhibit adverse cardiac profiles such as left ventricular hypertrophy and abnormal
ventricular dimension related to the syndrome (59). Sleep deprivation and excessive
daytime sleepiness have been noted to be more common in obese children, and learning
disabilities may be associated with disordered sleep patterns in these children (60,61). It
may follow that correction of these problems may improve school performance.
Skeletal disorders related to obesity are related to the inability of the bone and car-
tilaginous structures to withstand the pressures of excess weight. In Blount’s disease,
which is characterized by abnormal bowing of the tibia and the resultant overgrowth of
the medial aspect of the proximal tibial metaphysis in children, over two-thirds of afflicted
children are obese (62). Slipped capital femoral epiphysis is also seen in obese children
related to the effects of increased body weight on the cartilaginous growth plate of the
hip. Up to 50% of children with slipped capital femoral epiphysis are overweight and
risk of recurrence is common if weight loss is not achieved (63).
Hypertension, which is less frequently found in children overall, occurs at ninefold
increased rate in the obese (64). Pseudotumor cerebri is a rare childhood disorder associ-
ated with increased intracranial pressure and presents with headaches. As may as 50% of
children with this disorder are obese; however, the relationship between obesity and
symptom onset is unclear (65). Up to 30% of women with hyperandrogenism and polycys-
tic ovary disease are obese (66). Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and steatohepatitis are
seen to occur more frequently in obese children and adolescents (67). Finally, the risks
of certain cancers, in particular gynecologic malignancies, have been associated with
obesity in adolescents (68 –70).
Psychosocial and quality of life issues are among the most prevalent in obese ado-
lescents. The patterns of discrimination against obese children are established early in life
and become ingrained in a culture in which thinness is admired (54,71). Although young
children do not exhibit negative self-esteem or low self-image (72), adolescents develop a
negative self-concept that may persist into adulthood (73). Moreover, obese individuals
report that their weight has a negative impact upon several aspects of their daily lives
324 Nadler and Kane
including physical functions, self-esteem, sexual function, and work life (74). Wang and
Dietz (75) determined that over the past decade (1979 – 1999), the cost of healthcare for
children between 6 and 17 years of age with obesity-related diagnoses had tripled from
$35 million to $127 million. They attributed increased incidences of diabetes, compli-
cations from gall bladder disease, and obstructive sleep apnea as responsible for the
overall increase.
5. HISTORY OF BARIATRIC SURGERY IN ADOLESCENTS
The initiative of bariatric surgery in adolescents is a relatively new one, and thus one must
extrapolate results from the adult practice in an effort to determine its appropriate use.
However, experience with bariatric surgery is starting to mount in the pediatric population.
Breaux (76) published his results with bariatric surgery in 22 children aged 8 –18 in 1995.
He performed open vertical-banded gastroplasty in 5 children, open Roux-en-Y gastric
bypass in 14 children, and open biliary-pancreatic diversion in 4 children. Substantial
weight loss was found in each group. He concluded that bariatric surgery was safe and
effective in the pediatric population, although he did report two late deaths. Sugerman in
Sugerman et al. (77) reviewed his 20-years experience with bariatric surgery in adolescents,
which comprises the largest study. Standard Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and long-limb
gastric bypass were the most commonly performed procedures; few of these procedures
were approached via the laparoscopic technique. Sugerman found that results in the adoles-
cent population were similar to those in adults, including sustained weight loss, correction
of comorbidities, and improved self-image. Garcia et al. (11) currently have the largest
recent series of adolescents who have undergone laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric
bypass. Their results have also been favorable, but long-term follow-up is pending.
Recently, two groups from overseas have reported their results with laparoscopic
adjustable gastric banding. Dolan et al. (19) from Australia reported 17 adolescent patients
who lost a median of 59% of their excess body weight. Only two complications were
encountered: a slipped band and a leaking port after 2 years of follow-up. Similarly,
Abu-Abeid et al. (22) from Israel reported their experience with 11 adolescent patients
and laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding. They reported a drop in mean body mass
index of 14 kg/m2 and no complications with a mean follow-up of 2 years.
The evidence suggests that bariatric surgery is safe and effective adults, and the
modest data available in the adolescent population concurs. Most of the experience in the
United States is with Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, either via open or laparoscopic approaches.
Thus, it must still be considered the gold standard for bariatric surgery in adolescents.
However, foreign data suggests that the laparoscopic adjustable gastric band may be appli-
cable for pediatric patients. The theoretical advantages of more gradual weight loss and the
ability to ease gastric restriction during periods of increased nutritional needs are attractive
for adolescent bariatric surgery. Unfortunately, the device is not currently approved for use
in patients less than 18 year of age. Thus, no prospective trial can be conducted to compare
gastric banding and bypass to evaluate which technique is preferable in the pediatric popu-
lation. It would be an important trial to pursue if gastric band use approval is secured.
6. RATIONALE FOR BARIATRIC SURGERY IN ADOLESCENTS
The rationale for performing bariatric procedures on adolescents is to prevent or alter the
pattern of adverse health consequences and early death shown in this group who become
Table 28.1 Indications and Contraindications for Bariatric Surgery in Adolescence
Indications
Failure of at least six months of organized, medically supervised weight loss attempts; and
Attained or nearly attained physiologic maturity (unless comorbidity is extreme); and
Severe obesity (BMI 40) with significant obesity-related comorbidity or BMI 50 with less
severe comorbidities; and
Exhibit commitment to comprehensive medical and psychological evaluation, both before and
after surgery, and agree to avoid pregnancy for at least one year postop; and
Be capable and compliant with postoperative nutritional guidelines; and
Provide informed assent to surgical management.
Contraindications
Substance abuse within the preceding year; or
Psychiatric diagnosis that would impair ability to adhere to postoperative dietary or medication
regimen (e.g., Psychosis); or
Medically correctable cause of obesity; or
Inability or unwillingness of patient or parent to fully comprehend the surgical procedure and its
medical consequences; or
Inability or refusal to participate in lifelong medical surveillance.
obese adults. If the observed health benefits of bariatric surgery for adults, with respect to
the elimination of obesity-related comorbidities and maintenance of excess weight loss,
can be realized in the adolescent population, then the application of bariatric surgery
for select adolescents would seem reasonable. Guidelines and recommendations for offer-
ing bariatric surgery to adolescents have been proposed by Inge in conjunction with
experts in the field of pediatric obesity and pediatric surgery (78). Adolescents being con-
sidered for bariatric surgery would ideally meet the inclusion or exclusion criteria depicted
in Table 28.1.
7. RECOMMENDED COMPONENTS OF
A MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM
As part of a comprehensive pediatric weight management program, with one component

being dedicated to bariatric surgery, several other specialists are required to meet the
unique needs of adolescents. Physicians in adolescent medicine having experience with
obesity evaluation and management, as well as experts in the areas of adolescent psy-
chology, nutrition, and exercise physiology should be involved with patient assessment.
Other specialists would be utilized depending upon an individuals needs, but may
include pediatric experts in endocrinology, pulmonology, gastroenterology, cardiology,
anesthesiology, and orthopedics.
Since adolescence represents a significant period of substantial growth and matu-
ration, both physically and emotionally, special attention to developmental issues in ado-
lescents is critical when considering bariatric procedures that will have marked impact
upon future growth and development. Attainment of .95% of linear growth (or adult
stature) may be a reasonable goal at which bariatric surgery may be considered depending
upon individual characteristics. Based upon peak height velocity measurements in normal
weight girls (8 – 9 cm/year) and boys (9 – 10 cm/year), girls should achieve .95% linear
growth by 13 years of age, and boys by 15 years of age (79). The onset of menarche has
also been a useful marker for the completion of linear growth in girls. If any doubt exists as
326 Nadler and Kane
to whether linear growth is achieved, determination of bone age by plain X-ray of the wrist
is recommended to assess physiologic maturation. The importance of a committed
pediatric psychologist and continued postprocedural follow-up cannot be overstated. As
a corollary to physiologic growth, the adolescent has rapidly developing psychological
profile with varying ability to understand health information and behavior patterns
related to them.
Historically, this age group has demonstrated poor compliance (,50%) to medical
treatment regimens and follow-up when groups with chronic illnesses were studied (80,81).
Rand and Macgregor (82) reported poor compliance by adolescents following gastric
bypass surgery with ,15% of adolescents demonstrating compliance to postoperative
dietary multivitamin and nutrient supplementation. However, several studies suggest
that adolescent adherence to strict medical and dietary regimens can be improved with
the application of behavioral therapy (83 – 85). Therefore, the continued support of the
behavioral psychologist is essential for success in dietary compliance and long-term
follow-up after bariatric procedures in adolescents.
8. SUMMARY
Surgical approaches for morbidly obese adolescents may be appropriate for individuals
who have serious obesity-related health risks and have been unsuccessful in achieving
sustained weight loss following multiple, medically supervised attempts. Individuals
should be considered based upon the severity of comorbid conditions, physiological
and emotional maturity level, and other relevant supportive data. The laparoscopic
Roux-en-Y gastric bypass is currently considered the procedure of choice for morbidly
obese individuals; however, further study is required to determine which procedure may
be the most efficacious when applied to the adolescent population. There may be a signifi-
cant role for laparoscopic gastric banding or gastric restrictive procedures in younger
patients. The importance of family support and individual commitment to permanent life-
style change following bariatric surgical procedure cannot be overemphasized.
REFERENCES
1. Champion JK, Felix EL, Higa K, Kamelgard J, Kim J, Schauer PR, Sugerman HJ. The bariatric
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29
A Miniature Access Approach to
Pectus Excavatum
Scott C. Boulanger and Philip L. Glick

State University of New York at Buffalo,
Buffalo, New York, USA
1. Introduction 331
2. Embryology/Etiology 332
3. Clinical Presentation and Evaluation 332
4. Indications 334
5. Open Surgical Repair 335
6. Outcomes and Complication of Standard Repairs 336
7. Minimally Invasive Repair of PE (The Nuss Procedure) 337
8. Evidence-Based Outcome of the Nuss Procedure 338
9. Modifications to the Nuss Procedure 343
References 345
1. INTRODUCTION
Pectus excavatum (PE), also known as funnel chest or trichterbrust, is by far the most
common disorder of chest wall formation. Approximately 90% of patients with chest
wall disorders have PEA the incidence is 1 in 300 live births (1). Pectus carinatum
(PC), the next most common chest wall disorder, is seen in only 7% of patients with
chest wall deformities. A great deal of controversy exists as to the indications, timing,
and method of repair of PE. Recently, Nuss et al. (2) have introduced a novel and mini-
mally invasive method of repair. Their technique has intrigued pediatric surgeons and
provoked further discussion amongst the pediatric surgical community as to the
optimal method of repair. This chapter reviews the available literature regarding the
efficacy and safety of this miniature access approach compared to more conventional
open repairs, that is, the Ravitch technique.
331
332 Boulanger and Glick
2. EMBRYOLOGY/ETIOLOGY
Multiple theories exist as to the cause of PE; however, the etiology remains obscure. The
development of PE may be a result of overgrowth of costal cartilage, displacing the
sternum posteriorly. Abnormalities of the diaphragm, rickets, or elevated intrauterine
pressure have also been theorized to cause posterior displacement of the sternum (3 –8).
This is supported by reports of the coexistence of PE with diaphragmatic agenesis and
congenital diaphragmatic hernia (5,6,9). The coexistence of PE with other musculo-
skeletal disorders, such as Marfan’s syndrome and scoliosis(15% of patients have scoliosis
and 11% have a family history of scoliosis), suggests some abnormality of connective
tissue may be involved in the development of PE. Further support for a genetic predisposi-
tion comes from the fact that 37% of patients have a family history of PE (10).
3. CLINICAL PRESENTATION AND EVALUATION
PE can range in appearance from mild, shallow defects, to defects in which the sternum
almost touches the vertebral bodies (Fig. 29.1). The appearance of the defect is the
result of two factors. The first is the degree of posterior angulation of the sternum and
the second is the posterior angulation of the costal cartilages as they meet the sternum.
Additional sternal or cartilaginous asymmetry adds to these defects that become quite
challenging for the pediatric surgeon.
PE is generally present at birth or arises shortly thereafter. It is often progressive,
with the depth increasing as the patient grows (10). It is much more common in males
(3:1, males to females). As mentioned above it can be associated with other congenital
abnormalities, including diaphragmatic abnormalities and in 2% of cases with congenital
Figure 29.1 An infant and adolescent with pectus excavatum.

Pectus Excavatum 333
cardiac anomalies (10). In some instances, the repair of the PE is mandated before the
repair of the cardiac anomaly (11).
Perhaps the most important association of PE is with Marfan’s syndrome. Approxi-
mately 2% of PE patients have Marfan’s syndrome and these patients typically have the
most severe PE (10). After the diagnosis of Marfan’s syndrome, these patients should
have genetic evaluation, ophthalmologic screening for subluxation of the lens, and have
a cardiac echo performed to evaluate for dilation of the aortic root and mitral valve pro-
lapse. A simple office screen for Marfan’s syndrome is the thumb sign, which is positive if
the proximal phalanx of the thumb extends beyond the ulner border of the palm when the
thumb is maximally opposed (Fig. 29.2).
Several methods have been developed to quantitate the severity of PE. These usually
involve measuring the distance from the sternum to the spine. Perhaps the most commonly
used method is that of Haller et al. (11), who use a ratio of the transverse distance to
the anterior – posterior distance derived from chest CT scans (T/AP) (Fig. 29.3). In
their system, a score of 3.25 or higher was associated with a severe defect requiring
surgery.
PE generally has no discernable physiological effect on infants or children. Some
children have reported pain in the area of the sternum or costal cartilage especially
after vigorous exercise. Other children have noted palpitations that may or may not be
related to the presence of mitral valve prolapse that commonly occurs with PE. A flow
murmur may also be detectible in some patients. This is related to the close proximity
of the sternum to the pulmonary artery resulting in transmission of a systolic ejection
murmur (12).
Asthma is sometimes noted in children with both PE and PC and an association has
been proposed. In a review of a large series of patients, however, asthma was no more fre-
quent than in the general population (10). PE also did not seem to affect the clinical course
of the patient’s asthma. It does not appear that any real association exists between the two.
The impact of PE on the pulmonary or cardiovascular system continues to be
debated. Most studies of pulmonary function fail to show any clinically significant
Figure 29.2 Patient with Marfan’s syndrome demonstrating the thumb sign.
Figure 29.3 CT scan of a patient with severe PE.
difference or show only mild restriction in children at rest or at exercise. In older children
and adolescents, a severe pectus deformity has been associated with significantly lower
lung volumes with exercise, but no significant difference has been shown at rest (13).
Whether lower lung volumes at exercise has any significant physiological effect is
unknown. In small children it is difficult to obtain reliable pulmonary function tests,
and, therefore, it is unclear what effect, if any, PE has in this age group.
The impact of PE on cardiac function is similarly unclear. Studies using angiography
have shown deformities of the heart as a result of the PE (14). Exercise studies have shown
decreased cardiac output, increased heart rate and decreased stroke volume in the upright
or sitting position in patients with PE (15). In the supine position, these parameters
improved, suggesting that PE limits cardiac filling. Improvement in cardiac function
could be demonstrated in many of these patients after surgical repair. Despite this, no con-
sistent effect on exercise tolerance has been demonstrated in patients with PE.
4. INDICATIONS
Several indications exist for repair of PE. Some pediatric surgeons believe that the pectus
deformity has little physiological consequence. An exception, perhaps, is the competitive
athlete, in whom a slight decrease in exercise tolerance may result in poorer performance.
The major indication is probably psychological. The sunken appearance of the chest wall
has been associated with poor self-image in children with PE, especially as they approach
adolescence (16). Improvement in the appearance of the chest wall after repair can lead to
improved socialization in these children/adolescents.
Patients with PE can require cardiac or aortic surgery as a result of congenital heart
disease or Marfan’s syndrome, and sometimes repair of PE is indicated prior to surgery.
Shamberger et al. (17) noted a 1.5% incidence of cardiac anomalies in patients undergoing
surgery for anterior chest wall deformities. In patients requiring extra cardiac conduits,
they recommended repair of the PE prior to cardiac surgery to avoid the possibility of
external compression on the conduit. One patient in their series underwent repair of the
PE at the time of cardiac surgery. This patient subsequently expired from intrathoracic
bleeding. Shamberger et al. (17), therefore, recommended not performing simultaneous
cardiac and PE repair. Similarly, repair of PE prior to aortic surgery in Marfan’s patients
may be required to avoid the possibility of extrinsic compression.
5. OPEN SURGICAL REPAIR
The first surgical repair of Pectus Excavatum occurred in 1911 by Meyer and, sub-
sequently by Meyer and Sauerbruch (18,19) in 1913. In 1949, Ravitch (20) reported a tech-
nique that until recently formed the basis of modern Pectus surgery (Figs. 29.4 and 29.5).
His technique included excision of all deformed cartilage from the perichondrium, div-
ision of the xiphoid from the sternum, division of the intercostals bundles from the
sternum, and finally transverse sternal osteotomy. The sternum was then displaced ante-
riorly and held into position by wires.
Welch (21), in 1958, altered the procedure by preserving the perichondrial sheaths
of the costal cartilage. He preserved the upper cartilage intercostal bundles and fixed the
sternum anteriorly with silk suture. Other workers further modified the repair by adding a
metal strut to ensure stability of the sternum (22,23). An interesting recent modification
has been introduced by workers in Japan (24). They use an endoscope to assist in resection
of the costal cartilage. Their reported advantages include smaller operative incisions and
the ability to dissect the pleura under endoscopically magnified visualization. Their report
details results in only six patients, all of whom appeared to have satisfactory outcomes
Figure 29.4 Ravitch procedure: (A) incision is made in chest wall; (B) exposure of cartilage after
elevation of muscle flaps; (C) sternum after resection of costal cartilage; (D) resected cartilage
specimens.
Figure 29.5 Patient post-op after Ravitch repair.
cosmetically. They did report one pneumothorax. No other significant complications were
noted.
Haller et al. (25) have described a technique of tripod fixation of the sternum. This
method uses a posterior sternal osteotomy, subperichondrial resection of the lower
deformed cartilage, and oblique division of normal upper second or third cartilage. The
obliquely divided cartilages are positioned to override themselves and are secured in an
anterior position to the sternum.
A technique developed in France and used primarily in Japan divides the sternum
from the cartilage (26). The sternum is then flipped 1808 and reattached to the cartilage
as a free graft. This technique has a high complication rate compared to more conventional
methods. Finally, a procedure has been described to correct the deformity by introducing
silastic implant into the subcutaneous space above the sternum (27). This improves the
appearance of the defect but does not increase the size of the thoracic cavity.
6. OUTCOMES AND COMPLICATION OF STANDARD REPAIRS
In general, reports of outcomes and patient satisfaction following the Ravitch (open) repair
and variants thereof have been excellent. Several large series of patients exist both with a
metal strut in the repair and without, and report .90% satisfactory results, respectively
(28,29). Presently, no direct prospective comparison exists between the use of metal
struts and no struts in open repairs. Haller et al. (25) showed 100% satisfactory results
in a series of 45 patients who underwent their tripod fixation method.
Complications of open repair of PE are unusual. The most common complication is
a pneumothorax. These are usually small and can be observed. Large pneumothoraces
usually need only aspiration of air. Recurrence is seen in up to 20– 30% of patients in
long-term follow-up. Approximately half of these are major recurrences requiring a
second operation (28,29).
Figure 29.6 Two patients with thoracic dystrophy after open PE repair.
The most devastating complication of the open repair is impaired development of

the thoracic cavity and thoracic dystrophy (Fig. 29.6). This occurs most commonly
when the surgery is performed in preschool age children. Haller (30) reviewed 12 patients
who underwent PE repair and developed thoracic dystrophy. In each instance, repair had
been performed under the age of 4 and more than 5 ribs had been resected. These patients
presented with severe exercise intolerance and significant reduction in pulmonary function
tests. Based on their report, Haller (30) recommended delaying operative repair until at
least age six and limiting the number of resected cartilage. This author recommends delay-
ing surgery until a significant portion of adolescence has occurred, that is, age 12 – 16
years. Theoretically, at this age a significant portion of chest wall growth has already
been completed and dystrophy at this point would be inconsequential.
7. MINIMALLY INVASIVE REPAIR OF PE (THE NUSS PROCEDURE)
In 1998, Donald Nuss et al. (2) presented their 10 –year results of a new and minimally
invasive approach to repairing PE (2). Their repair is based on the observation that
even the chest wall of adults can be remodeled, as seen in adults with barrel chest from
emphysema, without the need for resecting ribs or cartilage. Moreover, remodeling in
adults occurs long after the chest wall has “matured”. Therefore, it should be possible
to remodel the chest wall in children without the need for cartilage resection or sternal
osteotomies. The other key observation is based on the management of orthopedic con-
ditions such as scoliosis and club foot. These conditions can be corrected conservatively
by placing splints and leaving them in place for long periods of time.
The Nuss procedure involves inserting a custom bent, curved metal bar underneath
the sternum through lateral chest incisions. The bar is then turned placing the convexity of
Figure 29.7 Schematic of the Nuss repair.
the bar upward and instantly correcting the pectus depression. The bar is then secured
to the lateral chest wall/ribs and left in place for 2– 3 years, after which it is removed
in an outpatient procedure. The details of the procedure are outlined in Figs. 29.7 and 29.8.
8. EVIDENCE-BASED OUTCOME OF THE NUSS PROCEDURE
In the original published description by Nuss et al. (2), 127 patients with PE were evalu-
ated over a 10-year period (2). Fifty of these patients underwent operative repair (8 by
open methods and 42 by the Nuss method). The age range of patients undergoing the
Nuss procedure was 15 months –15 years, with most patients in the 3– 5 year range.
The ratio of male to female was 4:1. The twelve most recent patients had chest CT
scans and the CT index in almost all cases was .4. The most common clinical complaints
were exercise intolerance in 16, recurrent upper respiratory tract infections in 15, asthma
in 9, and chest pain with exercise in 6 of the patients.
At the time of that publication, the Nuss procedure called for the bar to remain in
position for two years. Thirty patients had undergone bar removal by the end of the
10-year study period. Follow-up after bar removal ranged from 6 months to 7 years
(mean 2.8 years). Good to excellent results were reported in 26 of the 30 (87%)
(Fig. 29.9). In three of the four patients, with poor to fair results, there was recurrence
of the pectus deformity because the bar was too soft. Subsequent repairs used in the
series were performed with stiffer metal bars. One of the four patients with a poor
outcome also had Marfan’s syndrome.
In the 42 patients undergoing the minimally invasive procedure, complications were

reported in 12 (29%). Complications were as follows: pneumothorax in four patients (one
of which required a chest tube), skin irritation in four patients, two bar displacements
requiring repositioning, one wound infection, and one viral pneumonia. No serious com-
plications related to the surgery were noted in their series despite long follow-up.
In 2001, the group in Indianapolis published their series of 38 patients undergoing
the Nuss procedure during a 5-year period compared to 68 patients who underwent an
Figure 29.8 Operative steps of the Nuss repair: (A) placement of epidura catheter; (B) model of
Nuss bar is bent specifically for each patient; (C) bending of the Nuss bar to the shape of the model;
(D, see p. 340) (right) thoracoscopic ports are placed to monitor bar placement (left) bar is passed under
sternum; (E, see p. 340) (right) preparing to flip the Nuss bar (left) Bar in position after being flipped.
open repair during the same period (31). The Nuss group tended to be younger (avg. 9.5
years vs. 12.6 years) and had slightly fewer associated anomalies (6% vs. 8.8%).
Complications were seen in 43% of the Nuss patients compared to 20% in the open
group over the same period of time. These complications were typically minor and
Figure 29.9 Patient before and after Nuss repair.

included pneumothorax, pleural effusion, bar migration, contact dermatitis, and ileus. One
serious complication was noted: mediastinitis requiring bar removal. In this series, only
two poor cosmetic outcomes were noted. In one child the PE converted to a PC, while
another developed a mild chest asymmetry. Therefore 33 of 35 patients achieved at
least a good cosmetic outcome (94%).
A third small series of patients undergoing minimally invasive PE repair has been
reported from the University of Connecticut (32). They compared 36 patients undergoing
the Nuss repair to six patients undergoing the Ravitch repair. Mean age and weight as well
as severity of the PE deformity were equivalent in the two groups. Operative time, blood
loss, and ICU admissions were significantly reduced in the Nuss group. These results are
similar to that seen in the Indianapolis series. However, the length of stay increased and
analgesic requirement was also higher. Again these results were consistent with those
seen in the Indianapolis series.
The most common complication following Nuss repair seen by Wu et al. was pneu-
mothorax (6 of 36 patients, 17%) (32). Only one, though, required tube thoracostomy
(2.8%). Other complications included pleural effusion (8.3%) and epidural catheter-
related problems (2.8%). Interestingly, bar displacement was seen in only one patient
(2.8%). This is lower than rates published in the two other series and may be related to
the use of a stabilizing bar in all patients in this series.
The fourth and most recently reported series is from the group at Kansas City (33).
They reported 80 patients undergoing Nuss procedure compared to 32 previous patients
undergoing a Ravitch procedure. This is the largest single institutional experience reported
so far. The patient characteristics are similar to the other series. The mean age is 11.5 years
compared with 9.4 years in their open cohort. Operative time was 53 min, significantly
shorter than the open procedure (143 min). Blood loss was very low and hospital stay
was short. The results are similar to the other series. The complication rate was 11%
with pneumothorax and bar displacement being most common.
A recent survey of pediatric surgeons in the American Pediatric Surgical Associ-
ation (APSA) membership was conducted by Hebra and coworkers in an attempt to deter-
mine outcomes and complications of the Nuss procedure in a large volume of patients (34).
Of 74 responders, 42% used the Nuss procedure as their primary method of repair. The
overall experience of the responders was 251 cases. A complication rate of 21% was
reported. This rate is somewhat lower than that reported by Molik et al. (20%) and
Nuss et al. (28%). But this number is quite high compared to complication rates noted
in several large series of open pectus repairs (,10%). The most common complication
was bar displacement (9.2%). A complication seen in 4% of patients in Nuss’ series,
11% of patients in the Indianapolis series, and 4.7% of patients in the Kansas City
series. The next most common complication was pneumothorax requiring chest tubes
(4.8%). Pneumothorax is a very common complication seen in all series. In general,
however, these are very small and resolve spontaneously. In Nuss’ series only one
patient required a chest tube for pneumothorax.
The APSA survey also found a significant re-operative rate for the Nuss procedure.
As mentioned earlier, the most common reason for reoperation was bar displacement. In
the Indianapolis series, reoperation was required in eight patients (29%) and bar displace-
ment was the most common reason. Only two patients in Nuss’ series required reoperation,
both for bar displacement. A recent introduction of a lateral stabilizing device may
decrease the incidence of bar movement.
A feature of all reported series is a wide age range of patients undergoing minimally
invasive repair. The impression of most surgeons polled by Hebra et al. was that older chil-
dren experience more complications than the younger cohort. Specifically, older children
were thought to have a higher incidence of bar displacement. Perhaps this is related to
larger forces generated by the larger rib cage of teenager and engagement in higher risk
activities such as contact sports. Interestingly, Molik et al. were not able to appreciate
an increased complication risk in teenagers. One thing that is clear is that teenagers
have significantly more pain from the Nuss procedure and some of the studies have docu-
mented a longer period of analgesia in these patients.
So far there have been very few serious complications reported with the minimally
invasive pectus repair (34,35). One case of cardiac perforation was reported. This occured
in an 8-year-old child with a moderately deep and asymmetric deformity. The child
required a median sternotomy, emergency heart –lung bypass, and repair of the right
atrium, tricuspid valve and left ventricle. At two years follow-up, the child was doing
well. One case of bilateral empyema with pericarditis has also been seen. In this case bilat-
eral chest debridement and open pericardial debridement was performed. Three cases of
thoracic outlet syndrome have also been reported. At the time of the report one of these
patients required bar removal for severe symptoms referable to the brachial plexus and
arm cyanosis relieved with arm elevation. The other patients had gradual improvement
of symptoms and still had the bar in place.
It is noteworthy that to date no reports of thoracic dystrophy after the Nuss procedure
exist. Haller (30) found this complication primarily in younger patients. In the series of
patients presented by Nuss et al., 19 were 5 years or younger when they underwent PE
repair. None were reported to have developed thoracic dystrophy. In general, no con-
clusions can be made yet from the other series. Molik et al. operated primarily on older
patients and no patient under the age of 5 underwent Nuss repair in their series. Thoracic
dystrophy was not reported as a complication by surgeons polled by Hebra et al., presum-
ably since the growth plates are not injured or removed in the Nuss procedure compared to
the classic Ravitch procedure. However, the age of these patients is unknown as well as the
length of follow-up. Therefore, while preliminary indications suggest that thoracic dystro-
phy may not be a complication of the Nuss procedure, the jury is still out, long-term
follow-up of the youngest patients is required.
Determining acceptable cosmetic outcomes is quite subjective. As mentioned pre-
viously, Nuss reported good to excellent outcomes in 26 of 30 patients after bar
removal. Molik et al. reported two poor outcomes (6%), but most patients in their series
had not reached the point of bar removal, so that it remains to be seen what the cosmetic
outcome in that series will be. Cosmetic outcomes are also difficult to determine in the
University of Connecticut series. The authors state that they achieved a 100% satisfactory
cosmetic outcome. However, at the time of their publication, only five patients had
reached the point of bar removal. The Kansas City series reported good to excellent
results in 76 of 80 patients (95%) and in 15 of 15 patients after bar removal (100%).
Most surgeons polled by Hebra et al. considered their cosmetic outcomes to be good to
excellent in 96.5% of patients. It remains unknown in that poll what the length of
follow-up was and how many patients had achieved bar removal. Since PE can recur
even 5– 10 years after open repair, much longer follow-up than currently exists with the
Nuss procedure will be needed before determining how cosmetically acceptable and
durable this method of repair will be. Also, it remains unclear if teenagers will derive
the same cosmetic benefit as younger children. Few of the patients in Nuss’ series (the
series with by far the longest follow-up) were teenagers. In contrast, three other series
of patients are comprised of much older children (mean age 6.8 years vs. 12.3 years,
9.5 years and 11.5 years).
At the present time no information exists as to the physiological benefit of the mini-
mally invasive approach to PE repair. As discussed previously it is difficult to reliably
demonstrate any cardiopulmonary deficit in patients with PE. In open repairs, several
studies have been performed comparing cardiopulmonary effects before and after
repair. In his review of the subject, Shamberger (36) found no consistent evidence that
open PE repair provided any cardiopulmonary benefit. In fact, several studies have demon-
strated worsening of pulmonary function after repair, perhaps as a result of increased chest
wall rigidity from the surgery. In contrast, studies assessing workload and exercise toler-
ance often show improvement after PE repair. Therefore, the cardiopulmonary benefit of
open PE repair is, at best, uncertain. It will be interesting to see what affect, if any, the
minimally invasive repair will have in the long-term. Without the need for cartilage resec-
tion and sternal osteotomy, one might expect less postoperative chest wall rigidity and a
greater likelihood of improvement in pulmonary function. Borowitz et al. (37) have com-
pared preoperative and postoperative pulmonary function in ten patients undergoing the
Nuss procedure (37). They find no significant difference between preoperative function
and that of 1-year postoperatively with the bar in. Therefore, having the bar in place
has no detrimental effect on pulmonary function. It remains to be seen what effect there
is after bar removal.
9. MODIFICATIONS TO THE NUSS PROCEDURE
In response to complications seen so far, several modifications to the Nuss procedure

have been proposed. Implementation of a lateral stabilizing bar was perhaps the first
major modification and was a response to a significant number of bar displacements
(Figs. 29.10 and 29.11). In the Indianapolis series they documented bar migration in
35% of their first fifteen patients and none in 21 subsequent patients using the stabilizing
bar. Wu et al. had only a single episode of bar displacement in 38 patients using the sta-
bilizing bar. Other surgeons have used somewhat different modifications to combat bar
displacement. A recent report proposes the use of a three-point fixation method in conjunc-
tion with the stabilizing bar (38). In this technique, a stitch is placed around a rib and bar
adjacent to the sternum with the aid of thoracoscopy. In 20 patients undergoing the Nuss
procedure with the three-point fixation modification, only one bar displacement was noted
in 1-year follow-up (5%). In that patient, an absorbable suture was inadvertently used.
Another recent modification is the use of thoracoscopy to monitor safe passage of
the clamp across the mediastinum. Thoracoscopy came into widespread use after the
report of the cardiac injury discussed earlier. A survey of surgeons performing the Nuss
found that 61% now use thoracoscopy on a routine basis (34). A separate variation is
described by Miller et al. (33), in which a subxiphoid incision is through which a sub-
xiphoid tunnel is created into the anterior mediastinum. This allows direct visualization
of the bar as it passes underneath the sternum.
Recommendations for the length of time before bar removal have also been changed.
In the original description of the operation, the bar was left in for 2 years. Recently, some
workers have recommended increasing that time to 3 years in an attempt to decrease the
incidence of PE recurrence. Time will tell if this will increase the number of positive
outcomes.
Because of the variety of modifications, it can be difficult to compare results from
one series to the next. A prospective study comparing the Nuss procedure to open
repair is currently underway. This will be a prospective, nonrandomized observation
study. Patients will undergo preoperative assessment by CT scan and by a pediatric
pulmonalogist. Multiple variables will be measured pre and postprocedure The main out-
comes from the study, however, will result from comparison of pre and postoperative CT
Figure 29.10 Chest X-ray of a patient with displacement of the Nuss bar.
Figure 29.11 Chest X-ray of a patient with a lateral stabilizing bar in place: (A) anterior –
posterior view and (B) lateral view.
scan and pulmonary function tests. This study should determine differences, if any, in cos-
metic and function outcomes between minimally invasive and open repair. Unfortunately,
it will not be feasible to randomize this study as most patients have preconceived ideas
about the type of operation they want. This will somewhat limit the utility of this study.
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Minimal Access Surgery in Other Pediatric
Surgical Specialities
30
Minimal Access Surgery in
Pediatric Urology
Alaa El-Ghoneimi
Robert Debré Hospital, Université Paris VII, Paris, France
1. Introduction 350
2. Upper Urinary Tract 350
2.1. Renal Access 351
2.1.1. Lateral Retroperitoneal Approach 351
2.1.2. Prone Posterior Retroperitoneal Approach 352
2.1.3. Other Retroperitoneal Approaches 352
2.1.4. Transperitoneal Access 352
2.2. Nephrectomy 353
2.2.1. Indications 353
2.2.2. Technique of Nephrectomy Using the Lateral
Retroperitoneal Approach 353
2.2.3. Kidney Retrieval 355
2.2.4. Laparoscopic vs. Open Nephrectomy 355
2.3. Partial Nephrectomy 355
2.3.2. Technique of Retroperitoneal Partial Nephrectomy 356
2.3.3. Retroperitoneal Lower Pole Partial Nephrectomy 356
2.4. Pyeloplasty 357
2.4.2. Technique of Laparoscopic Retroperitoneal Pyeloplasty 358
3. Lower Urinary Tract 358
3.1. Treatment of Vesicoureteral Reflux 358
3.1.1. Laparoscopic Extravesical Reimplantation 359
3.1.2. Endoscopic Intravesical Reimplantation 359
3.1.3. Endoscopic Subureteral Injection 359
3.2. Major Lower Urinary Tract Reconstruction 360
4. Complications of Laparoscopic Urological Procedures 360
5. Conclusions 361
References 361
349
350 El-Ghoneimi
1. INTRODUCTION
Despite the expanding application of laparoscopy in general surgery, laparoscopy is not

yet widely performed by pediatric urologists. This is mainly due to a lack of laparoscopic
training. In the early experience, the indications for laparoscopy in pediatric urology were
unclear and unproven compared to the advantages of open procedures. Gradually,
indications are expanding from ablative surgery to major reconstructive procedures.
Historically, management of nonpalpable testis is the most common laparoscopic pro-
cedure performed by pediatric urologists, and this is covered in Chapter 24 (Nonpalpable
Undescended Testis). In the current chapter, we will deal with specific procedures for the
upper and lower urinary tract in pediatric urology. As experience in children is still
limited, we have also included the adult urology experience in this review.
2. UPPER URINARY TRACT
Upper urinary tract surgery in children includes two main categories: ablative and recon-
structive. Except for rare exceptions, both are limited to benign diseases. The most
common ablative procedures are stone removal and nephrectomy, and the most common
reconstructive procedure is pyeloplasty.
Extracorporal shock wave lithotripsy or percutaneous and endoscopic techniques
can be used to manage most pediatric kidney stones. Open surgery may be required in
rare cases when these techniques are not applicable, such as in young children with
bulky cystine lithiasis. For these exceptions, laparoscopic pyelolithotomy is a suitable
alternative to open surgery, and may avoid parietal scarring in these children who
usually need repeat surgery later in life (1 – 3).
The first laparoscopic nephrectomy in adults was reported in 1991 by Clayman et al.
(4). One year later Erlich et al. (5) reported the first series of pediatric cases. Since then
many authors have reported successful results for nephrectomy and nephroureterectomy
in children, all advocating the transperitoneal approach (6,7). Roberts suggested a retro-
peritoneal approach to the kidney in 1976 (8), reporting his experience using retroperito-
neal endoscopy with gas insufflation in animals. Retroperitoneal operative laparoscopy
was described for the first time by Gaur in 1992 (9) and then by others in adult and pedi-
atric urology (10 – 12). Despite the expanding application of retroperitoneal laparoscopic
renal surgery in adults (13,14), this technique is still only performed by a limited number
of pediatric urologists (2,12,15 – 17). We previously reported that the retroperitoneal
approach is a well-adapted laparoscopic technique for renal surgery in children and is
comparable to that of conventional renal surgery (2,18).
Guilloneau et al. (11) reported in a retrospective study of adults and children that
retroperitoneal and transperitoneal approaches were equivalent in terms of morbidity
and postoperative stay, but that the operating time was shorter with the retroperitoneal
approach. There have not been any randomized studies done thus far comparing the trans-
peritoneal and retroperitoneal approaches to nephrectomy in either adults or children.
Effects of retroperitoneal CO2 insufflation have been studied in both animals and
children (18,19). These studies demonstrated a significant increase in systolic blood
pressure and end-tidal carbon dioxide, while there was no modification of the other
hemodynamic or ventilatory parameters. These changes do not need any special modifi-
cation of the ventilatory parameters, whereas special care with hypertensive patients is
required.
MAS in Pediatric Urology 351
2.1. Renal Access

The upper urinary tract can be accessed by retroperitoneal or transperitoneal approaches.
2.1.1. Lateral Retroperitoneal Approach

The patient is placed lateral, with sufficient flexion of the operating table so as to expose
the area of trocars placement, between the last rib and the ileac crest. Retroperitoneal
access is achieved through the first incision, 10– 15 mm in length, and one finger width
from the lower border of the tip of the 12th rib (Fig. 30.1). The use of narrow retractors
with long blades allows deep dissection with a short incision. Gerota’s fascia is
approached by a muscle-splitting blunt dissection, then it is opened under direct vision
and the first blunt trocar (5 mm or 10 mm) is introduced directly inside the opened
Gerota’s fascia [Fig. 30.2(A)]. A working space is created by gas insufflation dissection,
and the first trocar is fixed with a purse-string suture that is applied around the deep fascia
to ensure an airtight seal and to allow traction on the main trocar if needed to increase the
working space. The second trocar (3 mm or 5 mm) is inserted posteriorly in front of the
lumbosacral muscle, at the costovertebral angle. The third trocar (3 mm or 5 mm) is
inserted in the anterior axillary line, a finger width from the top of the iliac crest. To
avoid transperitoneal insertion of this trocar, the working space is fully developed and
the deep surface of the anterior wall muscles is identified before the trocar insertion. Insuf-
flation pressure does not exceed 12 mm, and the CO2 flow rate is progressively increased
from 1 L to 3 L/min. Access to the retroperitoneum and creation of the working space are
the keys to success in the retroperitoneal renal surgery. Age is not a limiting factor for this
Figure 30.1 Ports placement and landmarks for left retroperitoneal laparoscopic pyeloplasty. The
child is positioned lateral. (1) Retroperitoneal access is achieved via the first incision, at the tip of the
12th rib, and is used for the laparoscope. (2) Second port, placed in the costovertebral angle, and is
used for the needle holder, scissors, and to place the double J stent. (3) Third port is placed close to
the iliac crest at the anterior axillary line, and is used for the grasping forceps. (4) Fourth port, is
eventually placed if needed, is used for traction on the UPJ to stabilize the suture line during anasto-
mosis. The first port is 5 mm diameter and the other ports are 3 mm.
352 El-Ghoneimi
Figure 30.2 Retroperitoneal access (right side). The retroperioneal space can be approached
either by the lateral or by the posterior approach. (A) Lateral approach: the child is positioned
lateral. The Gerota fascia is exposed laterally but retracted anteriorly to be opened posteriorly,
the direction of the approach is shown by the arrow. By the posterior approach of the Gerota the peri-
toniuem is far and the insufflation starts behind the kidney, thus the kidney is pushed anteriorly with
the peritonieum without the need to retract the kidney. (B) Posterior approach: the child is positioned
prone, the Gerota fascia is opened posteriorly and the renal pedicle is directly approached.
P: peritonieum; V, inferior Vena Cava; A, aorta.
approach. Young children have less fat and the access is easier. Our youngest patient using
this technique was 6 weeks of age.
2.1.2. Prone Posterior Retroperitoneal Approach

Access begins with an incision in the costovertebral angle at the edge of the paraspinous
muscles [Fig. 30.2(B)]. The secondary trocars are placed just above the iliac crest, one
medially at the edge of the parasinous muscles, and one laterally at the posterior clavicular
line (20). Borzi (21) compared the lateral and posterior retroperitoneal approaches in a ran-
domized prospective study on 36 complete and 19 partial nephrectomies in children, and
found no significant difference in operative time or outcomes. He observed that the pos-
terior approach gave easier access to the renal pedicle, while the lateral approach gave
better access to ectopic kidneys and allowed complete ureterectomy in all cases.
2.1.3. Other Retroperitoneal Approaches

Since the description by Gaur (9), balloon dissection has been the method applied by most
urologists to develop the retroperitoneal space. Disadvantages include the cost of the
disposable material and possible complications from rupture of the balloon (22). Balloon
dissection permits creation of a working space without opening Gerota’s fascia, a con-
sideration which is important for radical nephrectomy of malignant tumors in adults,
but which may be less relevant in children. Micali et al. (3) reported the use of the Visiport
visual trocar to access the retroperitoneal space directly. The advantage of this method is
the possibility to use a small incision for the first trocar, which is interesting in reconstruc-
tive surgery but not in ablative surgery as the first incision is needed for organ retrieval.
2.1.4. Transperitoneal Access

There are several options for patient positioning. The most frequently described is the
flank position described by Peters (20). The pneumoperitonium is created through an
open umbilical approach. The child is positioned with the surgeon standing in front of
the abdomen (opposite side of nephrectomy). The most frequent configuration has been
with the umbilical port and two ipsilateral ports in the mid-clavicular line above and
below the umbilicus. A fourth trocar may be placed in the mid-axillary line for exposure
to retract the liver or spleen if needed. The kidney is exposed by medial mobilization of the
colon.
2.2. Nephrectomy
2.2.1. Indications
In adults, the current feeling is that laparoscopic radical nephrectomy is safe and appro-
priate for renal cancers measuring ,5 cm in size (13). The most common renal tumor
in children is nephroblastoma (Wilms tumor). These tumors are almost always very
large, frequently extend outside the kidney, and may be prone to rupture during dissection,
with a significant impact on staging if this happens. For these reasons, most authors feel
that the laparoscopic approach is inappropriate for renal tumors in children.
Most nephrectomies in children are done for nonfunctioning kidneys secondary to
obstructive uropathy or reflux, and the laparoscopic approach is excellent for most of
these cases. Although laparoscopic nephrectomy for multicystic dysplastic kidney is an
easy and safe procedure, we agree with other pediatric urologists who do not feel that
these kidneys require routine resection because of the high rate of spontaneous involution
(23). Generally acceptable indications for nephrectomy are increase in size of the cysts or
patients who develop hypertension or infection.
Nephrectomy may be indicated in children with end-stage renal disease before trans-
plantation when the primary renal disease is associated with hypertension, severe nephro-
tic syndrome, or severe hemolytic uremic syndrome (18). During open surgery in these
children, a large incision is necessary to control the renal pedicle and to extract a large
kidney, and therefore the laparoscopic approach is particularly advantageous for this
population. Bilateral laparoscopic nephrectomy has been performed in adults (24). We
have performed simultaneous bilateral nephrectomy in 10 children. The procedure was
performed using the lateral retroperitoneal approach, and the position and draping were
changed between the first and the second side (25). This procedure can also be performed
through a posterior retroperitoneal approach (26).
2.2.2. Technique of Nephrectomy Using the Lateral Retroperitoneal Approach

After accessing the retroperitoneal space, the landmarks are identified to maintain orien-
tation. The psoas muscle is the posterior landmark and should remain at the bottom of the
monitor. The kidney is attached anteriorly to the peritoneum and should remain at the top
of the screen.
The renal pedicle is identified and approached posteriorly (Fig. 30.3). To avoid
multiple ligation of branches of the renal vessels, the vessels are dissected close to their
junction with the aorta and the vena cava. On the left side, the vein is ligated distal to
the genital and adrenal branches. On the right side, the vein is short and careful dissection
at its junction with the vena cava will avoid the confusion of dissecting the vena cava. The
renal artery is usually dealt with first, followed by the vein. The vessels can be clipped,
ligated, or coagulated. The choice of method depends on the vessel diameter and the sur-
geon’s experience. Small arteries such as those associated with multicystic dysplastic
kidneys can be coagulated using bipolar cautery, harmonic scalpel, or ligasure. The
method most commonly used for larger vessels is titanium clips. If the diameter of the
vessel is bigger than the length of the clip, resorbable intracorporeal knots can be used
354 El-Ghoneimi
Figure 30.3 Exposure of the renal pedicle via retroperitoneal approach. Right pretransplant
nephrectomy for congenital nephrotic syndrome in a child aged 8 months. The kidney (K) is held
anteriorly by the peritoneum and stays on the top of the screen. The renal artery (RA) is clipped
and sectioned. Note the good exposure of the renal vein (RV) and the inferior vena cava (IVC).
In this case, the size of the vein is bigger than the 5-mm clips, indicating the need for endocorporeal
ligation of the renal vein.
either with or without clips. Staples have been described for large vessels during nephrect-
omy in adults, but this technique requires a 12-mm port and is not needed in most pediatric
patients.
The ureter is then identified and dissected as far as necessary. In the absence of
reflux, the ureter is coagulated and sectioned at the lumbar level below the pyeloureteric
junction. This is particularly important in patients undergoing pre-transplant nephrectomy,
since the native ureter might be used for the transplanted kidney. In the presence of reflux,
the ureter is ligated as close as possible to the ureterovesical junction, taking care to avoid
injury to the vas deferens in males. During this distal dissection, the surgeon moves
towards the head of the child, and the screen goes towards the feet. In the beginning of
our experience, we were using a fourth trocar to dissect and ligate the distal ureter (2).
Currently, we use an endoloop or, if the ureter is large, a transparietal suture to fix the
ureter to the abdominal wall to facilitate its distal dissection and ligation. As the perito-
neum is very close to the ureter in this distal part, its dissection is done at the end of
the procedure to avoid tearing the peritoneum.
The last part of the dissection is the anterior surface of the kidney. The kidney is
dissected from the peritoneum very close to its capsule in the cleavage plane of the
areolar tissue. Usually no hemostasis is necessary in this plane, although sharp dissection
with bipolar coagulation may be necessary for inflammatory adherent kidneys. In rare
cases of xanthogranulamatous pyelonephritis, we do the dissection of the adherent
kidney through the subcapsular plane to avoid injury to the intraperitoneal structures (27).
2.2.3. Kidney Retrieval

The kidney is usually retrieved through the main incision. A 5 mm telescope is inserted
through the accessory port and a toothed grasping forceps is introduced through the
10 mm port to extract the kidney. The kidney is grasped at one of the poles and pulled
in this axis. In most cases, the kidney can be divided under vision during extraction
through the muscle wall. In cases of severe pyelocaliceal dilatation or a multicystic dys-
plastic kidney, direct evacuation by puncture helps in organ retrieval. An extraction bag is
used for infected or large kidneys, and the kidney is morcellated inside the bag. If
nephrectomy is being done in conjuction with an open lower urinary tract procedure,
the nephrectomy is done first and the kidney is placed near the bladder without transecting
the ureter. Retrieval is then done through the Pfannenstiel incision.
2.2.4. Laparoscopic vs. Open Nephrectomy

No prospective randomized study has been done to compare the laparoscopic and open
approaches to nephrectomy in adults or children. We have retrospectively studied a com-
parable group of children who underwent pretransplant nephrectomy before beginning our
experience with retroperitoneal laparoscopic nephrectomy (18). In this specific group of
patients with end-stage renal disease, the hospital stay was significantly shorter after
laparoscopic vs. open nephrectomy (5.2 vs. 8.4 days). Even though the operating time
for laparoscopic nephrectomy was longer (120 vs. 104 min), the difference was not stat-
istically significant (18). Hamilton et al. (28) found comparable results on transperitoneal
laparoscopic nephrectomy with a significant decrease in hospital stay after laparoscopic
compared to open nephrectomy (22.5 vs. 41.3 h). Operative time was significantly
longer in the laparoscopic group (175.6 vs. 120.2 min).
Abbou et al. (13) retrospectively compared retroperitoneal laparoscopic radical
nephrectomy to open radical nephrectomy for renal cancer in adults. Operative time
was longer in the laparoscopic group (121 vs. 145 min). In the laparoscopic group
there was significantly less blood loss, less postoperative pain medication, and a shorter
hospital stay.
2.3. Partial Nephrectomy

2.3.1. Indications
Partial nephrectomy is usually done in children to remove a non-functioning upper or
lower pole secondary to complicated duplex anomalies of the kidney. The usual pathology
of the upper pole is obstruction associated with a ureterocele or incontinence secondary to
an ectopic ureter. The usual pathology in the lower pole is reflux. Laparoscopic partial
nephrectomy is technically more demanding than total nephrectomy. Jordan and
Winslow (29) described the first case of upper pole partial nephrectomy in a child by
transperitoneal laparoscopy. Janestschek et al. (30) reported their series of 14 cases of suc-
cessful partial nephrectomies in children. These procedures can be performed using a
retroperitoneal or transperitoneal approach. Laparoscopic techniques are well suited to
this procedure, with the benefits of perfect global exposure to the anatomy of the full
kidney and its vascularization without the need to mobilize the remaining part of the
kidney. Another advantage is that there is no need for a second inguinal incision to
excise the distal ureter. Our preference is the retroperitoneal approach as it provides a pos-
terior access to the kidney without dissecting the main renal pedicle, an unavoidable step
during the transperitoneal anterior approach.
356 El-Ghoneimi
We have shown, in a retrospective comparative study, that retroperitoneal laparoscopic

partial nephrectomy can be performed in a comparable operative time to that of an open pro-
cedure (31). The mean operative time was 146 min (50–180) and 152 min (75–240) for the
open surgery and the laparoscopy groups, respectively. The main advantage to the laparos-
copic approach is that the hospital stay is shortened significantly compared to that of an
open procedure. The mean hospital stay was 1.4 days (1–3) and 3.9 days (3–5) for both
the laparoscopy and the open surgery groups, respectively (p , 0.0001). Eight of 13 children
were discharged on the day following that of the laparoscopic procedure.
2.3.2. Technique of Retroperitoneal Partial Nephrectomy

The upper pole ureter is identified at the lower pole of the kidney and dissected very close
to its wall to avoid injury to the vascular supply of the lower pole ureter. We find it helpful
to ligate the proximal ureter before cutting it, so the proximal ureter remains dilated facil-
itating the dissection of the upper pole. Because the exposure is posterior, contrary to the
transperitoneal anterior approach, the upper pole ureter is lifted off the vessels by blunt
dissection superiorly. The upper pole ureter is used as a handle to facilitate this part of dis-
section. The plane between the dilated upper pole pelvis and the lower pole parenchyma is
easily identifiable by blunt dissection until the edges of the thin parenchyma of the upper
moiety are recognized. At this step, the upper pole vessels are identified running from the
aorta or the renal vessels to the upper pole parenchyma. They are either clipped or coagu-
lated depending on their size. The upper pole is identified by color changes after vessel
ligation and by the difference in appearance between the normal lower pole and the
dilated dysplastic upper pole. The duplex system anomalies have a well-defined vascular
line of demarcation between the upper and lower poles of the kidney. However, sometimes
it is difficult to individualize upper pole vessels, and the parenchymal transection is started
before vascular control of the upper pole. Transection can be done by electrocautery,
but we prefer the Harmonic scalpel with the curved jaws, as it provides a clean cut at
the junction between the upper and lower poles.
In partial nephrectomy where there is more substantial parenchyma, other means
may be required for specific control of bleeding. These may include bipolar electrocautery,
electrosurgical snare electrode, microwave coagulator, Gill renal tourniquet, or argon
beam, Nd:YAG or holmium:YAG laser (32 – 38).
To minimize mobilization of the lower pole and consequently the risk of indirect
vascular trauma of the renal pedicle, the lower pole remains attached to the peritoneum
during all the steps of the procedure. The upper pole is completely freed from peritoneal
attachment before transecting the parenchyma to avoid transperitoneal bowel injury.
If upper pole partial nephrectomy is done using a transperitoneal approach, the prox-
imal ureter must be passed behind the renal hilum and delivered under the vessels from above
after mobilization of the upper pole ureter. This step is technically the most difficult part of
the procedure and requires dissection of the lower pole vessels (32). Identification of the
upper pole vessels and parenchymal transection are identical to the retroperitoneal approach.
2.3.3. Retroperitoneal Lower Pole Partial Nephrectomy

Access is the same as for the upper pole. The lower pole ureter is identified and followed to
the lower pole pelvis to be sure of its identity. Contrary to the upper pole nephrectomy, full
dissection of the lower pole vessels is necessary before transecting the parenchyma. As the
main pathology is reflux with repeated infections, the lower pole is usually retracted and
easily identified from the healthy upper pole parenchyma. The ureter should be ligated
close to the bladder to avoid postoperative reflux into a long ureteral stump.
2.4. Pyeloplasty
2.4.1. Indications
Open pyeloplasty remained the standard treatment for both adult and pediatric patients
until the mid-1980s, when the morbidity associated with the flank incision led urologists
to explore less invasive alternatives. In the 1990s, the endourologic management of
uretero-pelvic junction (UPJ) obstruction became the treatment of choice in the adult
population. Although the postoperative morbidity is significantly less after the endoscopic
procedures, their success rate does not exceed 80% (39).
Laparoscopic pyeloplasty was introduced in adults in 1993 (40,41). In the initial
report of five cases, the operative time ranged from 3 h to 7 h. The procedure has
gained in popularity, and recent series have reported a success rate of .95% (42 – 44).
The techniques reported were either a dismembered or non-dismembered pyeloplasty.
Soulie et al. (45) have compared retroperitoneal laparoscopic vs. open pyeloplasty
with a minimal incision in 53 consecutive nonrandomized adults. The mean operating
time (165 vs. 145 min) was similar in both groups. Incidence of complications, hospital
stay, and functional results were equivalent for both groups, but the return to painless
activity was more rapid with laparoscopy in younger patients. Bauer et al. (46) did a
similar study, with no difference in the postoperative outcome between laparoscopic
and open pyeloplasty. In children, the experience is still limited to a few centers with
small numbers of patients. Tan (47) reported his experience with transperitoneal laparo-
scopic dismembered pyeloplasty in 18 children aged 3 months –15 years old (mean 17
months). Mean operative time was 89 min. There was no conversion to open surgery.
Two patients with persistent obstruction underwent repeat laparoscopic pyeloplasty.
Retroperitoneal laparoscopic dismembered pyeloplasty is also feasible in children.
Yeung et al. (48) have reported their initial experience with retroperitoneal dismembered
pyeloplasty in 13 patients, one or whom required open conversion. The mean operative
duration was 143 (range 103– 235) min. All patients had a rapid and uneventful recovery.
Drainage was satisfactory in all 12 patients on a follow-up scan. The longer time needed
for the retroperitoneal approach is probably related to the limit of the working space that
renders suturing more difficult. Although postoperative urine leak has not yet been
reported, this complication would be better tolerated in the retroperitoneal space than in
the peritoneal cavity. For this reason we prefer the retroperitoneal approach. In our experi-
ence, we attempted the retroperitoneal approach in 21 children, four of whom required
conversion to open surgery (49). Conversion was decided at the time of suturing, one
for a large redundant renal pelvis of 2 L capacity, one for kidney rotation, and two
exceeded the time permitted within our teaching hospital. Operative time was longer
than the previously reported series, ranging from 3 h to 5 h. Mean hospital stay was
2 days, and return to full activities was 5 days after surgery. After a mean follow up of
18 months (range 6 months –3 years), none of our patients demonstrated persistent
obstruction on follow-up.
The gold standard in children remains the open retroperitoneal dismembered pyelo-
plasty. The advantages of open pyeloplasty include mucosa-to-mucosa anastomosis and
excision of redundant renal pelvis and diseased ureter. The retroperitoneal laparoscopic dis-
membered pyeloplasty represents an attractive alternative to conventional open pyeloplasty.
It is technically challenging but with practice and technical adaptations (50) to improve
suturing, it may be completed in the same time as conventional open pyeloplasty. In the
future, surgical robotics may facilitate suturing in such a limited working space. Recently,
Peters (51) has presented his first preliminary results of robotic-assisted laparoscopic trans-
peritoneal pyeloplasty in children. The first impression is that the robotic-assisted technique
358 El-Ghoneimi
makes suturing easier and may allow to expand advanced laparoscopic reconstructive
surgery to bigger number of surgeons without expertise in laparoscopic surgery.
2.4.2. Technique of Laparoscopic Retroperitoneal Pyeloplasty

The same access is used as described for nephrectomy. Yeung et al. (48) used different
positioning according to the side of the kidney; semi-prone for the right side and semi-
lateral for the left side. The kidney is approached posteriorly and the renal pelvis is first
identified. The pyeloureteral junction is identified and a minimal dissection is done to
free the junction from connective tissue. Small vessels are divided using bipolar electro-
coagulation. Care is taken not to section ureteral blood vessels. A fourth trocar (3 mm) is
inserted at the anterior axillary line, anterior to the first trocar. A stay stitch is placed at the
junction. Aberrant crossing vessels are identified. The renal pelvis is partially divided
using scissors at the most dependant part and gentle traction on the stay suture helps to
define this point. Keeping the traction, the ureter is partially divided and incised vertically
for spatulation. The traction suture helps to mobilize the ureter so the scissors can be in the
axis of the ureter, usually introduced through the last trocar. The anterior surface of the
kidney is left adherent to the peritoneum so that the kidney is retracted medially
without the need for individual kidney retraction. The ureteropelvic anastomosis begins
using a 6-0 absorbable suture with a tapered 3/8 of circle needle, placed from the most
dependant portion of the pelvis to the most inferior point or vertex of the ureteral spatula-
tion. The suture is tied using the intracorporeal technique with the knots placed outside the
lumen. The same stitch is used to run the anterior wall of the anastomosis. The UPJ is kept
intact for traction and stabilization of the suture line, and removed just before tying the last
suture on the pelvis. A double-pigtail stent is inserted through the last trocar and its pos-
ition in the bladder is assured under fluoroscopy. The posterior ureteropelvic anastomosis
is then done. The pelvis is trimmed if needed. In case of aberrant crossing vessels, the tech-
nique is slightly different. After placement of the stay suture, the ureter is completely
divided and the UPJ and the pelvis are delivered anterior to the vessels with the help of
the stay suture. Then the anastomosis is performed as described. A Foley catheter is left
in the bladder for 24 h postoperatively.
3. LOWER URINARY TRACT
Contrary to upper tract surgery, experience with laparoscopic procedures for the lower
urinary tract is still in the era of development and evaluation. Rare indications specific
to pediatric patients, such as excision of a complicated prostatic utricle, can be done
successfully by laparoscopy, offering a good surgical view and permitting easy dissection
in a deep and narrow pelvic cavity (52). The most common indication for lower urinary
tract surgery in children is the treatment of vesicoureteral reflux. Major reconstructive
operations are less frequent in pediatric than in adult surgery.
3.1. Treatment of Vesicoureteral Reflux

The surgical treatment of vesicoureteral reflux has been well established for several
decades. Open ureterovesical reimplantation procedures are highly successful with
success rate of over 99% in children. Efforts to improve these procedures have been
directed toward reducing the perioperative morbidity and shortening hospitalization
while maintaining the success rate.
3.1.1. Laparoscopic Extravesical Reimplantation

This technique was first reported in animal models with satisfying results (53). Early clini-
cal reports (54,55) did not recommend the procedure because the advantages of the laparo-
scopic technique were outweighed by the disadvantages, such as long operative time,
technical difficulty, and uncertain long-term results. Later, Lakshmanan and Fung (55)
modified the Lich – Gregoire laparoscopic extravesical approach and reported 100%
success rate with 71 refluxing ureters in 47 children. They recommended patient selection
and advised open surgery for children younger than 4 years and also in cases of megaureter
requiring ureteral tapering.
3.1.2. Endoscopic Intravesical Reimplantation

Okamura et al. (57) reported their initial experience with endoscopic trigonoplasty in 12
patients. Using the urethral route, a pneumo-bladder, and two trocars on the abdomen, the
ureteric orifices were approximated close to the midline. Initially, vesico-ureteric reflux
was eradicated in all patients. In a subsequent report, the use of the technique in a larger
number of children with longer follow-up revealed a lower cure rate and higher rate of
recurrence (58). At 12 months, there was no reflux in 59% of children and in 74% of
adults. Trigonal splitting caused recurrence of reflux, which was greater than grade II.
Gatti (59) reported a similar experience, but their results were improved using the
Cohen technique instead of the previously described Gil – Vernet technique; resolution
of reflux was obtained in five of six treated children. Recently, Jeff Valla, Nice, France,
has presented a successful experience with laparoscopic Cohen reimplantation in four chil-
dren, reproducing exactly the open surgical technique (presented at the annual meeting of
the French Society of Pediatric Surgery, 5– 7 September, 2001, Paris, France). His current
series is now 20 patients without recurrence of reflux (personal communication). CK
Yeung, Hong Kong, has nearly the same experience using transvesical 3-ports technique,
with an average operative time of 2 h for bilateral cases (personal communication).
A new surgical concept with modified instruments, easily usable inside the bladder,
may replace conventional intravesical surgery in children with a comparable success rate.
3.1.3. Endoscopic Subureteral Injection

Endoscopic management of reflux is by far the least invasive with respect to postoperative
discomfort, cosmetic results, and hospital stay (in the majority of patients subureteral
injection is performed on an outpatient basis). The remaining problem is the choice of
bulking agent, which must be safe, stable, and effective on long-term follow-up.
Endoscopic management of vesicoureteral reflux in children has become an
accepted alternative to open ureteral reimplantation in many centers. Until recently the
most common bulking agent used was polytetrafluoroethylene. Puri and Granata (60)
reviewed a considerable multicenter survey of 12,251 refluxing ureters treated endo-
scopically with subureteral polytetrafluoroethylene injection, and followed for 1 to 13
years. Subureteral injection failed to correct reflux in 554 ureters (4.5%). In this review,
no clinically untoward effects were reported in any patient due to the use of polytetra-
fluoroethylene as an injectable material. However, intense local granulomatous reaction
and migration to lungs and brain have been reported and have discouraged its further
application by most urologists (61). More recently, polymethylsiloxane (Macroplastique,
Uroplasty Inc., Geleen, The Netherlands), a silicone elastomer, has been introduced as a
more ideal agent because of bulky consistency, lack of migration, minimal local reaction.
Dodat et al. (62) have reported a significant experience in reflux treatment by endoscopic
360 El-Ghoneimi
implantation of polymethylsiloxane in 297 children with 454 refluxing vesicorenal units.

Regardless of the etiology and the grade, reflux resolved in 91.2% of children (93.3% of
ureters). The experience with this agent in North America is limited to one recent publi-
cation by Herz et al. (63), documenting a similar success rate in low-grade reflux but a
lower success rate in high-grade reflux. Other substances, as autologous chondrocytes,
have been used and reported in smaller numbers of patients, but had ,70% success
rate (64).
3.2. Major Lower Urinary Tract Reconstruction

Urogenital cancer and neurogenic bladder are the main indications for bladder replace-
ment and augmentation in adults, and the most common indication in children is a
small, poorly compliant bladder secondary to neurogenic bladder, posterior urethral
valves, or bladder exstrophy. The development of laparoscopic radical prostatectomy in
adults by Guillannau et al. (65) has opened a new era in laparoscopic reconstructive uro-
logic surgery. Several techniques were reported in animal models to adapt laparoscopic
techniques to standard bladder augmentation surgery (66,67).
Docimo et al., were the first to report laparoscopic gastrocystoplasty in a 17-year-old
girl with a poorly compliant bladder (68). Their experience extended later to involve eight
patients who underwent laparoscopic-assisted enterocystoplasty using a variety of bowel
segments. The enterovesical anastomosis was performed using an open technique through
a Pfannensteil or midline incision (69).
Gill et al. (70) have reported an initial clinical experience with laparoscopic
augmentation enterocystoplasty using the ileum, sigmoid, or right colon in three patients
with functionally reduced bladder capacities due to neurogenic causes. Bowel reanastomo-
sis was performed by exteriorizing the bowel loop outside the abdomen through a 2-cm
extension of the umbilical port site. The enterovesical anastomosis was done using an
intracorporeal laparoscopic suturing technique. Various bowel segments can be fashioned,
as with open surgery, including creation of a continent, catheterizable stoma.
Although preliminary results are encouraging and indicate the technical potential for
major reconstructive surgery, the efficiency of these procedures and the benefits over the
standard open technique still need further experience with larger series and long-term
results. In pediatric patients, indications are less frequent and validation of the efficiency
of these complex procedures should come through the experience of the adult urologists.
4. COMPLICATIONS OF LAPAROSCOPIC UROLOGICAL

PROCEDURES
Complications of abdominal laparoscopy for urologic procedures, such as bowel and great
vessel injury, have been documented in the adult and pediatric populations (71 –73). In a
multicenter survey involving 5,400 pediatric urological laparoscopic procedures, Peters
(71) showed that the clearest predictor of complications was laparoscopic experience.
Soulie et al. (73) have reported a decrease in complication rate from 9% for the first
100 to 4% for the subsequent 250 procedures. Most intraoperative complications (2.6%)
were vascular and visceral injuries, while postoperative complications (2.8%) were
predominantly thromboembolism and wound infection at trocar sites. Complications of
retroperitoneal renal surgery are rare and mainly include vascular or colonic injury.
Kumar et al. (74) reported a major complication rate of 3.5% in 316 patients (aged
4 – 88 years) who underwent retroperitoneal laparoscoscopic urological surgery. Vascular
injuries occurred in seven, five of which required immediate conversion to open surgery.
Four patients (1.2%) had other major complications including colonic injury, retroperito-
neal collections, and incisional hernia.
In our experience with 65 retroperitoneal nephrectomies, we have had one vascular
tear at the origin of a lumbar vein in a case of xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis (27).
A clip without the need to convert to open surgery successfully closed the tear. In retro-
peritoneal procedures, traction on the kidney towards the top of the screen stretches renal
vessels, reducing bleeding while evaluating the feasibility of the hemostasis by laparo-
scopic measures. Our only postoperative complication was a hematoma after pretransplant
bilateral nephrectomy, which was drained percutaneously.
Pneumoperitonium secondary to peritoneal tear is commonly seen postoperatively
in patients undergoing the retroperitoneal approach (2,74). This occurred in 30% of
our cases in the early experience, and could be avoided by careful preparation of the retro-
peritoneal space for insertion of the anterior working ports. When pneumoperitoneum
occurs at the beginning of the procedure, the retroperitoneal working space is reduced
by the effect of the pneumoperitoneum. This can be managed either by laparoscopic sutur-
ing of the tear or, if not possible, by inserting a Veress needle in the peritoneal cavity to
evacuate the gas during the procedure. If the tear occurs after the ligation of the renal
vessels, during dissection of the anterior surface of the kidney or the ureter, the procedure
can usually be accomplished without specific management of the pneumoperitoneum.
Additional complications seen after partial nephrectomy are injury of the main renal
pedicle or injury of the duodenum during right upper pole nephrectomy (2).
5. CONCLUSIONS
Indications for laparoscopy in pediatric urology are expanding, with more centers being
involved in the evolution of various procedures. To avoid a discouraging learning curve,
we recommend that pediatric urologists acquire their experience in a progressive pattern
(75). Nephrectomy for multicystic dysplastic kidney or hydronephrosis is a relatively safe
and easy procedure, which acquaints the surgeon with laparoscopic exposure to the upper
tract. When the surgeon is familiar with this exposure he/she can proceed to more difficult
nephrectomies (pretransplant, partial nephrectomy). Reconstructive procedures as pyelo-
plasty should be restricted to surgeons with advanced laparoscopic expertise.
Time can only be limited by training. Today, training is easily available in many
centers of adult and pediatric surgery. Experienced peers are also available to accompany
the surgeon during the initial experience, especially in the era of telerobotic surgery (76).
This might improve the results during the initial experience with laparoscopy and
encourage its development among a larger number of pediatric urologists.
Minimal access procedures emphasize our goals of improving patient comfort and
safety while adapting the laparoscopic procedures as closely as possible to conventional
surgical techniques with respect to the operative time, cost, and surgical principles.
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31
Minimally Invasive Pediatric Neurosurgery
Wilson Ho and James M. Drake
1. Introduction: Historical Perspective 367

2. Hydrocephalus 368
2.1. Third Ventriculostomy 370
3. Endoscopic Treatment of Intracranial Cysts 372
3.1. Arachnoid Cysts 373
3.1.1. Treatment 374
3.1.2. Cystocisternostomies/Ventriculocystostomies 374
3.1.3. Cystoperitoneal Shunt 376
3.2. Colloid Cyst 376
3.2.1. Shunting 377
3.2.2. Cyst Aspiration 377
3.2.3. Craniotomy 377
3.2.4. Endoscopic Removal 378
4. Arterio-Venous Malformation (AVM) 378
5. General Goal of Treatment of AVM 378
5.1. Microsurgical Excision of AVM 379
5.2. Embolization of AVM 380
5.3. Radiosurgery 381
5.4. Success of Radiosurgery for AVMs 383
5.5. Conclusions 384
6. Neuronavigation 384
6.1. Armless Neuronavigation 387
6.2. Accuracy 387
References 389
1. INTRODUCTION: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Minimally invasive surgical techniques have had a major impact on pediatric neurosur-
gery. The history of this development is actually reasonably long. The earliest reported
neurosurgical endoscopic procedure was by Lespinasse (1) who was a Chicago urologist.
367
368 Ho and Drake
He fulgurated the choroid plexus bilaterally in two infants with hydroceplus using a small
cystoscope: one died immediately after the operation. A few years later, in 1918, Dandy
(2) devised a new treatment for hydrocephalus. He used a hand-held cystoscope illumi-
nated by room light and inserted it into the lateral ventricles to drain in cerebro-spinal
fluid and avulsed the choroid plexus. Three of the four patients died. In 1922, he reported
using a cystoscope to aid coagulating the plexus and coined the term Ventriculoscope (3).
The field was relatively static, due to this initial failure rate, until Harold Hopkins, a
British physicist, designed the rod lens system and flexible fiberoptic lenses in the 1960s.
These systems tremendously improved the quality of images and illumination. In the
1980s, video endoscopy was developed using the charged coupled device (CCD) technol-
ogy allowing multiple observers and enhancing teaching and documentation.
Neurosurgeons typically work with a single portal and scope with minimal diameter
and inside the brain, normally under water (Fig. 31.1). Larger rigid scopes—under a cm in
diameter—with multiple working channels and an irrigation system are typically used.
Common working instruments include coagulation probes, scissors, and dissectors.
Smaller rigid scopes as well as flexible fiberoptic endoscopes are used for inspection
(Fig. 31.2).
2. HYDROCEPHALUS
Hydrocephalus results from a pathological accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

within the ventricles of the brain at increased pressure (Fig. 31.3). Untreated it leads to
progressive neurological injury and death. The commonest form of treatment, cerebrosp-
inal fluid shunts have very high complication rates including shunt malfunction, shunt
infections, altered CSF hemodynamics, and overdrainage causing slit-ventricle syndrome
(4). The commonest cause of hydrocephalus amenable to endoscopic surgery is
obstruction of the cerebral aqueduct (connecting the third to fourth cerebral ventricles)
from pathologies such as tumours or congenital stenosis of the aqueduct (5) (Fig. 31.4).
Third ventriculostomy, or creating a hole in the floor of the third ventricle, bypasses
this block and more importantly avoids the use of a shunt. The pediatric group of patients
suffering from hydrocephalus benefits most from this procedure since they suffer the
Figure 31.1 Neuroendoscopes are available in different sizes and lengths.

MAS in Pediatric Neurosurgery 369
Figure 31.2 Micro-forceps and scissors are used through the operative channels of the endoscope.
longest with the disease and are most prone to shunt complications and repeated
revisions (6).
Aqueductal stenosis is usually present in the second decade of life. The common
presenting symptoms are headache, gait disturbance, ataxia, cognitive dysfunction,
enlarged head size and endocrine dysfunction. The possible etiologies of aqueductal
Figure 31.3 CT of obstructive hydrocephalus.

370 Ho and Drake
Figure 31.4 Obstructive hydrocephalus by 4th ventricular tumor. Arrow showing the trajectory of
the endoscope and the place of ventriculostomy.
stenosis include neonatal or infantile infection (7), x-chromosome transmitted (8), and
vitamin deficiency (9). However in the majority of cases, a known cause is absent.
The diagnosis of aqueductal stenosis is by demonstrating enlargement of the lateral
and third ventricles and a small fourth ventricle, also known as tri-ventricular hydrocepha-
lus. Further investigation by an MRI scan may demonstrate the site of blockage and lack of
flow. Also, the MRI should show a downwardly bulged floor of the third ventricle (10).
2.1. Third Ventriculostomy

Dandy (11) was the first to conceive of an internal shunt for obstructive hydrocephalus.
Third ventriculostomies were initially performed as open operations and then percuta-
neously (12) using stereotactic guidance (discussed subsequently) under radiographic
control. However, modern neuro-endoscopy has made this technique safer by using
direct visualization. For the technique, the patient is put in a supine position. A frontal
burr hole is placed about 3 cm lateral from the midline on the coronal suture. After
opening the dura, the endoscope is inserted either according to surface landmarks under
computer-assisted navigation (discussed subsequently) into the lateral ventricle. Neurona-
vigation is particularly useful in cases where the lateral ventricles are not dilated, in order
to choose the optimal trajectory aiming at the floor of the 3rd ventricle. In most instances, a
rigid endoscope with working channels is used.
The next step is to identify the foramen of Monroe, assisted by the identification of
the normal venous anatomy and choroid plexus (Fig. 31.5). The endoscope is passed
through the foramen of Monro into the 3rd ventricle under direct vision. The floor of
the 3rd ventricle is inspected (Fig. 31.6). The site of ventriculostomy is between the
infundibular recess of the pituitary stalk and the mammillary bodies to enter into the pre-
pontine cistern. The floor is usually thinned out into a translucent membrane from chronic
hydrocephalus, and the Basilar artery which sits in front of the mammillary bodies can be
Figure 31.5 Endoscopic view of foramen of Monroe.
visualized and avoided. In cases of thickened floor, because of previous infection or fibro-
sis, there is a potential risk of injuring the Basilar artery.
Many techniques have been described to perforate the floor of the 3rd ventricle, such
as using the endoscope itself (13), blunt probe (14), balloon catheter, monopolar or bipolar
coagulation (15), and laser (16). Heat producing methods such as coagulation or laser may
be associated with higher risk and are generally not recommended. Traumatic Basilar
artery aneurysm after 3rd ventriculostomy has occurred (17). The most acceptable and
safe method is to perforate with the blunt probe. After perforation, a Fogarty balloon
catheter of 3 –5F is gently repeated inflated to enlarge the opening. The endoscope is
then passed through the stoma to confirm free flow of CSF into the prepontine cistern.
Coexistent tumors may also be biopsied. Tumors situated in the posterior part of the
third ventricle, around the corner from the foramen of Monro, may require a flexible
scope for access, to avoid injury to the venous structures and choroid plexus.
Figure 31.6 (A) Floor of 3rd ventricle and (B) opening created at floor of 3rd ventricle with
balloon catheter.
372 Ho and Drake
The success of 3rd ventriculostomy is assessed both radiologically and clinically.

Radiographically, the patency of the opening is assessed by MR flow studies, which
show flow void signal through the floor of the 3rd ventricle. Lev et al. (18) described a
method of determining the functional status of 3rd ventriculostomies by using phase-
contrast MR velocity measurements, finding the ratio between the high pontine cistern and
the space anterior to the spinal cord.
The ventricular size may or may not change significantly compared to preoperative
images, especially in patients with long-standing hydrocephalus (19). But radiographic
evidence of raised intracranial pressure, such as peri-ventricular signal changes, is
absent. Schwartz looked at the change in ventricular size after 3rd ventriculostomy and
found that a decrease in the 3rd ventricle size is a more reliable indicator of a successful
outcome.
Recently Hopf et al. (20) looked at the outcome of a heterogenous group of 100 con-
secutive patients who underwent 3rd ventriculostomy, including both adult and pediatric
group of patients. The overall clinical improvement was 76%. Best results were in the
group of patients with benign space-occupying lesions causing obstruction in CSF flow,
with a success rate of over 90%. In contrary, patients with progressive tumorous lesions
have a success rate of only 64%.
A majority of patients suffering from spinal dysraphism also develop hydrocephalus.
Jones et al. (21) reported 25 patients in which he treated 11 patients ,6 months of age but
with one success only. The group also reported 69 patients with myelomeningocele and
hydrocephalus. Fifty patients were shunted previously. The overall success with 3rd
ventriculostomy was 72%.
The optimal timing of 3rd ventriculostomy is unknown. Most operators think that
the procedure is significantly more effective in pediatric patients who are older than
2 years of age. Teo and Jones (22) reported a poor success rate for patients with spinal
dysraphism and hydrocephalus operated at ,6 months of age.
Performing third ventriculostomy in place of a shunt revision is an attractive alterna-
tive in patients plagued by repeated shunt failure or infection. However, long-term shunt-
ing in patients previously having normal CSF absorptive ability may lead to atrophy or
involution of the resorption sites, leading to failure of third ventriculostomy. Kehler
et al. (23) illustrated this point in two patients who experienced symptoms of raised intra-
cranial pressure in the first few days after ventriculostomy. Both patients drastically
improved after the initial period. The author postulated that the initial high pressure
was required to “reopen” the CSF absorptive channels during this adaptation period.
Cinalli et al. (24) reported a series of patients with shunt malfunction treated with 3rd ven-
triculostomy, with an overall success rate of 76% at median follow-up of 8.7 years. Eight
out of 13 patients with shunt infection had their shunt removed successfully after
ventriculostomy.
Third ventriculostomy is not without risk. Although most complications have been
few and relatively mild, serious complications including cardiac arrest, hypothalamic
damage, and bleeding and laceration of the basilar artery leading to the formation of
basilar tip aneurysm, and neurological disability have been reported.
3. ENDOSCOPIC TREATMENT OF INTRACRANIAL CYSTS
Benign intracranial cystic lesions include arachnoid cysts, intraventricular cysts, porence-
phalic cysts, and colloid cysts. These cysts normally have a very slow rate of growth. The
indications for treatment of these cystic lesions include hydrocephalus from obstruction of
the CSF circulation pathway (25), focal neurological deficit, seizure disorder, and nonspe-
cific symptoms such as headache.
Conventional treatment options for symptomatic intracranial cysts include resection
or marsupialization of the cyst, fenestration of the cyst into the basal cisterns to establish a
communication with the normal CSF circulation. Both methods have previously required a
formal craniotomy. Another option is shunting of the cyst to an extracranial compartment;
most commonly to the peritoneum. However, the shunt apparatus, like any implanted
hardware is prone to malfunction and infective complications. With the recent advance
of neuroendoscopy, cyst fenestration may be achieved through a less invasive approach.
Hopf and Perneczky (26) have classified endoscopic use in the treatment of intracra-
nial cysts according to the optical device used; whether the endoscope was used alone or in
conjunction with the microscope, and whether the surgical manipulation is done outside or
inside the endoscope. The procedures were categorized into pure endoscopic neurosurgery
(EN), endoscope-assisted microneurosurgery (EAM) and endoscope-controlled micro-
neurosurgery (ECM).
Endoscopic neurosurgery (EN) is best for deep-seated lesions such as intraventricu-
lar cysts where there is no extension to accessible regions of the skull. All the manipula-
tions are performed with the endoscope. For cysts with the extensive contact with the
accessible part of the skull, such as in the case of large middle fossa cyst, Hopf rec-
ommended the use of EAM. This combines the strength of both microscopy and endo-
scopy. Difficult and hazardous dissections are done by conventional microsurgical
techniques under the microscope. The endoscope is used to aid inspection of areas not
accessible by the microscope.
For ECM, microsurgical manipulation is done solely under endoscopic guidance. It
is used in lesions where there is moderate contact to accessible regions of the skull, requir-
ing difficult dissection. The endoscope provides an excellent view and the surgeon can use
a wide variety of familiar microsurgical tools.
3.1. Arachnoid Cysts

Arachnoid cysts are developmental in origin and were described by Bright (27) more than
170 years ago. An arachnoid cyst is a collection of CSF-like fluid in between the split layer
of the arachnoid membrane under pressure. They are lined by a single layer of flattened
arachnoid cells. The pathogenesis is still unknown. Several mechanisms have been pro-
posed for their origin: the ball-valve mechanism (28) and the abnormal secretion of
CSF into the cysts (29). Schroeder reported a case of suprasellar arachnoid cyst where
they observed a slit-valve-like mechanism that opened and closed synchronously with
arterial pulsation.
They have a special affinity for the middle cranial fossa. Wester (30) found that 65%
of 126 patients had arachnoid cysts located in the middle cranial fossa. The second most
common location is the posterior fossa, followed by suprasellar location and in the quad-
rigeminal cistern. Approximately 75% of patients present in the pediatric group. They
present with signs and symptoms of raised intracranial pressure, headache, and midline
shift on imaging studies. Others may have seizure disorders. Patients with posterior
fossa lesions may present with cranial nerve deficits or hydrocephalus from obstruction
of CSF flow. Some arachnoid cysts are small and are discovered incidentally. Galassi
et al. (31) devised a classification for arachnoid cysts in the middle cranial fossa based
on their appearance.
374 Ho and Drake
. Type 1 cysts are small lenticular-shaped cysts located proximally in the Sylvian
fissure at the anterior pole of the middle cranial fossa immediately posterior to
the sphenoidal ridge and not associated with any mass effect or midline shift.
. Type 2 cysts appear rectangular in shape and involve the proximal-to-mid aspect
of the fissure outlining the insular cortex. Minimal midline shift may be present.
. Type 3 cysts are large lenticular-shaped lesions, often with significant midline
shift.
3.1.1. Treatment
Arachnoid cysts that are small and are found incidentally are treated conservatively in
view of their benign and slow-growing nature. Some cysts may become symptomatic
by expanding and compressing the surrounding brain tissue (Fig. 31.7). For patients exhi-
biting evidence of raised intracranial pressure, focal neurological deficits, and intractable
seizures (28,32) surgical intervention should be considered if these symptoms are referable
to the cyst. Surgical options include open craniotomy and fenestration, with or without
marsupialization of the cyst, endoscopic fenestration, and shunting.
3.1.2. Cystocisternostomies/Ventriculocystostomies
In fenestration surgery, part of the cyst wall is excised to enter into the cyst. The medial
aspect of the cyst wall is then fenestrated into the basal cistern (cysto-cisternostomies), or
the ventricular system (ventriculo-cystostomies), creating a communication between the
cyst and the CSF circulating space (Fig. 31.8). The relatively avascular nature of arachnoid
cysts makes these lesions particularly well suited for endoscopic fenestration. Substitution
of the endoscope for the microscope permits the surgeon to work in a very small space and
eliminates the need for brain retraction.
The procedure is performed under general anesthesia. A burr hole is made over the
area where the arachnoid cyst is situated. After opening the cyst, a rigid endoscope is
introduced into the cyst under constant gentle low-pressure irrigation. This is important
Figure 31.7 Arachnoid cyst obliterating posterior part of 3rd ventricle and aqueduct.
Figure 31.8 (A) Large left temporal arachnoid cyst; (B) fenestration of arahnoid cyst with micro-
forcep and (C) opening created between arachnoid cyst and basal cistern.
for all neuroendoscopic procedures in order to maintain optimal visual feedback. After
inspection of the cyst wall, the thin, often translucent arachnoid membrane on the
medial aspect is opened into the basal cistern or the ventricle. This may be achieved by
micro-grasping forceps or blunt hook. The opening is then enlarged with the help of a
balloon catheter. The endoscope is then advanced further through the opening to ensure
the two compartments are freely communicating.
McComb reported 36 children with middle fossa arachnoid cysts. The majority were
symptomatic. Those that were symptomatic showed a progressive increase in size on
imaging studies. Thirty-five patients were successfully fenestrated with one patient requiring
a shunt operation. Schroeder reported 11 patients with arachnoid cysts who underwent endo-
scopic fenestration. The follow-up was up to 45 months. Ten patients had decreased cyst size
and nine patients had resolution of preoperative symptoms. Others have achieved less dra-
matic results. Hopf reported only half of their patients with arachnoid cyst were successfully
fenestrated on long-term follow-up. Neuroendoscopy, however is not a risk-free procedure.
Small veins or perforating vessels may be lacerated during the procedure. Any small amount
of bleeding will severely affect the quality of the visual image, making hemostasis more dif-
ficult. Overall the success rates of endoscopic fenestration of middle fossa arachnoid cysts
have been reported to be 50–70%. Patients who failed the procedure continue to have
symptoms and signs related to the lesion, requiring shunting operation.
376 Ho and Drake
3.1.3. Cystoperitoneal Shunt

Another treatment option for arachnoid cysts is to divert the cyst fluid to an extracranial
space; in most cases, the peritoneum. Some authors reserve shunting for cases where open
or endoscopic fenestration have failed. Others use shunting as their first line treatment believ-
ing that up to 50% of fenestrated cases eventually require placement of shunt. The advantage
of shunting has been stated to be a minor operation with less risk and fewer complications
(25,33). Arai et al. (34) reported 77 patients with middle fossa cysts that were treated with
cystoperitoneal shunting. A total of 12 revisions were required for infection and shunt
malfunctions, concluding that shunting is a safe and viable option to cyst fenestration.
The controversy continues regarding the best surgical treatment. In experienced
hands, endoscopic fenestration is a safe and effective procedure. A proportion of the
patients can be treated without implantation of hardware. Should the endoscopic pro-
cedure fail, microsurgical fenestration or cystoperitoneal shunting can then be performed.
3.2. Colloid Cyst

Colloid cysts are located in the roof of the third cerebral ventricle at the foramen of
Monroe and represent 1% of all intracranial neoplasms (35) (Fig. 31.9). They can
either intermittently or continuously obstruct the foramen of Munroe, producing enlarge-
ment of the lateral ventricles. Although they are histologically benign, the natural history
is not clearly known. Some cysts are asymptomatic and remain static in size radiologically
for many years (36). On the other hand, colloid cysts are known to be associated with
sudden death as a result of acute obstruction of the CSF pathways (37). The current
consensus is that symptomatic cysts such as in patients with headache, nausea, gait dis-
turbance, coma, and ventricular dilatation should be treated aggressively. However the
treatment of small, asymptomatic cysts remains controversial. Treatment modalities
include simple shunting of the ventricles to relieve the hydrocephalus, stereotactic
cyst aspiration, craniotomy, and microsurgical excision of the cyst and neuroendoscopic
fenestration of the cysts (Fig. 31.10).
Figure 31.9 Colloid cyst obstructing foramen of Monroe causing obstructive hydrocephalus.
Figure 31.10 Colloid cyst: axial MRI scan.
3.2.1. Shunting
Colloid cysts cause symptoms by producing hydrocephalus. The simplest treatment to
alleviate the hydrocephalus is to insert a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. However, shunting
alone is not an ideal treatment. The colloid cyst often obstructs both foramen of
Monroe, requiring shunting of both lateral ventricles separately. Also shunts are prone
to blockage, which precipitate the patient to sudden obstructive hydrocephalus. Therefore,
simple shunting is not longer considered acceptable.
3.2.2. Cyst Aspiration

Another option is stereotactic aspiration of the colloid cyst. It was first described in 1975
(38). This is probably the least invasive method. Successful aspiration depends on the vis-
cosity of the cyst content and the size of the cyst. Some colloid cysts have very viscous
content rendering needle aspiration difficult or impossible. Cyst size is also important in
the success of aspiration. It is more difficult to puncture a small firm cyst than a big
cyst with the needle. Kondziolka and Lumsford (39) reported a series of 22 patients
with colloid cysts. Stereotactic aspiration alone was successful in 11 patients. However
simple aspiration, leaving the cyst wall behind, may run the risk of recurrence. Mathiesen
et al. (40) looked at the long-term outcome of a series of 16 patients with colloid cysts
treated by stereotactic-guided aspiration. Thirteen of these patients required reoperation
due to an acute comatose state, development of hydrocephalus or regrowth of the cysts.
3.2.3. Craniotomy
Open surgical removal is the gold standard for colloid cysts of the third ventricle. This is
the only method that can remove the cyst totally in most instances to ensure a definite cure
378 Ho and Drake
for this condition. Dandy (41) in 1930 first described the open surgery for colloid cysts
using the transcortical –transventricular approach. Advocates of craniotomy and microsur-
gical approach argue that a stereotactic-guided transcallosal approach with total removal,
utilizing a 1 cm opening in the corpus callosum, is as minimally invasive as a 0.5 cm
endoscopic tunnel through the cortex. Total removal offers a better long-term result.
3.2.4. Endoscopic Removal

Guiot et al. (42) in 1963 first reported direct visualization of a colloid cyst using a rigid endo-
scope. Today, the procedure is performed with the patient under general anesthesia. A skin
incision is made about 3 cm lateral from the midline at the level of the coronal suture. A burr
hole is made, the dura is opened, and the neuroendoscope is inserted into the lateral ventricle
either freehanded or under image-guided navigation if the lateral ventricles are small. The
colloid cyst is first aspirated, which may be more difficult in cysts when the colloid material
is very viscous. The cyst wall is then opened widely with microscissors and forceps, facil-
itating further aspiration of its contents. The cyst wall is excised carefully in a piecemeal
fashion. Any residual cyst wall is then coagulated to decrease the chance of cyst recurrence.
Compared to open craniotomy and cyst excision, endoscopic approach cannot
usually accomplish complete removal. Attempt to remove the cysts completely by endo-
scopic route may be hazardous and may cause damage to surrounding structures such as
the fornices. The advantage of endoscopy is that this technique is a less invasive technique
with postoperative care being as simple as that required after a stereotactic puncture.
Longer follow-up is needed to assess the efficacy of endoscopic excision before this
technique is considered as the treatment of choice for colloid cysts of the third ventricle.
4. ARTERIO-VENOUS MALFORMATION (AVM)
An anteriovenous malformation (AVM) is an abnormal collection of high-flow vascular

channels supplied by arterial feeders with outflow into draining veins. In the pediatric
population, it accounts for 30 –50% of all intracerebral hemorrhages in children
(43,44). A large proportion of patients present with hemorrhage; some pediatric series
reported up to 85% with hemorrhage as their initial presentation (45,46), compared to
the adult incidence of 60% (47). Other presentations include seizure and focal neurologi-
cal deficit either from mass effect or from vascular steal phenomenon by the AVM chan-
nelling the blood away from surrounding functioning brain.
The best treatment for AVM in children remains controversial and the management
of AVMs have changed tremendously over the last few decades due to the development of
stereotactic radiosurgery and microvascular embolization. The options for treatment of
cerebral AVMs in general include a combination of microvascular resection, endovascular
embolization, stereotactic radiosurgery, and conservative treatment in patients where the
risk of treatment is determined to be too high. However, because of the high rate of bleed-
ing during the child’s lifetime, conservative treatment is seldom recommended. The most
commonly quoted annual risk of hemorrhage from a cerebral AVM is 2 –4% (48,49). For
an annual risk of 2%, the projected risk of hemorrhage over 50 years is 65%.
5. GENERAL GOAL OF TREATMENT OF AVM
In the treatment of cerebral AVMs, the goal is complete obliteration of the nidus with
preservation of neurological function.
5.1. Microsurgical Excision of AVM

Many authors have recommended surgical removal as the first line treatment for small and
accessible AVMs. Complete surgical excision offers an immediate cure and the patient is
free from any future risk of hemorrhage from the lesion (Fig. 31.11). However, in high-risk
lesions, surgical treatment may be associated with significant morbidity and mortality
(45). Spetzler and Martin have devised a widely used classification of cerebral AVM
based on the size, venous drainage, and proximity to eloquent areas of the brain with
regard to the risk of surgery. Low-grade AVMs are treated with surgical resection, with
or without preoperative embolization. When a lesion is considered high grade and too
Figure 31.11 (A) Operative view of a large AVM demonstrating the large draining vein and
(B) after total excision.
380 Ho and Drake
dangerous to be tackled surgically, other modalities like embolization and radiosurgery are
considered.
Before surgery, the patient’s cerebral angiogram and MRI scans are studied in detail.
From the angiogram, the number and position of the arterial feeders, the nidus, and the
draining veins are identified. The details of surgical approach is further planned from
the anatomical information obtained from the MRI. For AVMs that are deep-seated and
small, image-guided neuronavigation system can be very helpful in guiding the surgeon
to the AVM with minimal disturbance to surrounding tissues. Once the AVM is identified,
the nidus is carefully dissected from the surrounding brain. The arterial feeders are ident-
ified, coagulated, and sectioned. As the feeders are divided, the pressure and flow inside
the nidus decreases and become less engorged. The draining vein(s), which may be enor-
mous in size, must be kept patent and not disturbed until the very end. Otherwise the back
pressure will cause catastrophic rupture of the AVM.
5.2. Embolization of AVM

Embolization of AVM in the adult population is done with the patient awake, so that the
patient can be assessed clinically throughout the course of the procedure. Some unique
issues pertained to the pediatric group. In infants or small children, vascular access
required for endovascular procedure may be difficult or impossible. Embolization of
pediatric AVMs is usually performed via the transfemoral route under general anesthesia
(50) (Fig. 31.12). A femoral sheath is placed in one of the femoral arteries. Then flow-
directed or steerable microcatheters of various sizes and configurations are passed
through cerebral vessels into individual feeding arteries. Contrast material is injected to
obtain a superselective angiography, which is used to plan the area of embolization and
determine the rate of flow through the nidus. The angiogram can also be brought up
during embolization as a superimposed image providing a road map to aid negotiation
of catheters through tortuous feeding vessels. Special glue, n-butylcyanoacrylate
(NBCA) is the agent most commonly used for embolization of AVM. Once set, it
permanently occludes an area of the nidus. It has been shown from experience that soli-
dified NBCA is relatively soft and does not cause difficulties when the surgeon resects
the AVM. Other particulate materials, although are safer and easier to use, tend to recan-
nalize with time and are not used for AVM embolization. NBCA is mixed into different
concentrations, which have different solidifying time. The goal is to let the glue set
inside the nidus without getting it into the draining vein or the feeding artery. Blocking
the draining vein will cause outflow obstruction and increase in back pressure, exposing
unprotected areas of the AVM to risk of rupture. On the other hand, blocking the
feeding artery will preclude further access into that segment of the AVM. Embolization
may be done in a single session or as a staged procedure, especially for patients with
large AVMs, blocking off a number of feeding arteries at a time. This stepwise reduction
in nidus flow and size would decrease the risk of postprocedure perfusion breakthrough
bleeding as the residual AVM and the surrounding brain can adapt to the change in
hemodynamic gradually.
In the pediatric population, endovascular embolization is seldom used alone as the
treatment of AVMs. It is used as an adjunct with either surgery or radiosurgery. With
microsurgery, embolization is used to reduce flow and to occlude deep-feeding arteries
that are difficult to control during the course of dissection. For preradiosurgery emboliza-
tion (51), the goal is to permanently reduce the size of the nidus since a smaller nidus has a
higher chance of obliteration and lower morbidity (52).
Figure 31.12 (A) Vertebral artery angiogram: occipital lobe AVM and (B) after embolization.
5.3. Radiosurgery
Radiosurgery is a single-fraction radiation treatment. It causes obliteration of AVMs by
inducing a gradual sclerosing process of intimal hyperplasia of the abnormal vessels, ulti-
mately leading to thrombosis. This is a slow process, which takes place over a course of
382 Ho and Drake
few months to few years. The basic principle of stereotactic radiosurgery is beam conver-
gence. Irradiation is delivered from different directions with the lesion placed in the centre
focal point. Steiner et al. (53), in 1972, first reported treating a patient with cerebral AVM
by Gamma Knife Radiosurgery. Today the most widely used systems are the linear accel-
erator (LINAC)-based system and the gamma knife (GK) system; other new systems are
emerging and are gaining clinical popularity. The LINAC system uses a mechanical modi-
fication of the existing linear accelerator apparatus for conventional radiotherapy. Beam
convergence is achieved through adjustments of the table and gantry angles. The lesion
is irradiated while the gantry rotates through a pre-set range. The GK system utilizes mul-
tiple (106 in total) cobalt radiation source directed at the lesion. Because of the precision
required, mechanical accuracy and calibration must be achieved down to the millimeter
level. Another important principle of radiosurgery is a steep gradient of irradiation at
the treatment field edges. This has the effect of marked reduction of irradiation dose to
the surrounding normal structures. The average distance achieved from 90% to 50%
isodose line is 2 mm and from 90% to 20% is 4 mm (54,55). As a result, only a small
volume embracing the lesion receives a significant irradiation. In general, the irradiation
profile and accuracy of LINAC and GK do not differ significantly.
Stereotactic radiosurgery had been widely utilized in the adult population in differ-
ent fields of neurosurgery. Indications include growth of tumors, both primary and second-
ary, arteriovenous malformation, and in functional neurosurgery. In the pediatric
population, the use of radiosurgery had been more limited in view of the yet uncertain
effect of radiation on the developing brain. The only established indication is in the treat-
ment of cerebral AVMs. The success of radiosurgery is significantly influenced by AVM
volume and the radiation dose delivered. The idea lesion for radiosurgery is a small,
deep-seated AVM.
Radiosurgery for AVM is a one-session treatment. A typical stereotactic radiosurgi-
cal treatment is divided into three stages: image acquisition, planning, and treatment. It
begins with fixation of a stereotactic head frame to the head of the patient. This is fixed
rigidly by applying threaded pins to the outer table of the skull for the entire procedure.
The frame may be MRI compatible if MRI images are to be obtained on the day of treat-
ment. Alternatively, MRI images taken sometime before the treatment can be incorporated
or fused into the treatment plan by specially designed software. Children ,13– 15 years
old are less cooperative and less tolerant to long procedures; radiosurgery is usually done
under anesthesia. For patients over this age, the treatment is done under sedation.
With the head frame positioned, a contrast enhanced MRI scan or CT scan is
obtained to define the nidus of the AVM. MRI studies obtained before the day of treatment
can be incorporated into the CT scan using sophisticated fusion software. The patient is
then transported to the angiogram suite for lateral and anterioposterior angiography to
further define the anatomy of the nidus. Intra-arterial angiography is the gold standard
for imaging of AVMs. However it only provides two-dimensional information, whereas
CT and MRI are helpful in demonstrating the lesion in three-dimensions. For lesions situ-
ated in eloquent areas of the brain such as the motor and speech centers, useful images
from functional MRI can also be incorporated for planning. All the images are transferred
to the computer planning workstation where the radiosurgical team consisting of neurosur-
geons, neuro-oncologist, and neuroradiologist will formulate a treatment plan. The nidus
is outlined in the different imaging modalities for optimal target localization. Critical
structures like the optic apparatus and brainstem are also marked to minimize the radiation
dose received. Since the AVM nidus is usually irregular rather than spherical in shape, a
conformal plan needs multiple isocenters of various sizes. The neuro-oncologist will then
calculate and decide on the radiation dose delivered by each isocenter. The marginal dose
is determined, which is the amount of radiation delivered to the margin of the lesion. This
marginal dose is designed that it is situated at the steep drop-off region of the radiation
curve. Therefore the centre of the nidus receives higher and the surrounding normal
brain tissue is subjected to a lower radiation dose. Treatments are prescribed to the
80% isodose. The actual dosage delivered depends on the localizations, size of the
nidus, and the radiosensitivity of critical structures. A smaller dose is prescribed for a
larger lesion. The usual marginal dose is 18 –20 Gy.
The patient is then transported to the radiosurgery couch for treatment. After treat-
ment, the stereotactic frame is removed and the patient discharged the following morning.
Patients are maintained on anti-convulsion medications if they have history of seizures.
For larger AVMs after radiosurgery, a short course of steroid may be given to decrease
the amount of surrounding edema.
The end point of treatment of AVM is complete obliteration of the nidus. For radio-
surgery, there is a latent period of 2 – 3 years. Cerebral angiogram is the gold standard to
confirm the absence of abnormal AVM vessels and normalization of cerebral vasculature.
The angiographic finding would be one of progressive obliteration of the nidus and gradual
decrease of caliber of the dilated feeding arteries. However, because of the invasiveness of
the procedure, angiography cannot be repeated frequently to assess the degree of oblitera-
tion. Therefore, after radiosurgery, patients are followed by serial cranial MRI studies,
which is less expensive and more acceptable to patients, every 6 months. MRI has a pre-
dictive value of 91% for nidus obliteration (56). If imaging indicates that the nidus is oblit-
erated and there is no abnormal flow-void on the MRI scan, a set of cerebral angiograms
are obtained for confirmation.
Complications of radiosurgery for AVMs is directly associated with the dose deliv-
ered and volume treated. These include an area of alopecia for AVMs close to the brain
surface, evidence of edema (57) surrounding the AVM, increased seizure activity, and
neurological deficits. The greatest risk after radiosurgery is the persistent risk of hemor-
rhage. Although studies have shown that radiosurgery does not increase the risk of hemor-
rhage (58,59), it takes 2 – 3 years after treatment to achieve vessels obliteration; during this
period, the patient is unprotected from further bleeding (60). Engenhart-Cabillic and
Debus (61) reported a series of 145 patients with AVMs treated by radiosurgery over a
10-year period; eleven patients suffered from hemorrhage between 4 months and
7 years after radiosurgery.
5.4. Success of Radiosurgery for AVMs

The obliteration of AVMs with radiosurgery is related to the volume treated and the dose
(62) delivered. The radiation dose delivered is adjusted to provide the greatest chance of
obliteration with an acceptable risk of complications. Current AVM radiosurgical series
have reported obliteration rates of 64– 95% for AVMs smaller than 3 cm in diameter
(63 –65). For larger AVMs, the chance of success is lower. Mathis et al. (66) reported
an obliteration rate of 50% in 24 patients with AVMs with volumes of over 14 mL. The
Pittsburgh group (67) using the gamma knife, reported an 81% obliteration rate for
lesions ,20 mm in diameter and 45% rate for lesions between 20 mm and 44 mm diam-
eter. Pollock et al. (65) analyzed 220 patients treated with radiosurgery and found that the
success of AVM obliteration is associated with a smaller AVM, fewer draining veins,
younger age, and hemispheric location. Pre-radiosurgical embolization was found to be
a negative predictor of success.
It was generally assumed that once the abnormal AVM vessels are obliterated,
the patient is cured and free from further risk of hemorrhage. However, in the pediatric
384 Ho and Drake
Figure 31.13 Angiogram for localization of AVM.
population, there is a rare but well-reported phenomenon of recurrent AVMs (68). Kader
et al. (69) reported that among 141 patients with complete surgical resection of AVMs
proven by angiograms (Fig. 31.13), five children had recurrence hemorrhage. One recur-
rence occurred 9 years after treatment. In over 40 years of pediatric experience, two recur-
rent AVMs were reported from the Hospital for Sick Children after complete
microsurgical resection (70). Lindqvist et al. (71) studied the long-term effect of
gamma knife radiosurgery in 48 patients, who were followed by angiogram with a
median time of 9 years. There were totally four hemorrhaging episodes, which their
AVMs were previously documented to be completely obliterated. Three of them were
in the pediatric group. Therefore, in the pediatric group of patients, a prolonged follow-
up with serial imaging is necessary even after the AVM is obliterated.
5.5. Conclusions
In the treatment of patients suffering from AVMs, a multidisciplinary team approach is
necessary. The strength of each modality is utilized to maximize the efficacy and minimize
the morbidity. Although surgery carries higher risk and morbidity, it offers immediate and
complete removal of the AVMs. On the other hand, radiosurgery avoids the surgical risk
and invasiveness, especially for high-grade lesions and is effective in obliteration;
however, the delay between treatment and cure makes it a less attractive option for
lesions which present with bleeding. As an adjunct, endovascular embolization makes
surgery and radiosurgery easier or feasible in selective cases.
6. NEURONAVIGATION
Since the brain parenchyma is generally devoid of any unique landmarks, and vital areas
are susceptible to injury, it is a challenge to stay oriented within its substance. Before the
era of CT scan, most intraparenchymal surgery was based on free-hand techniques with the
help of conventional radiographs and clinical signs. The surgical exposures often were
much larger than necessary.
The advent of CT and MRI scans (Fig. 31.14) has revolutionized neurosurgery, elim-
inating much of the guess work. Surgeons now can see the pathology inside the skull in
different image planes. This allows making precise diagnosis and formulation of treatment
plan. Also surgeons can better discuss with the patients and their relatives the risk of the
operation in terms of neurological deficits. These images are also of great use to surgeons
in the operating room in planning resections and trajectory of approaches. However, the
surgeon has to study these images carefully, taking in all the anatomy and reconstruct in
Figure 31.14 (A) Patient in CT scan and (B) patient in angiogram suite.
386 Ho and Drake
his or her own mind. The incision and approach is transferred to the patient’s head by
known references such as facial features and other bony landmarks.
Further advancement of technology came with neuro-navigation. The principle of
image-guided neurosurgery is to transfer the preoperative imaging data to a computer
workstation inside the operating room (Fig. 31.15), allowing the surgeon to manipulate
the images to provide a real-time accurate three-dimensional localization of surgical
targets and trajectories (Fig. 31.16). The first apparatus for stereotactic neurosurgery
was developed by Zernov (72) in 1889 in Moscow where aluminum rings were attached
to the patient’s head to predict surface anatomy of the brain. Thereafter, various different
stereotactic systems had been developed. The basic components included a frame rigidly
fixed to the patient’s head, a system of data analysis for determining the coordinates, a
mechanism for directing the instruments, and a probe directed at the target point.
Stereotactic neurosurgical procedures were most popular in 1950s for thalamotomy
and pallidotomy in the treatment of parkinsonian tremor. However, with the emergence of
L-dopa, these operations had significantly decreased in number. There was a resurge of
frame-based stereotactic procedure when the CT scan came into existence in 1970. The
scan provided a detailed anatomical representation of the lesion where biopsies and accu-
rate resections can be carried out with the use of the stereotactic system. However, the
major drawback was the need to fixate the frame on the patient’s head and the overall
complexity of the system.
The next development in neuronavigation was the articulated mechanical arm using
position sensors to accurately locate the surgical tools in three-dimensional space on
preoperative images during operation. At least six sensors are required; three for
translation and three for rotation. The preoperative CT or MRI images are fed into the work-
station. The patient’s position is mapped in three-dimensional space by reference to fiducial
markers applied on the patient’s scalp or by anatomical landmarks. Theoretically at least
three fiducials are needed; in practice, four to six are applied. Doshi et al. (73) has found
that increasing numbers and wide distribution of fiducial points would increase the accuracy.
These systems were easier to use and less cumbersome compared to the stereotactic frame
system. Many of these systems are made light enough for easy handling and the weights are
much reduced by balancing with counterweights at each articulation.
Figure 31.15 Treatment planning at the computer workstation.

Figure 31.16 Patient undergoing Linac Knife radiosurgery treatment.
6.1. Armless Neuronavigation

Further development of “armless” systems relied on optical, acoustic, or electromagnetic
tracking systems. The optical tracking system consist of a series of light-emitting diodes
(LED) attached to the pointer and an array of three charge coupled detector (CCD)
cameras that can accurately map out the positions of the LEDs. This is based on the tri-
angulation technique for three-dimensional acquisitions of position coordinates. Some
system uses active infrared LEDs, while other systems use passive plastic spheres of
highly reflective surfaces for CCD cameras detection.
Today these navigation systems are quick to set up and easy to use. Indications
for use of frameless stereotactic system include planning of skin incision and site of
craniotomy, especially for lesions that are small and close to the surface where an inaccur-
ate bony opening may miss the lesion completely. Also the system can help in determining
the boundary of resection, especially for infiltrative tumors where the margin between the
tumor and normal brain is not discrete. It enables the surgeon to perform a more complete
resection, which is closely related to the patient’s prognosis.
6.2. Accuracy
Accuracy in neuronavigation is particularly important in order to achieve its goals
(Fig. 31.17). Galloway and Maciunas (74) defined accuracy in stereotactic frames. They
define “accuracy” as the ability of a device to correctly find a point in space. Therefore
a smaller mean distance between the desired and actual points denotes greater accuracy.
Accuracy is further divided into mechanical and application accuracy. Mechanical accu-
racy is the ability of the system to bring the tip of an instrument to a given coordinate
within its range. This is a measure of the precision of the joints in an articular arm
system and the optical resolution in an armless optical system. This accuracy is usually
in terms of a fraction of a millimeter. However this value does not take into account
the inexactness of imaging and on patient registration. In order to maintain a high
degree of mechanical accuracy, regular calibration of the system is needed.
388 Ho and Drake
Figure 31.17 (A) Registration and preoperative planning using neuronavigation system; (B) navi-
gation probe for real-time localization and (C) defining the tumor and planning of the surgical
incision.
Application accuracy is the accuracy that concerns the neurosurgeon and is the accu-
racy one gets when using the machine on patients. It includes the mechanical error and the
steps of surgical localization. The latter comprises imaging techniques, such as slice thick-
ness, patient moving at the time of scanning, and errors in the steps of fiducial point selec-
tion and patient registration. This accuracy is much lower than the mechanical accuracy
and may be up to few millimeters.
The accuracy however deteriorates over the course of the operation. During removal
of the spinal fluid, tumor tissue, and distortion of the brain with retractors, the brain
parenchyma shifts. Therefore the navigation based on the preoperative images become less
reliable. Nauta (75) showed in a series of 200 stereotactic operations that neither the appli-
cation nor the mechanical accuracy were the limiting factors in the navigation system.
Once the dura is opened letting out some CSF, the accuracy quickly dropped to 5 mm.
Black (76) reported their documentation of brain shift from 1.8 mm to up to 30 mm.
Various methods, like intraoperative ultrasound, intraoperative CT scan, and MRI scans
are available to overcome this problem. These imaging modalities provide real-time
image update thus permitting instant assessment of the extent of surgical resection.
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32
Minimal Access for Surgery in Pediatric
Spinal Surgery
Alvin H. Crawford and A. A. Durrani

Orthopaedic Surgery, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Mohammed J. Al-Sayyad
King Abdulaziz University Hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
1. Introduction 394
2. History of Thoracoscopy and Thoracoscopic Spinal Surgery 394
3. Endoscopic Anatomy 395
4. Indications 396
5. Contraindications 396
6. Preoperative Planning 397
7. Technique 397
7.1. Room Set-Up 397
7.2. Endoscopic Instruments 397
7.3. Anesthesia 398
7.4. Positioning 398
7.5. Procedure 398
7.6. Procedure for VATS-Assisted Anterior Spinal Instrumentation 399
7.7. Postoperative Care 399
7.8. New Advances in Technique 399
7.8.1. Allograft Fibular Rings 399
7.8.2. Prone Positioning 400
8. Experience at the Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati 400
9. VATS vs. Thoracotomy 402
10. VATS-Assisted Anterior Instrumented Spinal Fusion 404
11.1. Intraoperative Complications 405
11.2. Postoperative Complications 406
11.3. Delayed Complications 406
12. Conclusion 406
References 407
393
394 Crawford, Durrani, and Al-Sayyad
1. INTRODUCTION
Video-assisted thoracoscopic (VAT) surgery has recently gained increasing popularity in

the management of spinal disorders. Thoracoscopic spinal applications represent a new
technique, not a new operation, and true it is minimal access surgery but it is definitely
not minimally invasive. The endoscopic approach to the spine has involved an evolution-
ary approach. What began as an isolated drainage of a vertebral abscess has continued as a
method of single diskectomy, release of the annulus fibrosis with or without ligation of
segmental vessels, rib resection for thoracoplasty, rib harvesting for intervertebral
fusion, and most recently, insertion of correctional implants and fusion. The body of
knowledge currently available began with a single report in 1993 (1) and progressed to
about 15 articles in the year 2000 (2 – 16).
In December 1993, at Children’s Hospital Medical Center in Cincinnati, we per-
formed our first VATS procedure for anterior release of severe spinal deformities in chil-
dren and adolescents. The potential benefits of this procedure would include diminished
postoperative pain and ventilatory compromise, decreased hospitalization time, improved
wound care, a faster recovery time with minimal shoulder dysfunction and reduced infec-
tion risks to patients and OR personnel due to the decrease in operative time and exposure.
Optimistically all of the above should reduce overall health care costs.
2. HISTORY OF THORACOSCOPY AND THORACOSCOPIC

SPINAL SURGERY
Surgeons have long attempted to maximize the therapeutic benefit of interventional

procedures for their patients while minimizing the disruption of the normal healthy
tissue. Thoracoscopy has been utilized for lung lesions over the past 75 – 85 years (17).
In 1910, Hans Christian Jacobeus introduced thoracoscopy to medical practice for the
diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis (17,18). Jacobeus popularized thoraco-
scopy, as a bedside procedure under local anesthesia, where he first used a cystoscope. The
thoracoscopic procedure was performed to lyse tuberculous pleural adhesions (intrapleural
pneumolysis), which became the principal therapeutic tool in the treatment of tuberculosis
from the 1920s through the 1940s. In 1931, Unverricht (19) reported 1500 thoracoscopies
over a 16-year period with no injuries. Following the availability of antituberculous drugs,
intrapleural Pneumolysis was less frequently used. In 1951, Stejnzajg (20) used thoraco-
scopy for the treatment of tuberculous empyema, hemopneumothorax, foreign bodies of
the chest, and malignant pleural lesions. Interest in thoracoscopy waned and was followed
by an era of neglect. Explosive growth of endoscopic procedures in other medical and sur-
gical specialties occurred between the 1960s and 1980s.
The first report of thoracoscopy used in children for mediastinal masses, cysts, lung
anomalies, spontaneous pneumothorax, and empyema was made in 1971 by Klimkovich
et al. (21). This was followed by a report by Rodgers and Talbert (22). Interest was
regained in thoracoscopy in the 1990s; by then considerable technical improvements in
the video monitors, optical lens systems, and optic illumination systems had been devel-
oped. Video monitors removed the awkward and potentially sterile contamination neces-
sity for the surgeon’s head to be at the end of a telescope close to the chest wall and
allowed the use of assistants. By 1992, Mack et al. (23) was able to report a series with
no mortality, morbidity, or emergency thoracotomy, as did Lewis et al. (24). Excellent
visualization of the spine during thoracoscopic surgical procedures led to the development
of thoracoscopic spine surgery. In the early 1990s, thoracoscopy for the treatment of spinal
Pediatric Spinal Surgery 395
pathology was developed independently by Michael Mack, John Regan, and coworkers
(1), Blackman and Neal (25) with animal, cadaveric, and clinical studies in the United
States, and by Daniel Rosenthal and colleagues (26) in Germany. Riley et al. (27) pre-
sented on thoracoscopic corpectomy in a canine model. In the late 1990s, thoracoscopic
techniques for spinal surgery gained considerable clinical momentum as an alternative
to thoracotomy. Both surgical techniques and instrumentation have become fairly sophis-
ticated, and the field of VATS has evolved rapidly in the last several years.
Blackman et al., in 1998 (28) and Picetti et al., in 1999 (29) reported on the endoscopic
instrumentation, correction, and fusion of thoracic and thoracolumbar scoliosis.
3. ENDOSCOPIC ANATOMY
The thoracic spine is divided into three regions because of anatomic differences among
these areas. The upper field includes T1 to T5, the middle field includes T6 to T9, and
the lower field includes T10 through L1 and is often obscured by the diaphragm, which
may necessitate retracting it manually.
1. Upper field: On the right side, the veins to the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th intercostal
spaces join to form the superior intercostal vein and then empty in the azygos
vein. The 1st intercostal vein empties into the brachiocephalic vein and the
5th intercostal vein empties directly into the azygos vein. The junction of the
azygos and the superior vena cava can also be visualized. The 1st and 2nd inter-
costal arteries arise from the supreme intercostal artery, a branch from the cost-
ocervical trunk of the subclavian artery, the remaining intercostal arteries arise
directly from the aorta. The 1st rib may be difficult to visualize because of sur-
rounding fat; palpation is usually used to help identify it followed by counting
and marking of the lower ribs. The head of the 1st rib articulates with the 1st
thoracic vertebra, whereas the heads of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th articulate
with the bodies above and below that particular disc space (e.g., the head of
the 3rd rib spans the disc between the second and third vertebrae). The sympath-
etic chain can be seen lying over the rib heads. The esophagus can be seen
between the trachea and the spine. On the left side, the aorta lies on the vertebral
column making exposure of the discs more challenging. The intercostal arteries
arise from the aorta and the intercostal veins arise from the hemiazygos vein in
the majority of cases. The left superior intercostal vein is the termination of the
hemiazygos and can be seen crossing the aortic arch and empties into the bra-
chiocephalic vein.
2. Middle field: In this field the costovertebral articulation lies directly over the
disc space. The intercostal veins arising from the azygos vein on the right are
accompanied by their segmental arteries. The intervertebral discs are identified
by the mounds observed on the spinal column and the vertebral bodies by the
valleys. The segmental vessels are nested in the valleys directly overlying the
bodies. The esophagus is anterior to the azygos vein. The greater splanchnic
nerve is seen along the anterolateral vertebral body. On the left side, the aorta
overlies the vertebral column otherwise the anatomy is the same as on the
right side.
3. Lower field: The diaphragm attaches to the 12th rib, the transverse process
of L1, and the anterolateral aspect of the upper three lumbar vertebrae.
The T12 –L1 disc can be visualized with retraction of the diaphragm.
The 10th, 11th, and 12th ribs do not cover a disc space, they articulate only with
their respective vertebral body. There are no significant differences between the
right and left sides.
The lumbar spine can be visualized through a retroperitoneal endoscopic approach.
This allows exposure from L2 to L5. The retroperitoneal structures are visualized after
divisions of the mesosigmoid, allowing direct access to the posterior abdominal wall
and spine. The intervertebral discs bulge outward between the concave vertebral bodies.
The segmental vessels lie within the concavity of the vertebral bodies. The anterior
longitudinal ligament covers the anterior surface of the vertebral bodies. The psoas
major lies on either side of the spine, it originates from the anterior surface of the trans-
verse processes and the lateral portions of the vertebral bodies and discs from T12 to
L5. The lumbar plexus lies within the substance of the psoas major muscle. The combined
retroperitoneal and thoracoscopic approach can allow endoscopic exposure of the thoraco-
lumbar junction.
4. INDICATIONS
The indications for thoracoscopy in pediatric spinal surgery are the same as were pre-
viously determined for thoracotomy. These indications are as follows:
1. rigid idiopathic scoliosis deformities at or about 758 in magnitude with correc-
tion to ,508 on side-bending radiographs;
2. preventing crank shaft phenomena in the skeletally immature child with .508
curvature;
3. kyphotic deformities of .708 which do not correct to ,508 on a
hyperextension film over a bolster;
4. progressive congenital deformities within the thorax requiring anterior
epiphysiodesis;
5. patients with neuromuscular deformities with at-risk pulmonary status;
6. patients with progressive spinal deformity and metabolic disease;
7. severe rib hump deformity not corrected by spinal instrumentation;
8. patients with neurofibromatosis who have intrathoracic tumors in addition to a
significant spinal deformity;
9. pseudarthrosis following anterior intervertebral fusion;
10. rib and intercostal nerve tumors, and most recent;
11. instrumentation of thoracic spinal deformities above the diaphragm.
We have now extended our indications to include all procedures to the thoracic spine
previously approached by thoracotomy.
5. CONTRAINDICATIONS
1. Inability to tolerate single lung ventilation;

2. severe or acute respiratory insufficiency;
3. high airway pressures with positive pressure ventilation;
4. pleural symphysis;
5. empyema; and
6. previous thoracotomy or thoracostomy are relative contraindications only.
Many children with progressive scoliosis underwent cardiothoracic surgical pro-

cedures during infancy. We have now successfully performed VATS in patients following
previous thoracotomy, although resection of adhesions are time consuming and there is a
higher risk of infection.
6. PREOPERATIVE PLANNING
A thorough and meticulous preoperative workup is mandated prior to the surgical inter-
vention. Our preoperative protocol includes a thorough neurological examination, body
mass index evaluation, and, if the patient is morbidly obese, a weight reduction
program is started, Standing PA and lateral scoliosis views and supine-bending films
are obtained on all scoliosis patients. A hyperextension film over a bolster is obtained
for patients with kyphosis. A whole spine MRI is ordered on patients with spinal deform-
ities secondary to neurofibromatosis, congenital spinal deformities, infantile scoliosis,
patients with idiopathic scoliosis who have asymmetric abdominal reflexes, a difference
in foot size or limb girth and patients with a documented rapid progression of the deform-
ities. Left-sided curves with neurological findings, and patients with marked truncal
asymmetry also are further investigated by magnetic resonance imaging of the spine.
Lab work includes a CBC with a differential, renal and electrolyte panel, a coagulation
profile, UA examination, and a pregnancy test in female adolescent patients.
Iron loading by elemental iron intake is started at least 6 weeks prior to surgery.
Patients who meet the criteria for autologous blood transfusion undergo timely harvesting
of up to four units. Patients with chronic illness undergo a routine preoperative pulmonary
function testing. All patients undergo a preoperative anesthesia evaluation to determine if
any further work-up is required. As a part of preoperative education, our patients are
required to take a walk through the OR and the floor in order to obtain first hand infor-
mation regarding the surgical process and to meet their future caregivers. The patient is
reevaluated a week prior to surgery by the physician to answer any further questions
and informed consent is obtained.
7. TECHNIQUE
7.1. Room Set-Up
Two surgeons usually perform the procedure, one is responsible for visualization or
access, and the other is the spinal surgeon. Some surgeons prefer to work on the same
side of the table usually facing the patient with the patient in the lateral decubitus position,
whereas others would prefer to work opposite each other and to view the intrathoracic con-
tents by placing monitors directly across from them usually looking over their associates’
shoulder; we prefer the latter.
7.2. Endoscopic Instruments

A 308-angled scope is best for anterior spinal release and is the most commonly used
scope. Specialized thoracospinal instruments include long handle rongeurs, curettes,
periosteal elevators, extended insulated tip electrocautery, both monopolar and bipolar,
harmonic scalpel, and suction devices. Rigid and flexible portals, spinal cord monitoring
leads, video recorder, and image processor are required as well.
7.3. Anesthesia
The anesthesiologist must be capable of using the fiber-optiscope and selectively deflating
one lung. This can be done best with the use of a double lumen tube, although bronchial
blockers may be necessary in smaller children. Twenty minutes is required to get complete
resorption atelectasis.
7.4. Positioning
The patient is placed convex side up onto the lateral decubitus position with kidney rest
support. Although not draped out, the arm is hyperflexed at the shoulder to allow the pla-
cement of portals higher into the axilla. An axillary roll is placed under the downside
axilla. Lower extremities are wrapped with Ace wraps and the greater trochanter on the
downside is especially well padded. Protective padding of the downside peroneal nerve
adjacent to the fibular head is carried out.
7.5. Procedure
The first portal, that is, the visual panorama portal is most frequently placed at or about the
T6 or T7 interspace (to avoid the diaphragm) in the mid-axillary line. The incision is made
over the top of the rib to avoid the intercostal vessels. There tends to be less bleeding when
the electrocautery is used to dissect the intercostal muscles into the chest cavity. After
establishing the visual portal, further entry into the chest can be observed through the
scope. Prevention of bleeding around the scope is achieved by coagulation of the
vessels and is an important part of this technique. A 15-mm trocar is used through
which a 10-mm 308-angled rigid telescope is placed. The thoracoscope is introduced
and the lung is observed as it deflates. A panoramic assessment and evaluation should
be carried out of the intrathoracic space in an effort to determine the topographical
anatomy. The portals should be as far apart as possible. The superior thoracic spine is
well visualized without retraction once the lung is completely deflated, but retraction is
necessary below T9 – T10 because the diaphragm gets in the way. By percussing the
chest and visualizing the percussions from within, other working portal sites are selected.
A rigid thoracoportal is necessary for the thoracoscope because it can be damaged as one
attempts to navigate between the resistant rib cage fulcrum. At this stage the ribs are
counted. If there is a question of the specific level a spinal needle is inserted into an inter-
vertebral disc and an X-ray taken. We prefer to open the parietal pleura in a longitudinal
fashion very similar to what one would do when performing a thoracotomy. The interver-
tebral discs are identified by the mounds observed on the spinal column and the vertebral
bodies by the valleys. The segmental vessels are in the valleys overlying the vertebral
bodies. We consider transligation of the segmental vessels to be fairly safe in our practice.
The segmental vessels are coagulated with the harmonic scalpel, incised, and retracted
with the pleura. The pleura is further elevated and retracted using the harmonic scalpel,
thoracoscopic periosteal elevators, and blunt dissectors. A Raytec sponge is packed
under the pleural sleeve to assist in retraction and protecting the vessels, as well as
other soft tissues. We then proceed directly to excising the annulus at the level of interver-
tebral disc. A transverse cut is made across the vertebral endplate parallel to the disc both
rostral and caudal to it. An elevator is then used to elevate the vertebral endplate to isolate
the disc. A transverse cut is made across the annulus fibrosis continuing down to the level
of the nucleus pulposus. Rongeurs, curettes, and periosteal elevators are then used to
assure complete removal of the disc material and the end plates. In the young child, it
is often possible to elevate the vertebral end plate apophysis and to completely excise the
intervertebral contents back to the posterior longitudinal ligament. With experience, one is
able to excise the annulus and disc space contents in an 2508 arc or from the rib head to
opposite posterolateral body. The spinal column segment should be stressed with moderate
external force by rotating a periosteal elevator in the disc space following each release to
see if spinal segment mobility has been achieved. Our initial routine consisted of harvest-
ing bone by removing a rib and performing an intervertebral fusion; this is still the case for
anterior instrumentation cases, but for intervertebral release cases, we started using fibular
allograft rings. We no longer attempt pleural closure. A chest tube is then placed through
the inferior-most portal. Chest tube placement is observed through the scope as it is placed
alongside the vertebral column. The patient is usually then re-intubated and turned prone
for a posterior spinal fusion. It is important that the inflated lung be suctioned to prevent
mucous plugging.
7.6. Procedure for VATS-Assisted Anterior Spinal Instrumentation

The patient is positioned in a lateral decubitus position. An image intensifier is used to
assess the sagittal profile of the patient and a radio opaque marker is used to identify
the rib heads at each level; 1.5 in. oblique portals are established at every other interspace.
The oblique incision allows one to dissect above and below the rib for portal access.
Pleural dissection is carried out in the same fashion as described above. Endplates are
identified with the help of diathermy. Dissection is stopped at the anterior longitudinal
ligament. The endplates are elevated in the same manner as described above. Image is
used to confirm the dissection to the downside annulus. A rasp or curette may be used
to thoroughly remove the remnants of the end plates without compromising the vertebral
body. One may select a single rib or segments of several ribs to morcelize for bone graft.
The use of emulsified allograft is discouraged. The morcelized bone graft is packed into
the intervertebral disc space. After this one can proceed with the instrumentation.
7.7. Postoperative Care

We perform a wake-up test prior to extubation. The patient is moved to a horizontal frame
and subsequently transferred to the ICU for 24 h. Chest X-rays are taken in the ICU to
document chest expansion and chest tube placement. The majority of our patients are
placed on 1 mg/mL morphine PCA. The antibiotics which were initiated at the time of
incision are continued until 24 h following chest tube removal. Dressing is changed on
POD2, at which time the patient is measured for a Boston type TLSO and fitted with
one the next day.
7.8. New Advances in Technique

7.8.1. Allograft Fibular Rings
Autogenous rib grafting of the intervertebral space has been considered to be superior to
allograft (30). Harvesting of the rib segments by VATS allows adequate material;
however, the inability to secure the periosteum to prevent weeping leading to persistent
pleural effusion has not been resolved. We therefore undertook the use of fibular allograft
rings in those patients who would subsequently undergo posterior instrumented spinal
fusion. Currently, 11 patients have had allograft fibular rings, 6 had Scheuermann’s
Kyphosis, 3 had idiopathic scoliosis, and 2 had neuromuscular scoliosis. Of these patients,
5 had over 8 months follow-up; all of these cases showed evidence of good anterior fusion
mass. There is a notable decrease in persistent effusion since incorporating this technique.
This technique has the potential to decrease operative time, blood loss, postoperative chest
pain, and postoperative effusion.
7.8.2. Prone Positioning

A new modification on endoscopic transthoracic release involves prone positioning of the
patient as opposed to the lateral position described earlier. The release is performed on the
concave side for scoliosis and on either side for kyphosis patients. This technique permits
simultaneous posterior exposure, instrumentation, and correction of the deformity. Papin
et al. (31) performed thoracoscopic anterior release and fusion in the prone position on five
adolescent patients whose mean age at the time of surgery was 12 years. The anterior
release was followed by posterior instrumentation and fusion in all patients. Lieberman
et al. (9) reported on prone position endoscopic transthoracic release with simultaneous
posterior instrumentation for spinal deformity. The procedure was performed on
15 patients and no complications related to the endoscopic components of the procedure
were reported. The major advantage of this technique is the elimination of the need for
double lumen intubation and the amount of time required to extubate and reposition the
patient. The prone position presents the opportunity for another team to simultaneously
expose and instrument the posterior spine.
8. EXPERIENCE AT THE CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL MEDICAL

CENTER, CINCINNATI
The first VATS procedure for anterior release of severe spinal deformity was first
performed in December of 1993. By the end of May 2001, we had performed over a
112 cases. Seventy cases were available at 2 years. For deformity, patients ages varied
from 5.1 years to 32 years. Thoracoscopic anterior release with discectomy and fusion
were carried out on patients who had the following diagnoses: idiopathic scoliosis
(n ¼ 45), Scheuermann’s kyphosis (n ¼ 19), neuromuscular spinal deformity (n ¼ 15),
neurofibromatosis (n ¼ 7), myelomeningocele (n ¼ 3), congenital scoliosis (n ¼ 2),
infantile scoliosis (n ¼ 1), dysplasia (n ¼ 1), Marfan’s (n ¼ 1), and postradiation scoliosis
(n ¼ 1). Eight patients underwent anterior instrumentation in addition to thoracoscopic
anterior release with discectomy and fusion. Repair of pseudoarthrosis of the spine was
performed on one neuromuscular patient. Four patients had excision of the first rib for
the treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome. One patient had excision of intrathoracic neu-
rofibroma, and another had a benign rib tumor removed. One patient had anterior fusion
following thoracic spine fracture dislocation and another had anterior fusion following
vertebral osteomyelitis (Fig. 32.1).
Data analysis of the first 100 patients showed a mean preoperative scoliosis of 728
(range, 428– 1208) and a mean preoperative kyphosis of 838 (range, 658 –1108). The
average operative time for the thoracoscopic anterior release with discectomy and
fusion procedure was 250 min (range, 150– 405 min). The average number of discs
excised was 8 (range, 4 –11), and there was no change in the number of discs excised
as the series progressed. The time spent for discectomy varied from 8 min to 18 min,
but when considering the total procedure including rib harvesting, end plate ablation,
and intervertebral fusion, the average operative time per disc was 33 min in the first 45
deformity patients compared with 31 min in the last 45 deformity patients, which was
Figure 32.1 A 14-year-old female with a severe double primary scoliosis. Her thoracic curve
measured 1208 and the lumbar curve measured 738. Both curves were extremely rigid and
showed little correction on side-bending views. We elected to perform anterior release and fusion
by VAT, posterior release followed by halo-femoral traction and subsequent posterior instrumented
spinal fusion. She obtained an excellent result. (A) Clinical standing photograph taken from the pos-
terior, illustrating the severe prominence of the right rib cage and left lumbar flank; (B) bending
clinical photograph revealing rib hump of the right hemithorax and significant rotation of the left
thoracolumbar spine; (C) standing PA view illustrating severe thoracic and lumbar curves. She is
Risser 0; (D) right and left-bending films showing minimal flexibility of the curves; (E) postopera-
tive PA and Lat views showing excellent correction in the coronal and sagittal plane; (F) postopera-
tive clinical photograph illustrating clinical improvement and (G) bending clinical photograph
illustrating correction of the rib hump and thoracolumbar flank rotation.
not statistically significant. The average blood loss during the thoracoscopic anterior
release with discectomy and fusion was 290 mL (range, 50 –1300 mL). The hospital
stay averaged 7 days (range, 5– 15 days); days in the ICU averaged 1.5 + 1.5 days.
Chest tube days averaged 3.1 + 1.4 days with chest tube output averaging 999 + 543 mL.
Final postoperative scoliosis and kyphosis correction were 68% and 90%, respectively.
Complications occurred in 18 patients, five of whom were patients with myelome-
ningocele. Complications included a single case of intraoperative tension pneumothorax in
an anterior instrumentation case (32), postoperative pneumonia, pulmonary embolus, chy-
lothorax, mucus plug, fluid overload requiring reintubation in a patient with tetralogy of
Fallot, atelectasis, a retained iliac crest drain, and two cases of superior mesenteric
artery syndrome. Three patients had large pleural effusions that required intervention.
One patient required ultrasound-guided thoracentesis and the other two had ultrasound-
guided pigtail catheter thoracostomy. Complications in the myelomeningocele patients
included one iliac crest wound infection, one decubitus ulcer, one patient developed a pos-
terior spine wound infection, and two patients had left upper lobe atelectasis. These com-
plications were evenly distributed throughout the series. Clearly, there is an extensive
learning curve for VATS, but this learning curve is not prohibitive. VATS provides a
safe and effective alternative to open thoracotomy in the treatment of pediatric spinal
deformities in addition to its utility in the treatment of intrathoracic tumors, benign rib
tumors, and vertebral osteomyelitis.
9. VATS VS. THORACOTOMY
Newton et al. (33) compared the efficacy of VATS vs. thoracotomy in achieving an ade-
quate spinal release in a goat model. Anterior spinal release was performed in six mid-
thoracic motion segments in five mature goats. VATS was used for three levels on one
side and thoracotomy was used for alternating three levels on the contralateral side.
Motion segments were then individually subjected to nondestructive biomechanical
testing using sagittal, coronal and torsional bending torques, and the resultant angular dis-
placement was measured. Duration of surgery per disc level decreased with increasing
experience, while the intraoperative blood loss was comparable between the two
groups. Both techniques resulted in a significant increase in the flexibility when compared
to the intact levels, but there was no difference in the mobility achieved between the two
techniques.
Cunningham et al. (34) utilized a sheep model to compare the efficacy of VATS to a
traditional thoracotomy in promoting interbody spinal arthrodesis. The spinal column was
destabilized in 14 sheep by resecting the anterior and middle columns at T5 –T6, T7 –T8,
and T9 – T10, followed by reconstruction using iliac autograft, the Bagby and Kuslich
device packed with iliac autograft, and Z plate stabilization with iliac autograft. In half
the sheep, the entire procedure was performed using VATS, while in the other half it
was done through a traditional thoracotomy. Histomorphometric and biomechanical
evaluation performed on the disarticulated spines of these models showed comparable
bone formation and biomechanical properties. However, the VATS group showed
increased incidence of interoperative complications, longer operative times, higher
blood loss, and increased animal morbidity. These results were attributed to a substantial
learning curve associated with the technique.
Wall et al. (29) compared the spinal flexibility achieved after thoracotomy and
VATS in an animal model. The intervertebral disc between vertebrae T8 and T9 was
resected from 30 live, anesthetized, adolescent pigs. In 15 pigs, the chest was opened
via thoracotomy of the eighth rib, and the disc was excised. In the other 15 pigs, the disc
was removed endoscopically. These motion segments and six intact controls were tested
mechanically in side bending, flexion-extension, and axial rotation. No statistically signifi-
cant differences in flexibility were found between open and endoscopic groups in any
loading direction. The statistical power to detect a 20% difference between surgical
groups was 95%. They concluded that endoscopic and open techniques were equally
effective in increasing spine flexibility.
Newton et al. (33) compared the results of anterior spinal release and fusion per-
formed through a thoracoscopic approach in 14 patients to 18 performed via a thoraco-
tomy. They reported a 56% and 88% postoperative correction of the scoliosis and
kyphosis, respectively, in the thoracoscopic group compared to 60% and 94% in the thora-
cotomy group. A mean of 6.4 discs was excised in the thoracoscopic group compared to
6.1 in the thoracotomy group. Mean blood loss in the thoracoscopic group was 235 mL
compared to 270 mL in the thoracotomy group. The mean operative time was 191 mL
compared to 128 mL in the thoracotomy group. This difference was statistically signifi-
cant. A learning curve was associated with the operative time as the first seven cases
took 220 min compared to 162 min for the later seven thoracoscopic cases. Chest tube
drainage was 1252 mL in the thoracoscopic group compared to 776 mL in the thoraco-
tomy group. Chest tube drainage continued for 5 days in the thoracoscopic group com-
pared to 3.1 days in the thoracotomy group. This difference in chest tube data was
significant. The length of hospital stay was not reduced by the thoracoscopic procedure,
while the cost of open procedure was 29% less than the thoracoscopic procedure. They
concluded that the thoracoscopic technique was safe and effective for anterior spinal
release and fusion in pediatric spinal deformity.
Vincent Arlet (2) reported a meta analysis of published papers dealing with the use
of VATS for anterior spinal release in pediatric spinal deformities. Ten published articles
comprising 151 procedures were selected for meta analysis. They reported that the number
of excised discs varied between four and seven but the quality of disc excision was not
uniformly reported. The procedure lasted between 2 h 30 min and 4 h depending on the
experience of the physician. The mean curve measured 658 for scoliosis and 788 for
kyphosis. The postoperative correction for scoliosis ranged between 258 and 378, while
that for kyphosis measured 448. The average time spent in the hospital for a combined pro-
cedure was 9 days with a 28% increase in the cost for a VATS-assisted procedure. The
total complications reported were 18%, most of them being pulmonary complications.
Durrani et al. (35) compared the adequacy of anterior spinal release and efficacy of
anterior spinal fusion achieved by VATS and thoracotomy in reasonably matched pediatric
patients. None of the patients had an anterior spinal release performed below L2, no anterior
instrumentation was performed, and all patients underwent an instrumented posterior spinal
fusion as well (Fig 32.2). Adequacy of release was judged using weighted correction, which
was defined as the release times the stiffness of the curve. Efficacy of anterior spinal fusion
was determined by comparing the immediate postoperative and the final Cobb angles of the
deformity and by radiographic evidence of bridging across 50% of the width of the disc
space at each level judged by a blinded reviewer on the final lateral spine radiograph.
Twenty-eight patients formed the VATS group, while 29 patients formed the thoracotomy
group. In the VATS group, the mean preoperative primary spinal deformity measured 65.188
(S.D. 19.67), while the immediate postoperative value measured 32.5 (S.D. 13.82). In the
thoracotomy group, the same values measured as 68.52 (S.D. 17.08) preoperatively and
33.14 (S.D. 16.65) postoperatively. For thoracotomy, the difference in preoperative
and postoperative primary Cobb angles was 358 (+138) for primary curves, and 248
(+158) for secondary curves. For VATS, these values were 338 (+178) and 258 (+178),
Figure 32.2 A 16-year-old girl with a 958 kyphotic deformity. She underwent a VATS anterior
release and rib fusion followed immediately by a posterior instrumented spinal fusion. (A) Clinical
photograph of a lateral bending position illustrating the severe kyphotic deformity; (B) composite
photograph of pre and postoperative lateral radiographs illustrating correction of the kyphotic
deformity and (C) postoperative clinical photograph taken in the lateral bending position 1 year later.
respectively, not significantly different from thoracotomy (p . 0.5). The mean weighted
correction for spinal deformities in the thoracotomy group measured 24.558 for the
primary deformity compared to 26.658 for the VATS group. The weighted corrections
were not significantly different between the treatment groups (p . 0.5). In the thoracotomy
group, the mean postoperative Cobb angle for the primary deformity measured 33.148 (S.D.
16.65), while the mean final follow-up value measured 41.248 (S.D. 17.5). In the VATS
group, the mean postoperative primary deformity measured 32.58 (S.D. 13.82), while the
mean final follow-up value measured 34.578. For thoracotomy, the differences between
immediate postoperative and final angles for primary curves was 88 (+98), while for
VATS, these values were 28 (+68), a marginally significant (p ¼ 0.011) difference.
There was no difference in the number of radiographically fused levels between the two
groups. The mean operative blood loss for the thoracotomy group was 804.5 mL compared
to 412.2 mL in the VATS group. This difference was statistically significant (p ¼ 0.0025).
VATS, in their view, can achieve an adequate spinal release and an effective spinal fusion
with decreased blood loss.
10. VATS-ASSISTED ANTERIOR INSTRUMENTED SPINAL FUSION
Anterior spinal fusion and instrumentation using VATS is gaining increased popularity.
Sucato et al. (36) recently reported on the results of CT examinations on 12 patients
Figure 32.3 A 14-year-old girl with a double primary curve whose lumbar curve was extremely
flexible. Selective fusion by VATS anterior instrumentation was carried out of the thoracic curve
only. (A) PA radiograph view illustrating a double primary curve and (B) PA radiograph following
VATS anterior instrumentation. Note almost complete resolution of the lumbar curve.
who underwent anterior spinal fusion and instrumentation for idiopathic scoliosis
(Fig. 32.3). All patients had a single right thoracic curve measuring a mean of 55.98 pre-
operatively and 9.48 postoperatively. The average number of fused levels was 6.6. The
average area of disc excision was 73.3%. Eighty-eight screws were used. The average
distance of the screw tip from the aorta was 3.9 mm; however, in 27% the screws were just
adjacent to the aorta. The average distance from the spinal canal to the posterior edge of
the screw was 4.6 mm with three screws broaching the spinal canal. They concluded that
spinal instrumentation using a VATS is a technically demanding procedure in which screw
placement so close to the aorta and the spinal canal could become problematic.
11. COMPLICATIONS
11.1. Intraoperative Complications
Bleeding
Lung tissue trauma
Dural tear
Lymphatic injury
Tension Pneumothorax (32)
Spinal cord injury
Sympathectomy
Solid Organ Injury
Pressure Necrosis of the skin over the downside iliac crest and greater trochanter
Peroneal Nerve Palsy
Incorrect Fusion Levels
11.2. Postoperative Complications

1. Pleural effusion: Patients must have daily chest radiographs for the duration of
the chest drain and one day after the removal of the chest drain. If the effusion is
.20% of the hemithorax volume, we then recommend percutaneous aspiration
under ultrasound guidance. If .400 cc of fluid is obtained then a pigtail catheter
is left in place and removed when the drainage falls below 80 cc for a shift.
2. Pulmonary embolus: This is a very rare complication in children but must be
suspected if the oxygen saturation is falling in the absence of a pleural effusion.
3. Chylothorax: This can be treated with parenteral hyper alimentation for 6 weeks
during which time the chylothorax usually resolve.
4. Intercostal neuralgia: One can inadvertently damage the intercostal nerve while
placing the portals, in addition to the pressure exerted on the nerve with a rigid
port in place. There are less reported intercostal neuropathies following the use
of flexible ports as apposed to rigid ones. The rigid port is only used for thora-
coscope and is changed frequently to prevent intercostal neuralgia.
11.3. Delayed Complications

1. Pseudoarthrosis: Pseudoarthrosis is a legitimate concern with any spinal pro-
cedure that aims to achieve a spinal fusion and so is definitely a concern with
VATS-assisted spinal fusion as well.
2. Early (unpublished personal communication) results of VATS instrumentation
using only emulsified allograft for fusion show a trend to persistence of the disc
space, pseudoarthrosis, and rod breakage.
Huang et al. (8) reported on the complications encountered in 90 consecutive patients who
underwent anterior spinal lesions using VATS. The diagnosis were varied including
deformity, infection, and tumors. The procedures included biopsy (3 patients), thoracic
discectomy (3 patients), multiple level anterior discectomy and fusion (14 patients), cor-
pectomy (6 patients), corpectomy and interbody fusion (32 patients), and internal instru-
mentation (28 patients). A total of 30 complications were noticed in 22 patients (24%).
Two fatal complications resulting from massive blood transfusion and postoperative
pneumonia were noted. Nonfatal complications included four cases of transient intercostal
neuralgia, three superficial wound infections, three cases of pharyngeal pain, two cases of
lung atelectasis, two cases of residual pneumothorax, two cases of subcutaneous emphy-
sema, one inadvertent pericardial penetration, one chylothorax, one screw malposition and
graft dislodgement. Four patients were converted to an open procedure: two due to adhe-
sions and two due to poorly tolerated single-lung anesthesia.
12. CONCLUSION
VATS has provided the spine surgeon with a minimal incisional technique to achieve the
same objectives that were previously being accomplished via thoracotomy. There appears
to be immense patient satisfaction with the aesthetics of the incisions. The postoperative
convalescence shows a trend to decreased pain support requirements, understandably
because of preservation of para spinal and shoulder musculature. The surgical team
concept is exemplified by all the associates observing the same exposure via the
monitor. VATS also presents opportunities for surgical education unparalleled with pre-
vious exposures. For biopsies of benign lesions, anterior spinal release and fusion as
well as costoplasties, it may ultimately replace thoracotomy. [We now perform VATS for
all procedures previously requiring a thoracotomy without instrumentation.] It is
important to remember that a minimal incisional technique is by no means minimally
invasive. There is a significant learning curve associated with this technique and only
meticulous attention to fine detail can prevent potentially disastrous complications.
Instrumentation via VATS is indeed another story. VATS-assisted anterior spinal instru-
mentation is on the horizon. It is an extremely complex and demanding undertaking. The
thorax presents multiple opportunities for significant life-threatening complications.
Needless to say the aorta, esophagus, heart, and lung are at risk and attention to compli-
cations are not as timely because of the constraints of the closed environment. The future
of VATS instrumentation shall require a significant refinement of instrumentation and
familiarity of spine surgeons to the environment before it reaches the same level of
safety as posterior spinal instrumentation. Until this significant learning curve has been
achieved, we feel that the gold standard for correction of scoliosis should remain a selec-
tive posterior instrumented spinal fusion.
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33
Minimally Invasive Surgery in Pediatric
Cardiac Surgery
Michael D. Black
California Pacific Medical Center, San Francisco, California, USA
1. Introduction 409
2. Surgical Techniques 410
2.1. Modifications to the Heart– Lung Machine 410
2.2. Surgical Incisions 411
2.3. Video-Assisted Cardiac Surgery (Cardioscopy) 412
2.4. Robotic Video-Assisted Cardiac Surgery 413
2.5. Total Robotic Telemanipulation 415
2.6. Robotic Fetal Techniques 415
3. Conclusions 418
Bibliography 418
1. INTRODUCTION
A recent and favourable trend, that is, a significant reduction in morbidity and mortality in
the treatment of congenital heart disease, must be in part credited to recent technological
advances. The introduction of routine pediatric cardiac surgery began in the mid-to-late
1970s; therefore, most innovations are relatively new. Many centers are now experiencing
excellent immediate surgical results; the implications and thrust of this chapter therefore
remains in; further improving long-term outcomes utilizing novel technologies. Obviously
a superior cosmetic repair seems highly desirable especially in children where an obvious
and unsightly incision(s) may have significant long-term social implications. In addition to
the improved self-esteem with a reduction of an external scar, the concomitant reduction in
tissue trauma allows the benefits of reduced pain, earlier discharge and decreased length of
hospital stay. In this era of managed care, it remains rare to find a sound fiscal medical
philosophy with a high degree of patient satisfaction.
The operating room continues to remain a highly conservative domain that has
until recently remained unchanged in appearance and practices. Similarly, so too have
the surgical techniques utilized for “open-heart” pediatric cardiac surgery. Advances in
409
410 Black
videoscopic techniques were first evident with the introduction of arthroscopy in the mid-
to-late 1970s. Gynecologists and soon general surgeons found scopes to have a beneficial
role in the diagnosis and later treatment of their respective disciplines. The introduction of
videoscopes in cardiac surgery occurred relatively late, in the 1990s. It seems that the pedi-
atric cardiac specialists who finished their subspecializations in general surgery after the
introduction of laparoscopy have spurned advances in the field of cardiac surgery.
Robotics too has only recently assumed a collaborative role assisting surgeons
during delicate operations once only thought possible in science fictions of 20 years
ago. An evolution from the once archaic, large and uni-task collection of metal and elec-
tronics to the newer 3D visually assisted highly mobile units has taken place only within
the past decade. As such, neonates and infants and even adults born with congenital heart
defects now have an alternate paradigm in which to undergo surgical repair.
Minimally invasive surgical techniques have allowed the development of novel
intracardiac visualization techniques that may soon allow for the avoidance of the
heart –lung machine as a routine component of pediatric cardiac surgery (see sub-
sequently). The possible avoidance of the inherent and systemic inflammatory state
found in contemporary “open-heart” practices may allow for improved neonatal/infant
organ function including the brain. Neurological dysfunction (either congenital and/or
related to perioperative period) remains a serious comorbidity that may significantly pre-
clude successful long-term outcomes in children afflicted with congenital heart disease.
The mechanisms of injury remain multifactorial with up to 25% of children having
residual neurological sequelae postcardiac surgery. Newer techniques can now be utilized
to allow for continuous cerebral perfusion avoiding both deep hypothermia and circulatory
arrest (Fig. 33.1).
2. SURGICAL TECHNIQUES
2.1. Modifications to the Heart – Lung Machine
The limited size of the incisions has forced changes in the sometimes archaic heart – lung
machine. The roller pump has only recently been modified to allow a downsizing of
Figure 33.1 Aortic arch reconstruction in a neonate with avoidance of circulatory arrest. The
cannula is providing continuous cerebral and coronary perfusion via the innominate artery.
MAS in Pediatric Cardiac Surgery 411
cannulae needed for the miniature incisions of the 21st century. Both active venous and
centrifugal suction can be applied to the circuit. Our modified circuit allows for continuous
ultrafiltration (CUF) while delivering a low prime blood cardioplegia with rapid initiation
of modified ultrafiltration (MUF) via the same cardioplegia system without elaborate
modifications to the entire pump circuit. The use of the blood cardioplegia system provides
both temperature control and macro filtration. The arteriovenous system is used to with-
draw through the arterial line and return to the venous cannula. The entire cardiopulmon-
ary bypass (CPB) is thus made available and the crystalloid chaser preserves the system
integrity should the need arise for the reinitiation of CPB. MUF occurs in the range of
10 – 20 mL/kg per min with vacuum of 300 mmHg and temperature regulation according
to the patient’s temperature.
Venous-assisted drainage, both kinetic and vacuum, has allowed for a further short-
ening of lines and intracomponent lengths, reduced caliber, and alternative cannula for
smaller incision. The application of as little as 40 mmHg has increased venous return
by 50%. A cautionary note with respect to the potential embolization of air must be
made when the latter techniques are utilized without prior experience (Fig. 33.2).
2.2. Surgical Incisions

Although several incisions are currently available to the pediatric cardiac surgeon, the
hemi-median sternotomy remains a safe and comfortable incision. It lacks the pain and
discomfort frequently found with the thoracotomy and avoids the risk of injury to the
potentially developing breast tissue. Avoidance of groin cannulation and retrograde cer-
ebral perfusion seem desirable. The excellent exposure of the mediastinum afforded by
the hemi-sternotomy allows for the repair of a myriad of cardiac malformations distinct
from atrial septal defects, that is, ventricular septal defects, fibromuscular obstruction to
the right ventricular outflow tract, atrioventricular valvular abnormalities and endocardial
cushion defects (Fig. 33.3).
During the past 3.5 years our surgical philosophy has continued to evolve; the
cornerstone remaining the limited hemi-sternotomy. Infants, children, and adults have
Figure 33.2 Smaller incisions demand innovative cannulaes, bypass circuits, surgical instruments,
and better tools to visualize the intended targets.
412 Black
Figure 33.3 Complex cardiac repairs can be performed via the “hemi-median” sternotomy.
undergone operations that routinely include, epidural or spinal anesthesia, active venous
suction, cardioscopy, and robotics.
Direct access to the mediastinum via the hemi-sternotomy allows for the correction
of defects not previously appreciated, the ability to easily extend the incision if required,
and superior de-airing of the cardiac chambers. The incision remains the least painful and
stability is assured as the manubrium remains intact and the remaining divided sternum
can be successfully stabilized.
2.3. Video-Assisted Cardiac Surgery (Cardioscopy)

Our preliminary experience utilizing the hemi-median sternotomy incision with “simple”
defects [see atrial septal defect (ASD)] has enabled the repair of more complicated defects
using a multitude of adjuvant techniques. Cardioscopy is one such example. With a
marked reduction in the operating field and the inherent reduction of stereoscopic
vision the addition of cardioscopy has assured a well illuminated, magnified field for all
to view.
Allowing the surgeon to view each and every suture placed by a burgeoning trainee
remains a key advantage of cardioscopy when deployed in a teaching or University
environment. A multitude of rigid scopes with various diameters from 2.6 to 5 mm and
various angled lenses 0 –458 are available and have made the correction of lesions invol-
ving shunts at various levels, obstructive outflow tracts lesions, and valvular pathologies
routine. The recent addition of flexible cardioscopy has provided a safe and unique way to
examine the mitral valve in a retrograde fashion, allowing careful examination of the sub-
chordal apparatus frequently abnormal in children. Unfortunately even with the best
optical and electronic filters the intraoperative videos and pictures obtained are frequently
heavily pixelated and thus may require postimaging processing (Fig. 33.4).
Figure 33.4 Minimally invasive cardiac surgery with a rigid cardioscope.
2.4. Robotic Video-Assisted Cardiac Surgery

Cardioscopy remains limited to the natural tremor amplification found when an assistant
surgeon is asked to hold and direct the video picture. Even with best intentions, the assist-
ant is sometimes unable to present the surgeon with the “key” anatomical features required
to allow an effortless procedure, until he/she first learns the nuances of the technical exer-
cise him/herself. Exposure to multiple previous procedures takes time and remains
patient-limited especially when the pathology remains rare. Much interest therefore has
recently been focused on “virtual training” as a method to reduce the “learning curve”
frequently seen with newer techniques.
In order to reduce the inadequacies of the human assistant and to allow for improved
rhythm and intraoperative performance, the Aesop 3000 (Computer Motion, Goleta, CA)
robotic arm with the voice-activated Hermes system has allowed the surgeon to control his
immediate external environment without asking others to anticipate his/her thoughts and/
or movements. Voice-activated video robotics remains a valuable “adjuvant” for improv-
ing the needed visualization within the restricted and rigid confines of a reduced surgical
field. The surgeon is now in control of his/her immediate environment. Legitimate
concerns over children’s safety, the length of the procedure, and the duration of hospital-
ization has been addressed in our initial and/or intermediate experience demonstrating
no untoward mortality or significant morbidity. In fact the avoidance of the human
finger, in part due to the confines of the access incisions, may allow for the avoidance
of infections. Our experience over the past 3.5 years would verify such a hypothesis as
our rates for serious postoperative infections remains negligible. Significant technological
advancement continue to be required in order to enable improved micro-maneuvering and
positioning of the cameras and instruments within the neonatal heart (Fig. 33.5).
One such advancement may be the use of novel cameras that may allow vision
through the viscous medium of human blood! This latter device is currently being devel-
oped by our laboratory and should soon enable “open heart surgery” without the use of
cardiopulmonary bypass—an advance for both children and adults. Using an array of
ports with the aid of catheter-based technology, we are exploring collaborative methods
414 Black
Figure 33.5 Cardiac surgery performed with the Aesop 3000.
of repairing intracardiac lesions without the use of cardiopulmonary bypass. It is likely

that cardiac surgery may be performed on a same day of admission as many other ambu-
latory surgeries of today!
A second development developed in collaboration with a local Californian company,
has enabled our first generation robot to be modified to correct both simple and complex
types of congenital heart defects through incisions no larger than 2 inches (virtual
port—avoiding thoracoscopic ports). The latter device reduces the multitude of potentially
disfiguring thoracic ports regardless of age and body stature and thus should standardize the
procedures allowing widespread acceptance into the medical community. In addition, the
use of the above technologies has allowed a multitude of noncardiac disciplines to benefit
from our endeavors, that is, prostatic or hepatobiliary surgery (Fig. 33.6).
Figure 33.6 The “virtual port” allows cardioscopy with/without the use of a static arm/robotic
platform.
Some of the initial barriers to pediatric cardiac robotic deployment include:

. A relatively small distance between the thoracic cage and the mediastinum.
. The frequent association of “shunt” lesions and thus an enlarged heart (ideal focal
point may be an internal position—maximizing robotic intra-cardiac repair).
. Small calibre femoral vessels (inability to successfully cannulate) do not allow
the routine initiation of cardiopulmonary bypass.
. The potential for future maldevelopment of the osseous chest and breast tissue
with multiple portal sites and nonsternotomy incisions.
. Children and young adults undergoing cardiac procedures typically have malde-
velopment of their chest wall due to the abnormal size and positions of the
underlying cardiac chambers.
2.5. Total Robotic Telemanipulation

Telemanipulation or the ability to repair surgical lesions from a distant location (from a
few feet within the same operating room to over the ocean) has intrigued military surgeons
for decades. The ability to repair lesions and pathologies via multiple port access incisions
has allowed the correction of coronary arterial obstruction without the use of cardio-
pulmonary bypass. Since most congenital lesions are considered an “open-heart” pro-
cedure we applied our initial attempts at telemanipulation for the repair of extra-cardiac
intrathoracic lesions (Fig. 33.7).
The repair of patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) and coarctation of the aorta are routinely
performed via a thoracotomy. We have advanced the therapy of PDA using thorascopic
techniques and would like to do the same for coarctation of the aorta (Fig. 33.8).
Due to the limitations of thoracscopic techniques (i.e., tremor amplifications, non-
precise micro-maneuvering, etc.), we pioneered robotic techniques to address the latter
concerns. Due to FDA regulations most patients are being operated on abroad. However,
the techniques are soon expected to be allowed in the United States. We anticipate early
discharge from hospital [i.e., same day (short stay)], especially when encountered in the
non-neonatal child or infant. Since economic concerns have become progressively signifi-
cant as a variable in the modulation of the rate of medical change, procedures that poten-
tially reduce hospital resources while maintaining patient safety should succeed and be
further developed.
Although the correction of coarctation of the aorta is currently being performed on
children and adults using a thoracotomy and in the case of PDA using thoracscopic
techniques (limited to a few institutions), no one in North America currently has attempted
or has successfully completed the repair of either of these lesions using telem-
anipulation. Robotic video-assisted and total robotic telmanipulation techniques will be
used for ligation of a PDA by the time this chapter reaches publication. Vascular anasto-
mosis can be accomplished via clips rather than sewing; however, the latter technique
should be avoided when growth is anticipated and/or desired. Alternative anastomotic
techniques will likely soon be developed including novel biologically degradable glues.
Although somewhat oxymoronic surgeons may not be required to sew in the not too
distant future.
2.6. Robotic Fetal Techniques

The diagnosis of fetal cardiac disease can be ascertained as early as the 16th week of ges-
tation with current ultrasound technologies. Unfortunately, serial antenatal echocardiograms
416 Black
Figure 33.7 Initial investigation of telerobotic manipulation were limited to animal studies.
are needed to follow the dynamic changes within the cardiovascular system. The develop-
ment of the cardiovascular system occurs early, by the 12th week of gestation. It is believed
that the primary defect (which may be initially a small morphological abnormality) can lead
to more severe secondary changes due to the alterations of normal flow and pressures during
the remaining gestational period. Alterations of the primary defects are believed to lessen the
severity of the secondary lesions, provided the fetus has time during the third and possibly
the second trimester to undergo alterations in anatomy due to normalization of blood flows
and pressures.
The current philosophy of fetal removal from the confines of the protected uterine
milieu, the institution of cardiopulmonary bypass, and the reimplantation of the fetus
should be questioned. Since the triggers for spontaneous delivery of the human fetus
are not fully known at this time, the potential for early and unwanted delivery is real.
Fetal demise and lack of time for maturation of the fetal structures may occur, thus
making all previous efforts futile. Placenta failure and fetal death are not uncommon
complications of fetal cardiopulmonary bypass.
Alternatives to the latter philosophy have recently included fetoscopy. Micromani-
pulation with long instrumentation inherently amplifies human inadequacies, that is,
tremor amplification. Catheter placement via the umbilical artery in fetal sheep has
been successfully accomplished and recently the first successful human fetal cardiac
manipulation in North America was reported on 02/23/02 in the New York Times.
Figure 33.8 Single post thorascopic surgery routinely can be used to repair extra-cardiac thoracic
abnormalities.
The latter report too revealed the inadequacies of operating upon a fetus with long instru-
ments and catheters.
We have successfully implemented the use of robotic video-assisted surgery
as a potential viable option to the methods described above. Telemanipulation provides
illumination and magnification as does fetoscopy but with no tremor amplification.
Direct visualization and controlled robotic manipulation of the chordal vessels has
allowed direct access of the cardiac chambers via catheters and the opportunity for intra-
cardiac manipulation (Fig. 33.9).
Figure 33.9 First generation telemanipulations were used in fetal (sheep) studies.
418 Black
3. CONCLUSIONS
The diagnosis and/or treatment of children born with congenital heart disease should rou-
tinely incorporate cardioscopy, active venous suction, epidural/spinal anesthesia, and
robotic video assistance. Our initial experience with the repair of the most technically
simple repairs has enabled us to perform more complicated repairs utilizing the hemi-
sternotomy approach. We have since found cardioscopy with robotic video assistance to
be an extremely valuable “adjuvant” for improving the needed visualization within the
restricted confines of a reduced surgical field. Legitimate concerns over children’s
safety, the length of the procedure, and the duration of hospitalization has been addressed
in our initial and/or intermediate experience demonstrating no untoward mortality or
significant morbidity.
It continues to be our belief that minimizing surgical trauma may be of more benefit
to higher risk children who would then require less narcotic analgesia in the postoperative
period. Since respiratory complications are a significant cause of prolonged ICU and hos-
pital stay, avoidance of narcotic analgesia should improve the clinical outcomes in patients
undergoing minimally invasive cardiac surgery.
On-going developments should allow for the repair of selective intracardiac lesions
using telemanipulation (full robotic assistance) without the use of cardiopulmonary
bypass, hopefully in the near future, utilizing innovative visualization systems.
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Brain Protection and Selective Cerebral Perfusion
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Novel Techniques Utilizing the Heart – Lung Machine

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Surgical Incisions/Cardioscopy/Video-Assisted Robotics

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total heart-lung bypass. Arch Surg 1958; 76:821 –824.
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intracardiac surgery with extracorporeal circulation: a general evaluation of its use in heart
surgery. Surgery 1957; 42:753 –761.
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open cardiac surgery. Surg Gynec & Obst 1959; 108:707 – 714.
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Am J Surg 1960; 100:170 – 184.
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2002: The New York Times.
34
The Interventional Radiologist’s Role in
Pediatric Minimally Invasive Surgery
Michael Temple, Peter Chait, Bairbre Connolly, and Philip John

Ricardo Restrepo
Miami Children’s Hospital, Miami, Florida, USA
1. Introduction 422
1.1. The Image-Guided Therapy Team and Multidisciplinary Collaboration 423
2. Basic Technique, Imaging Modalities, and Equipment 423
2.1. Seldinger Technique 423
2.2. Imaging Modalities 423
2.2.1. Ultrasound 424
2.2.2. Fluoroscopy 424
2.2.3. Computed Tomography 424
2.2.4. Magnetic Resonance 425
2.3. Equipment 425
2.3.1. Needles 425
2.3.2. Wires 426
2.3.3. Sheaths 426
2.3.4. Catheters 426
2.3.5. Balloons 427
2.3.6. Stents 427
2.3.7. Embolic Material 427
3. Preprocedure Care 427
3.1. Preprocedure Workup 427
3.2. Radiation Protection 428
3.3. Sedation/Analgesia/Anesthesia 428
4. Postprocedure Management 429
5. Basic/Common Procedures 429
5.1. Vascular Access 430
5.1.1. Peripherally Inserted Central Catheter 430
5.1.2. Central Venous Line 431
5.1.3. Port Insertion 432
5.1.4. Retrieval of Line Fragments 432
421
422 Temple et al.
5.2. Enteral Access 432

5.2.1. Gastrostomy and Gastrojejunostomy 432
5.2.2. Cecostomy 435
5.3. Biopsies 435
5.3.1. Transvenous Biopsy 436
5.4. Drainages 438
5.4.1. Peritoneal Abscess 439
5.4.2. Liver Abscess 439
5.4.3. Cholecystic and Pericholecystic Collections 440
5.4.4. Splenic Abscess 440
5.4.5. Pancreatic Collections 440
6. Chest Interventions 441
6.1. Esophageal Dilatations 441
6.2. Tracheal Stenting 441
7. Biliary Interventions 442
7.1. Percutaneous Transhepatic Cholangiography 443
7.2. Transhepatic Transcholecystic Cholangiography 443
7.3. Biliary Drainage 443
7.4. Biliary Dilatation and Stenting 444
7.5. Percutaneous Endoluminal Bile Duct Biopsy 444
7.6. Portal Venous Interventions 444
7.6. Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt 444
8. Vascular Interventions 446
8.1. Treatment of Vascular Malformations 446
9. Future Directions 447
References 448
1. INTRODUCTION
Pediatric interventional radiology (PIR) services are a rapidly growing facet of many
children’s hospitals, given the emergence of fellowship trained pediatric interventional
radiologists. Pediatric interventionalists perform diagnostic and minimal access thera-
peutic procedures using various medical imaging modalities to guide them. As in other
areas, the minimally invasive nature of the procedures promises to result in less patient
morbidity, shorter hospital stays, and more cost effective health care (1 – 3).
The role of interventional radiology has not yet been fully realized or determined in
the pediatric population. The ongoing improvement in medical technology promises to
result in evolution of this field with a need for continuing research to determine outcomes
and help define the roles of both radiologists and surgeons. Future roles should be deter-
mined by evidence-based studies demonstrating whether surgeons or radiologists have the
best outcomes, are least invasive, and most cost-effective for each particular procedure
rather than making these decisions based on financial gain or “turf” issues. For some
procedures a combined radiology –surgery approach may be beneficial.
As this specialty is in its infancy, large numbers of comparative, prospective
and cost-analysis studies have not yet been performed making a detailed review of the
literature quite limited. As a result, this chapter will outline the background behind
The Interventional Radiologist’s Role 423
interventional procedures, review basic techniques, modalities and equipment, describe

the basic workup of patients for interventional procedures and finally describe the types
of procedures that are currently being performed. Results of evidence-based studies and
other types of research that have been conducted, along with potential research directions,
will be discussed where possible.
1.1. The Image-Guided Therapy Team and Multidisciplinary

Collaboration
In addition to performing procedures, the image-guided therapy (IGT) service must take
responsibility for pre- and postprocedure care, as well as monitoring outcomes and treating
complications (4,5). A dedicated multidisciplinary team approach is fundamental to a suc-
cessful PIR service (4 – 7). This approach includes 24 h availability of pediatric interven-
tional radiologists, nurses and technologists, specifically trained in an interventional
radiology environment and minimally invasive procedures. The addition of a pediatrician
or nurse practitioner to the PIR team improves periprocedural care. Close collaboration
with surgical and medical colleagues is essential when providing this type of care and
in the development of new and combined minimally invasive procedures.
2. BASIC TECHNIQUE, IMAGING MODALITIES, AND EQUIPMENT
The first invasive radiologic procedure was performed in 1929. Dr. Werner Forssmann
inserted a catheter through his own brachial artery and into his heart using a fluoroscopic
screen for guidance (8). Modern interventional radiology techniques have their origins in
the 1950s from work done by Seldinger and Cope (9). The number and variety of pediatric
interventional procedures performed with image guidance has grown as a direct result of
improvements in imaging technology, particularly ultrasound (US), fluoroscopy and com-
puted tomography (CT) (9 – 17). Rapid advances in biotechnology with the development
of new catheters, wires, balloons and other devices contribute substantially to sustaining
this growth.
2.1. Seldinger Technique

Most PIR procedures are based on the Seldinger technique. Access is obtained with a
needle to a structure either by direct visualization, palpation, ultrasound, or fluoroscopic
guidance. Through the needle, a wire is passed, the needle is removed, and a catheter is
introduced (over the wire) to drain, dilate, stent, or embolize. Through this small
(,5 mm) incision, access is gained for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes to many ana-
tomical structures and areas.
2.2. Imaging Modalities

There are a variety of imaging modalities used in interventional radiology. The majority of
pediatric interventional procedures are performed using a combination of ultrasound
with or without fluoroscopy. CT is used less often in pediatrics than in the adult population
due to excellent visualization and lack of radiation that ultrasound offers.
424 Temple et al.
2.2.1. Ultrasound
US uses the reflection of sound waves to form images. A US transducer uses piezoelectric
crystals to send and receive sound wave pulses. The sound waves are reflected at tissue
interfaces. The reflected pulses are then used to form real-time two-dimensional
images. Colour, power, and pulsed-wave Doppler imaging are variations that allow
colour or graphical visualization of motion. US is the most commonly used modality in
PIR and is considered safe within the range used for most diagnostic procedures.
US guidance is ideally suited to the pediatric population secondary to good visibility
related to the lack of body fat. It is used primarily for vascular and enterostomy access and
biopsies. The advantages include lack of ionizing radiation, faster procedure times (18),
multiplanar capability, and the ability to constantly visualize the needle during placement
and sampling in real-time from a wide variety of angles and approaches. US is limited by
the inability to penetrate air and intact cortical bone. Use of colour Doppler imaging
allows vascular structures to be avoided during needle placement (19). Sonographic con-
trast agents and volumetric and harmonic imaging techniques are recent innovations that
may further increase effectiveness of US-guided procedures (20 – 24).
2.2.2. Fluoroscopy
Modern pulsed, fluoroscopy uses intermittent low dose X-rays to provide “real-time”
dynamic imaging. X-ray exposures on the other hand, use much higher doses of radiation
(25). The fluoroscopic X-ray source is from a single plane or biplane piece of equipment
called the C-arm. Biplane units allow simultaneous fluoroscopy or exposures from two
directions and result in a lower radiation dose to the patient than using multiple runs
with a monoplane unit (26). For anteroposterior (AP) imaging, the X-ray source is
usually below the table and the image is captured above the table by the image intensifier.
Fluoroscopy is used primarily for enterostomy and vascular access, vascular pro-
cedures, and some biopsies (e.g., bone). Disadvantages include radiation exposure and
little or no discrimination between soft tissue types.
2.2.3. Computed Tomography

CT units use a tightly collimated strip of radiation that circles around a patient to obtain
a two-dimensional map of X-ray attenuation at that level. CT has undergone several
major developments since its introduction. Most recent changes include the change
from single static images obtained one at a time at specific levels to the introduction
of helical and multislice acquisition techniques. CT fluoroscopy is a recently introduced
modality that allows real time two-dimensional visualization of needle motion at the
expense of increased radiation doses to both the patient and radiologist (27). With
new imaging strategies and improved technology, studies are beginning to show
decreased dose to patients and staff with CT fluoroscopy relative to conventional
CT-guided biopsy (28).
CT offers excellent visualization with high resolution that is not limited by the pre-
sence of air or bone. It is used to biopsy lung, bone, and small abdominal and pelvic lesions
that are not visible by US and occasionally for access to collections in deep locations. The
drawbacks include radiation exposure, limited imaging planes, poor differentiation of
some lesions related to lack of fat in babies and children, longer procedure times than
sonographic biopsy (18) and, with conventional CT, lack of dynamic visualization of
needle movement during placement and sample collection.
2.2.4. Magnetic Resonance

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) creates images by using variable magnetic gradients
and radiofrequency pulses to cause hydrogen atoms to emit radio waves. Improvements in
computer technology and pulse sequence strategies now allow images to be obtained at
subsecond intervals. Near-real-time imaging allows the development of MRI-guided mini-
mally invasive procedures.
At present, interventional MRI is in its infancy and is not yet being used on a wide-
spread basis. However, uses of MRI for intervention and intraoperative assessment are
being developed and have been increasing in scope in the last few years. Pediatric appli-
cations are only beginning to be discussed, with the only reports so far being in the fields of
neurosurgery (29), cardiology (30), and orthopedics (31).
Initial interventional and intraoperative MRI units included a horizontal or vertical
opening. The open design increases ease of access to the patient. Traditional surgical
instruments can be used in relatively close proximity to units because of the low field
strength of the open MRIs. Open MRI units are, by definition, low field strength
(0.2 –0.7 T) because the open access area disrupts the magnetic field and introduces sig-
nificant field inhomogeneity. Currently, there is a move from open, low field strength
MRI units to short-bore, high field strength (32) traditional “closed” MRI units. The
desire for higher resolution, lower signal to noise ratios of high field strength magnets
and the ability to perform high-end imaging techniques, such as spectroscopy, is behind
the change in attitude. Higher field strength magnets are used at the expense of decreased
patient accessibility and the necessity for the development of nonferromagnetic surgical
instruments or significant changes in room design. While some procedures can be per-
formed within the closed MRI bore by direct operator intervention (33), moving the
patient in and out of the MRI bore may be necessary.
Several tools are being developed to improve MRI-guided procedures including
patient registration software (32), robotics (34), and positionable MRI compatible operat-
ing room tables (35,36).
Current uses for intraoperative MRI include guiding tumor ablation, assessing
margins following resection of masses (37) or determining the success of surgical
intervention (38). Intraprocedural guidance during endoscopy and laparoscopy is also
possible (39).
2.3. Equipment
Needles, wires, sheaths, catheters, balloons, and embolic materials are commonly used in
interventional practice and will be briefly discussed below.
2.3.1. Needles
Needles are used for obtaining access and performing biopsies. Description of the multi-
tude of needles and biopsy devices available are beyond the scope of this chapter. Needles
are used to obtain access and perform biopsies.
Access Needles. When accessing a structure, the choice of needle size and type is
based on patient size, depth of target, size/strength/thickness of guidewire, proximity to
vital structures, and radiologist’s preference. Angiocatheters are commonly used in the
pediatric population as the soft-tipped catheter is easily introduced and minimizes
damage during exchanges.
Biopsy Needles. There are two basic types of biopsy needles: aspiration and cutting.
Aspiration needles are used to obtain samples for cytopathologic analysis. Aspiration
426 Temple et al.
needles are small in gauge, ranging from 20 to 24 Gauge. Examples of aspiration needles
include spinal and Chiba types. Aspiration needles demonstrate increased yield with
increased gauge and decreased bevel angle (40).
Cutting needles tend to be larger in gauge (14 – 19 Gauge) than aspiration needles
and come in end-and side-cutting types. End-cutting needles are like aspiration needles
with modification of tip design to increase yield. Examples include Franseen and
Turner needles. Side-cutting needles shear the tissue sample. The most commonly
used side-cutting needle type is the TruCut needle. The central portion, containing a
recessed notch, is introduced into the lesion. A cutting outer cannula is subsequently intro-
duced trapping the sample in the notch.
In the early 1980s, automated biopsy devices were introduced (41,42) in order to
increase the ease of performing biopsies resulting in higher yields and shorter procedures
while providing high quality core biopsy specimens.
In adults, fine needle aspiration biopsy is common as samples are primarily used for
cytologic analysis (43) of adenocarcinomas. Accuracy in diagnosis of the common pedi-
atric sarcomatous tumors is increased with core needle biopsy, which gives a larger sample
for histopathologic study (44).
2.3.2. Wires
Wires are used to introduce, guide, and exchange catheters. There are two basic types of
wires: solid and wrapped. Wrapped wires have a central solid core called the mandrel
with an outer layer of wire wrapped around the mandrel. Mandrels have variable degrees
of ability to torque and stiffness. The tips of wires may be angled, to ease introduction
into distal branches, or have variable floppiness, to help protect vessel walls. Many have
coatings to ease introduction, placement, and ease passage through stenotic areas.
Common coatings include Teflonw, heparin, and hydrophilic polymer coatings. Infusion
wires are specialized wires that are used to pump fibrinolytic agents directly into a thrombus.
2.3.3. Sheaths
Vascular sheaths are used to protect the arteriotomy site from trauma in cases where
multiple catheter changes or prolonged examination times are expected. It is thought
that the incidence of stenosis and thrombosis is increased with multiple catheter
changes. The diaphragm at the proximal end has an air-tight seal that protects against
hemorrhage and air embolism. Long sheaths are used for stabilization or specific purposes
like snaring, angioplasty, and filter placement.
2.3.4. Catheters
The two basic types of catheters are angiographic and drainage.
Angiographic catheters are used to navigate to a specific area, perform diagnostic
studies, and introduce therapeutic devices, agents, or other catheters. The ends of the
catheters have various shapes, each designed to help access specific structures. Some
are malleable to allow the operator to further vary the tip design as required for individual
situations. Microcatheters—small coaxial catheters that are introduced through larger
stabilizing catheters—can be negotiated far out into tiny vascular structures allowing
the possibility of targeted, focal therapy with minimal surrounding effect.
Most radiologically placed drainage catheters are “Cope loop” catheters. These
catheters have a self-retaining mechanism so that they do not have to be sutured in
place. This type of catheter is used for all drainages including abscess and pleural.
2.3.5. Balloons
Balloons are used to perform controlled dilatations of both vascular and nonvascular struc-
tures. Balloon sizes range from 1.5 to 30 mm. Noncompliant balloon material increases
the burst pressure and increases the radial force in the area of stenosis.
2.3.6. Stents
Stents are used to buttress open stenotic areas in vascular and nonvascular structures.
Stents are usually metal but can be composed of other materials such as silicone. There
are many variations in stent design including balloon expandable or self-expanding,
covered or noncovered, and flexible or rigid versions.
2.3.7. Embolic Material

Embolic materials are used to stop blood flow. There are numerous uses for embolic materials
including control of acute hemorrhage, embolizing a biopsy tract, preoperative tumor
embolization to decrease intraoperative blood loss, treatment of vascular anomalies, and
chemoembolization. Commonly used embolic materials include coils, particles, and glue.
Coils come in various lengths and shape designs. They may be covered with thrombo-
genic fibres. While coils are considered a permanent embolic agent, there are many reports of
recannalization (45,46). Coils may interfere with subsequent procedures by blocking access.
Particles can be temporary, such as Gelfoam, or permanent, such as polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA) or Embospheresw. Gelfoam, which is well known to surgeons, is a
gelatin sponge that is cut into pledgets or made into a slurry. PVA is an irregular
plastic material that is made by grinding down a block of PVA and separating the particles
based on size. PVA has been used since the 1970s and, to our knowledge, there have been
no reports of allergic reaction. While PVA is supposed to be permanent, recannalization
has been reported (47). Embospheres are a relatively new product on market. They are
spheres of acrylic polymer cross-linked with gelatin surrounding a saline core. Theoreti-
cally, the spherical shape means that a single particle can obstruct a single arteriole/vessel,
therefore requiring less embolic material than other embolic agents.
Cyanoacrylate is an injectable polymer that results in thrombosis is used in multiple
areas including embolization of Vein of Galen malformations (48), tracheoesophageal
fistulae (49) and arteriovenous malformations (50,51), and fistulae, including carotid-
cavernous (52).
3. PREPROCEDURE CARE
3.1. Preprocedure Workup
The role of the interventional radiologist begins with the consultation from the referring
service. The referring physician must relate the reason for referral, the patient’s pertinent
history and physical findings, and the diagnostic workup that led to the referral. The
patient’s medical history and previous imaging are reviewed, allowing the interventional-
ist to determine if a procedure is feasible and advisable. Factors that help determine
feasibility vary with the procedure to be performed. The only absolute contraindications
for most procedures are absence of a safe access route and uncontrollable coagulopathy.
Additional imaging, to further delineate or potentially diagnose an abnormality, may be
requested prior to accepting a request. For example, specific contrast CT protocols can
be used to diagnose a lung nodule as an arteriovenous malformation or a liver mass as
a hemangioma, negating the need for a biopsy. Once the decision to proceed has been
made, the most appropriate imaging modality to use for guidance is chosen based on
lesion location, visibility and size, in addition to the radiologist’s preference.
428 Temple et al.
Consent and assent are obtained in accordance with regional laws and personal and
departmental practice. Assent is the agreement of the child, who is unable to give consent
according to regional law, age or inability to understand the implications of procedure
performed. In general, the reasons for the procedure, alternative methods of treatment, tech-
nique, risks, and complications are discussed with the patient and/or their parents. The
implications of not performing the procedure should also be discussed.
Preprocedure bloodwork should include prothrombin time (PT) and/or international
normalized ratio (INR), partial thromboplastin time (PTT), platelets, and haemoglobin.
The history should include determination of medications that can interfere with
coagulation, such as aspirin and heparin, to allow adequate time for them to be stopped.
Coagulopathies should be corrected prior to the procedure. While the preprocedure
workup includes determination of clotting factors and correction of any coagulopathy,
abnormal clotting factors are not a good predictor of haemorrhage (53).
Children fasting for a procedure should not become dehydrated, and orders for main-
tenance of intravenous fluids should be part of routine pre-procedure orders. Patients
undergoing sedation or having a general anaesthetic, should have solid foods prohibited
for 8 h before the procedure and clear fluids for 2 h before the procedure, although
there is some disagreement in the literature (54 – 57).
3.2. Radiation Protection

In order to be able to operate imaging equipment, radiologists receive extensive training in
radiation physics, radiobiology, and radiation protection (58,59). People who work in and
around the interventional suite need to be aware of the invisible but real dangers of radi-
ation exposure (60 –64). Radiation dose to IGT staff is higher in procedures performed on
children than on adults (65,66). Modern pulsed fluoroscopy with careful collimation mini-
mizes the dose to both patients and staff (67,68). A lead apron with a thyroid shield must
be worn during any fluoroscopic or CT procedure (69 – 74). An apron that wraps fully
around the body is preferred if the person is going to be moving around the room so
that he or she will still be protected if they turn their back to the beam. A properly
fitted belt helps shift the apron’s weight from the shoulders to the hips and reduces
muscle fatigue. Hand protection should be used, when possible, when the hands are
going to be close to the beam. Thin, compliant lead gloves can reduce the dose to the
hands by 50% (69,75). Prescriptive and nonprescriptive lead glasses are available for
additional eye protection. Because radiation dose is inversely proportional to the distance
from the X-ray source, (dose a 1/distance2) every opportunity should be taken to increase
the distance of those involved in a procedure (distance from the X-ray beam) when patient
safety and stability permit. During exposures and angiographic runs, everyone except the
person doing a hand injection should step out of the room or as far as possible (76). Power
injectors should be used whenever possible. Studies to determine radiation exposure to
patients and IGT staff are very limited in the pediatric population.
Studies looking at neurointerventional procedures and others have been performed.
These demonstrate that doses to children and staff can be considerable, but are outweighed
by the benefit of performing percutaneous therapy (63,77) and that appropriate techniques
can decrease dose during these procedures (78).
3.3. Sedation/Analgesia/Anesthesia
The approach to the type of sedation or anesthesia depends largely on the procedure to be
performed and the medical complexity of the patient undergoing the procedure. Most
procedures are performed under sedation when feasible.
In general, most pediatric procedures that are painful or that require the patient to be
completely immobilized will require deep sedation or general anesthesia. In both cases,
the procedure should be done under the supervision of an anesthesiologist. General
anesthesia may be indicated for lengthy procedures and for procedures where the area
of interest is close to a vital structure. On the other hand, some neonates and patients
with oropharyngeal abnormalities may be poor candidates for endotracheal intubation.
In these patients (and in older patients undergoing less painful procedures), local anesthe-
sia or light sedation may be all that is required.
Monitoring of sedated patients includes blood pressure checks every 5 min, ECG
read out, and continuous pulse oximetry (79). Visual monitoring by physicians, nurses,
and technologists is by far the most important assurance of safety and avoidance of com-
plications. Regardless of whatever level of sedation is chosen, full resuscitation and anaes-
thetic equipment with suction should be immediately available.
A wide variety of medications are available for anesthesia and sedation (80 –87).
Radiologists tend to use a limited selection of drugs for sedation and analgesia. Infants
weighing ,5 kg may be given an oral dose of chloral hydrate (80 mg/kg) followed by
either intravenous morphine or oral diphenhydramine. In young children (5 – 20 kg),
intravenous pentobarbital (3 mg/kg per IV) followed by intravenous meperidine (1 mg/
kg), repeated once if necessary. In older children and adolescents, sedation would
include intravenous diazemuls (0.1 mg/kg) followed by intravenous meperidine, repeated
once if necessary. Sedation for anxious patients undergoing short relatively painless pro-
cedures is usually achieved with oral midazolam. Ketamine infusions are used in some
centers (88).
Liberal use of local anesthetics, even in sedated or anaesthetized patients, improves
postprocedure recovery and decreases pain experienced at the operative site. Local anes-
thetics can be administered through a 27 G needle with minimal discomfort. Patient accep-
tance is improved if the site has been prepared with topical EMLA cream or Ametop gel
(89). EMLA patches may also be used in neonates (90 – 92), but not where there is an open
skin wound or mucosa. To decrease the pain of subcutaneous injection, the pH of lidocaine
can be raised with a 1:9 mixture of injectable sodium bicarbonate (93). The maximum
dose of 1% lidocaine is 0.5 cc/kg. For longer duration of analgesia, 0.25% bupivicaine
(maximum dose 1 cc/kg) is used instead of lidocaine. Local anaesthetic with epinephrine
(1:100,000) can be used to cause vasoconstriction. This results in prolonged anaesthetic
effect and decreases bleeding. Epinephrine should not be used in an area with end
artery blood supply (such as the digits, nose, and penis).
4. POSTPROCEDURE MANAGEMENT
After the procedure, a brief note is written in the patient’s chart outlining the procedure,
outcome, and any further interventions required. Once the procedure is completed, the
patient is sent to the postanesthetic care unit (PACU) with orders for pain management.
Patients are then followed by the interventional team as required.
5. BASIC/COMMON PROCEDURES
At the Centre for Image-Guided Therapy at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, over
6000 interventional cases are performed each year (Fig. 34.1). The caseload has risen
steadily over the last 7 years and is largely due to close collaboration with referring
430 Temple et al.
Figure 34.1 Photograph of an image guided therapy suite from the Hospital for Sick Children in
Toronto, Canada. The room operates at OR standards and includes integrated angiographic, ultra-
sound, and CT fluoroscopy equipment. The room was also designed to allow the integrated use of
surgical equipment such as laparscopes, surgical lasers, and microscopes.
physicians, our surgical colleagues and other disciplines. The majority of procedures are
vascular access, enterostomy access, biopsy, and drainage.
5.1. Vascular Access

In some centres, there has been a significant shift in the role of the radiologist in vascular
access (94, 95). In the past, surgeons placed all central lines and radiologists diagnosed
line malfunctions, repositioned misplaced lines, and retrieved fractured line fragments.
The use of image-guided techniques for central venous access device placement have
been shown to result in less infections, cost, and misplacements than surgical lines
(94 –98). The success of image-guided techniques has lead to the increasing placement
of central venous lines (CVS) by radiologists in many centres. In addition, increasing
use of lines and longer survival times has lead to an apparent increase in thrombosis
making placement by traditional techniques difficult to impossible, and require placement
of CVLs through collateral vessels (99).
All forms of vascular access devices are placed in the interventional radiology suite
including PICCs (peripherally inserted central catheters), central lines, and subcutaneous
ports (100).
5.1.1. Peripherally Inserted Central Catheter

A PICC is a long-term venous access device that is placed when the expected duration of
therapy is 3 weeks to 1 year. It may be used for administration of fluids, drugs, total par-
enteral nutrition (TPN), and blood sampling (101 – 103). Preprocedural bloodwork is not
usually required unless the patient is coagulopathic and/or unstable or there is a significant
chance that PICC insertion may not be successful and a tunneled central line may have to
be placed. Unsuccessful PICC insertions most commonly occur in younger children
(especially neonates) and those who have had multiple lines previously. Active sepsis is
a relative contraindication unless the PICC is placed for antibiotic administration.
PICC’s are placed under strict sterile conditions using visualization, palpation, ultra-
sound, or venography to obtain initial access (104 – 108). In adults, sonographic and veno-
graphic access techniques have similar complication rates but sonography has a higher
initial success rate (107). Once venous access has been achieved, a guidewire is advanced
into the vein, through the SVC into the right atrium. A dilator or peel away sheath is placed
over the wire. The catheter is cut to length, placed through the sheath, sutured, and dressed.
Determining the appropriate tip position can be difficult especially because the position of
the tip varies with arm position (109). A centrally located PICC tip position is associated
with a lower complication rate than a noncentral location (110). At our institution, we aim
to leave the tip at the SVC—right atrial junction or lower SVC. In 92.5% of children, this
is at the level of the sixth thoracic vertebral body (111).
The procedure may take anywhere from 20 min to 4 h depending on the status of the
venous patency, size of patient, stenosis, and collaterals from numerous previous lines or
thromboses and venospasm. Potential complications during insertion include vasospasm,
causing difficulty or inability to advance the catheter, bruising at IV site(s), venous strip-
ping, air embolism, and cardiac arrhythmias. The position of the wire in the right atrium
can cause atrial or ventricular tachycardia and ectopic beats.
Later complications include infection, thrombosis, fracture, and tip perforation.
Symptomatic thrombosis is seen in 1 –4% of PICC lines (112,113). A combined adult –
pediatric paper found high thrombosis rates with PICC lines (114). Thrombosis was
found in 23.3% of patients with a single PICC insertion and 38% who had undergone
more than one placement. Thrombosis was found in 57% of patients with cephalic
PICC lines. Cystic fibrosis patients may be at increased risk of thrombosis (115). Other
complications include PICC fractures with subsequent embolization of the fragment to
the SVC, heart or lungs in 0.1 to 2.7% (116). The natural history of undetected fractures
is unclear. In one case, a PICC line fragment was removed from an asymptomatic patient’s
pulmonary artery when discovered, 11 years after the embolization occurred (117).
PICCs can also be placed by specially trained nurses. If malpositioned, spontaneous
correction of position can occur (118). Cost-effectiveness of radiologic vs. radiologic/RN
placement depends on the cost of the interventional suite (119). A recent study, however,
suggests that PICCS’ may be less cost-effective than initially thought due to costs related
to thrombosis and difficulty in placement (121). Follow-up studies to assess long-term
effects in the pediatric population have not been performed.
5.1.2. Central Venous Line

Single and double lumen central venous lines are frequently inserted in the interventional
radiology department for TPN, chemotherapy, and dialysis. For children and infants, CVL
insertions usually require a general anesthetic. Many teenagers require anesthesia because
of anxiety and poor cooperation. Intermittent positive pressure ventilation reduces the
possibility of air embolism (122,123), a complication of both insertion (123 –126) and
removal (127 – 131). Paralysis is not necessary for CVL placement. Ideally the patient
is placed in Trendelenburg position on a tilting table during insertion (132).
Radiographic CVL placement varies in technique from surgical insertion in that
initial access is obtained using sonographic guidance and the catheter length/tip position
is determined fluoroscopically. Sonographic access has been demonstrated to be safer than
432 Temple et al.
traditional landmark techniques (104,105). Preferentially, the right jugular vein is punctu-
red under ultrasound guidance with a 19 G needle, and a wire advanced into the SVC. The
subclavian veins are almost never used, particularly in patients with renal disease
(133,134). A dilator is passed over the wire followed by an appropriate peel away
sheath. The catheter is tunneled from a small chest wall incision along the plane of the
subcutaneous tissue and the end is externalized at the neck site. After shortening, the cath-
eter is introduced through the sheath. After checking the position, the catheter is secured
and dressed. The final fluoroscopic assessment allows misplaced catheters to be immedi-
ately repositioned. Potential complications include bleeding, cardiac arrhythmia, pneu-
mothorax, and trauma to the great veins.
When central access by convention routes is not possible due to thrombus or other
abnormality, placement of CVLs can be performed through collateral vessels (99) or
utilizing transhepatic (135) or translumbar (136) routes.
There are no large, prospective series reporting CVL use and risk profile for
pediatric population.
5.1.3. Port Insertion

Radiologic placement of ports has been shown to be cheaper than surgical placement in
one study (96). Radiologic port placement has been demonstrated to be safe in children
(137). Radiologic methods are similar to surgical and, like CVL placements, vary in
image-guided access and fluoroscopic adjustment of the length and tip position.
5.1.4. Retrieval of Line Fragments

One complication of PICC and CVL lines, particularly medially placed subclavian lines
(138), is line breakage. Fractured PICC and CVL fragments are retrieved from the
cavae, heart, and pulmonary arteries (PA) by using a gooseneck snare to entrap the frag-
ment. (Fig. 34.2) In the heart or PA’s. directional catheters are used to introduce the snare
to the desired area. Biplane fluoroscopy is sometimes helpful.
5.2. Enteral Access

5.2.1. Gastrostomy and Gastrojejunostomy
Percutaneous gastrostomy was first described in a child in 1980 (139). Since then several
studies have demonstrated its safety and efficacy (140,141) (Fig. 34.3, 34.4). The majority
of gastric (G) and gastrojejunal (GJ) tubes are placed in neurologically impaired children
(140). G-tubes are direct gastric tubes and GJ tubes are tubes that pass through the stomach
to feed into the jejunum. The indications for placement include neurologically impaired
children with an absent gag reflex, inability to feed adequately by mouth, severe gastro-
esophageal reflux, oromotor incoordination, and excessively high metabolic needs. GJ
tubes are placed as an alternative to fundoplication. A randomized, controlled trial com-
paring the two is being planned. As many of these patients have gastroesophageal reflux
and an absent gag reflex; they are at risk of pulmonary aspiration. Contraindications to pla-
cement include coagulopathy and anatomic variants prohibiting safe access to the
stomach.
Retrograde and antegrade insertion techniques have been described (140,142). A
description of the retrograde technique follows. Prophylactic antibiotics are administered.
To avoid injury to surrounding organs, the edges of the liver and spleen are mapped with
ultrasound and barium is introduced to outline the colon. The stomach is distended with air
Figure 34.2 A gooseneck snare was used to entrap a PICC fragment (arrowheads) from the
pulmonary artery.
through a nasogastric (NG) tube. Glucagon is administered to cause constriction of the

pylorus and gastric atony (143,144). The side-effects of glucagon are usually not of
major significance, but may include tachycardia (145), hypertension, and hyperglycemia
(144). A significant degree of gastric distension required may be required to distend the
Figure 34.3 Gastrostomy in a newborn with esophageal atresia. A needle has been introduced into
the stomach using sonographic guidance. The needle is used to inject contrast, to assure an intragas-
tric location, and to insufflate the stomach prior to puncture.
434 Temple et al.
Figure 34.4 Frontal view showing the gastrostomy tube in place. Note the refluxed contrast
demonstrating the level of the atresia.
stomach below the level of the lower margin of the liver, and to depress the colon away
from the stomach. The distended stomach is punctured under fluoroscopic guidance
avoiding the colon. Endoscopic assistance is occasionally used to chose a puncture
location in patients with gastric varices (146). Contrast is instilled through the needle
to confirm an intragastric location. Using the least amount of contrast possible minimizes
the risk of aspiration. The G-tube is exchanged with the needle over a guidewire after
dilation of the tract. GJ tubes are inserted over a longer wire that has been steered by
a directional catheter from the pylorus into the jejunum. A small amount of pneumo-
peritoneum is almost the norm at the end of the procedure (147). Significant pneumoper-
itoneum that compromises respiratory excursions can be aspirated with a 27 Gauge
needle.
VP shunts can become infected secondary to gastrostomy placement (148). Sane
found that 2 of 23 patients with VP shunts became infected. During that study, antegrade
gastrostomy (in 21 of 23 patients) was performed without prophylactic antibiotics. In a
review at our institution 1 infection was found in 49 placements in patients undergoing
retrograde placement with antibiotic prophylaxis.
5.2.2. Cecostomy
Cecostomy tubes are placed to administer antegrade enemas to treat fecal incontinence in
children with spina bifida or congenital rectal anatomic abnormalities (149 –152).
(Fig. 34.5) Evacuating the colon from the cecum in an antegrade manner helps avoid inter-
mittent soiling from fecal residue. Cecostomy insertion can allow the patient to become
independent with the ability to perform their own enemas and avoid the need for rectal
washouts (153). Percutaneous fluoroscopic cecostomy was developed as a minimally inva-
sive alternative to the MACE procedure (154) where a surgical appendicostomy is created.
Percutaneous cecostomy saves the appendix for a Mitrofanoff procedure. Endoscopic
cecostomy insertion was subsequently described (155). The patient’s anatomy may be dis-
torted because of spina bifida and/or scoliosis. Sensory deficit often renders the procedure
less painful for patients with a high level lesion. The majority of cecostomy tubes are placed
under sedation. It should be noted that there is a higher incidence of latex allergy in patients
with spina bifida (156). As such, latex precautions should be used routinely.
5.3. Biopsies
Image-guided percutaneous biopsy techniques have matured sufficiently to become the
method of choice for obtaining diagnostic tissue specimens for pathologic analysis in
Figure 34.5 Cecostomy tube insertion in a 9-year-old male with fecal incontinence. This thera-
peutic intervention allows the administration of antegrade enemas to give patients a period
without worry of incontinent episodes.
436 Temple et al.
many areas and tumor types (157,158). In interventional radiology we perform most organ
biopsies (i.e., kidney and liver) under sedation. The normal prebiopsy requirement is a
normal coagulation profile.
When determining a biopsy route, large vascular structures and specific organs must
be avoided. Organs that should not be traversed include lung and pleural space (in abdomi-
nal and mediastinal biopsies), gallbladder, pancreas, and bladder. Liver and bowel can be
safely transgressed with small calibre needles (159). The likely etiology of the abnormality
will also determine the route. For example, a retroperitoneal approach should be used in a
suspected malignancy such as neuroblastoma and Wilms tumor to avoid peritoneal
seeding. The bowel should not be transgressed in the face of infection because of the possi-
bility of fistula formation. Peripheral liver lesions should be sampled through a parench-
ymal tract. Good visualization of the lesion and pathway is essential for the procedure to
be performed safely and to ensure the sample is taken from the appropriate location. In
certain oncological conditions, proposed surgical incisions and skin flaps, and so on
must be avoided and should therefore be marked by the surgeon. Preferably, contami-
nation (by bacteria, malignant cells, fungi, etc.) should be contained to its space of
origin to avoid contamination of another space (e.g., pleural, peritoneal, retroperitoneum,
skin dermatomes, etc.).
Biopsies of large lesions (within the liver, kidney, or spleen) can be performed
during spontaneous respiration in a sedated patient. If the lesion is small and deep,
poorly accessible or close to vital structures, then controlled respirations using general
anesthesia with intubation and paralysis increases the safety of the procedure and likely
the positive yield of the biopsy. End expiration is frequently required as a reproducible,
easy to maintain state of respiration, allowing the lesion to be held in clear view and biop-
sied. The same holds true for lesions high in the liver, close to the diaphragm. In the
spleen, lesions as small as 5 mm can be sampled with controlled respirations. Controlling
respirations may also reduce the possibility of shearing or tearing of the spleen or the liver
capsule theoretically reducing the potential complication rate.
Similar principles hold true for lung biopsies. Superficial peripheral pulmonary
nodules (3 mm) are sampled under ultrasound guidance. These require controlled respir-
ations and close cooperation between the anaesthesiologist and the interventionalist. CT
guidance may be required for lung biopsy as a lesion within the lung parenchyma will
not be visible by ultrasound. A coaxial approach utilizes a guiding needle (e.g., 19 G)
to puncture the pleura once and is advanced to the edge of the lesion. Through the
outer needle, multiple passes can be made with a smaller biopsy needle (e.g., 21 G)
through the lesion. Controlled respirations, usually at end expiration, enables the lesion
to remain within the CT slice of interest with sufficient consistency to provide a high diag-
nostic yield (85%) (160). Lesions that are too small for percutaneous biopsy can be loca-
lized using CT-guided placement of a hook wire (161 – 163) or India ink (164), prior to
surgical biopsy.
When biopsy of the lung is performed, acute complications that may arise are pneu-
mothorax and hemothorax (165). Other complications of biopsy include hemorrhage,
infection, needle tract seeding (166), and sampling error.
5.3.1. Transvenous Biopsy

In patients with a bleeding diathesis or other contraindications to percutaneous biopsy,
transvenous biopsy can be performed. The tenet is that if bleeding occurs, it does so
into the venous system. The first description of the technique was published about dogs
in 1976 (167). Transjugular liver (168 –170) and renal biopsy (167,171) techniques
have been developed. In place of transjugular biopsy, some authors advocate for emboli-
zation of the tract of a percutaneous liver biopsy with Gelfoam in patients with a coagulo-
pathy (172).
Transjugular Liver Biopsy. Transjugular liver biopsies are performed on chil-
dren with severe coagulopathy that prohibits percutaneous needle biopsy (168). The
biopsy system we employ is a 7 French (Fr.) Desilets– Hoffman catheter set with a
Quick-coreTM cutting needle. Because of its size, this is suitable for infants who are
really quite small (e.g., 5 kg). Access is obtained to the the right jugular vein and a direc-
tional catheter is used to cannulate the hepatic veins. A stabilizing catheter is then used to
introduce the needle into the hepatic parenchyma through the hepatic vein wall. Firing the
needle, advances the tip of the needle beyond the catheter, obtaining a 2 cm core.
(Fig. 34.6) The biopsy is monitored using ultrasound and fluoroscopy to allow modifi-
cation of the needle-tip trajectory to ensure adequate thickness or volume of liver tissue
is sampled avoiding the capsule and major vascular structures. (Fig. 34.7) After a post-
biopsy venogram to ensure no breach of the capsule, the inner and outer catheters are
sequentially removed over a wire. Other complications include parenchymal hemorrhage
and cardiac arrhythmias related to the wire or catheter manipulations.
Figure 34.6 Fluoroscopic image of transjugular liver biopsy. The needle is seen extending from
the guiding sheath within the liver parenchyma. Note the ultrasound transducer in the lower right
corner of the image.
438 Temple et al.
Figure 34.7 Oblique ultrasound image showing transjugular biopsy needle (arrowheads) within
the hepatic parenchyma. Monitoring with ultrasound assures that the needle does not puncture the
capsule or large adjacent vessels.
5.4. Drainages
Interventional radiology is frequently called upon to drain abscess and other fluid collec-
tions situated in a variety of locations. The majority can be approached using a percuta-
neous approach with a combination of ultrasound and fluoroscopy. CT guidance is
rarely required for abscess drainage in pediatric patients. US is used to choose the
optimum access point and then guide needle placement prior to fluid aspiration. Contrast
is instilled to outline the cavity or space; a wire is advanced through the needle followed by
a dilator and then a drainage catheter (4 – 22 Fr. appropriate to the size, viscosity, and
location of the collection) is inserted under fluoroscopic guidance.
Complications of percutaneous drainage are infrequent and usually minor. Fever
shortly after initial drainage may represent bacteremia as a result of manipulation or lavage
of an abscess cavity. Severe hemorrhage occurs infrequently and is either related to
unsuspected coagulopathy, laceration of a vessel, or pseudoaneurysm related to pancreatic
inflammation. Disruption of the pleura during percutaneous drainage of subphrenic,
hepatic, or splenic collections may result in pneumothorax, haemothorax, or pyothorax/
empyema. It is possible to contaminate other spaces, by traversing them during drainage,
such as the subphrenic and subhepatic spaces during drainage of a hepatic abscess.
Similarly, generalized peritonitis may develop due to perforation of the wall of an
abscess cavity. Rarely, bowel perforation may occur at the time of initial puncture or
due to catheter erosion. Overall, morbidity associated with image-guided percutaneous
drainage is significantly lower than with operative drainages, predominately related to
the advantages of real-time ultrasound control. Mortality is extremely rare in children
treated by percutaneous aspiration or drainage, and is more often related to underlying
pathology and the clinical status of the patient than to the drainage procedure itself.
5.4.1. Peritoneal Abscess

The most common indication for abscess drainage in the pediatric population is following
appendiceal rupture. Following acute appendicitis or ruptured appendiceal abscess, the
high risk of recurrent abscesses and postoperative adhesions is a relative contraindication
to immediate appendicectomy (173 – 178). In our institution, US-guided percutaneous
drainage is the preferred treatment of localized collections presumed to be due to a rup-
tured appendix. These children may require several drains, repeated procedures, and a
good deal of patience to achieve success. Aspiration with a 20 or 22 Gauge Chiba
needle is an accepted treatment for collections that cannot be safely drained such as inter-
loop abscesses or displacing the overlying loops of bowel with the ultrasound probe; this is
more feasible in pediatric patients (178).
Pelvic abscesses are usually deep percutaneous options due to overlying bowel,
vessels, urinary bladder, and bony pelvis. A transrectal approach has been our preferred
technique in 67 cases where fluid collections have been located deeply within the pelvis
(179). Under US control, a long trocar needle is advanced either along the index finger
or protected within the enema tip. The needle tip is positioned adjacent to the abscess col-
lection and then advanced into the abscess under real-time imaging. For lesions higher up
in the pelvis, an enema catheter is used to protect the mucosa from the sharp tip during
introduction of the needle. Similar techniques may be used for transvaginal (180) or trans-
perineal (181) access to pelvic fluid collections, but these are seldom employed in the pae-
diatric population. A transgluteal route is used by some centers, but this approach is
associated with a higher incidence of pain, bleeding, nerve damage, and other compli-
cations (182 – 184).
Subphrenic abscesses are usually seen as a postoperative complication or in patients
with a ruptured appendix. They are often difficult to access and may require a transhepatic
subcostal approach or an intercostal approach. Combined US and CT guidance may be
necessary to access these collections, using fluoroscopy for final tube placement (185,186).
5.4.2. Liver Abscess

Primary hepatic abscesses are uncommon in the paediatric population (187,188). Pyogenic
abscesses are most commonly seen in patients with chronic granulomatous disease and
other causes of impaired immunity and following abdominal trauma. Less common
causes include appendicitis (septic emboli), PV thrombosis, or liver infarction (as in
sickle cell disease or tumor necrosis). Depending upon their size, pyogenic abscesses
are aspirated or drained (189 – 192). Small lesions are aspirated with a Chiba needle
with US guidance. For larger collections, standard drainage technique is used with
access under US guidance followed by contrast, wire placement, tract dilatation, and drai-
nage catheter insertion under fluoroscopy. Just as for liver biopsy, a choice of access route
that interposes normal liver tissue between the capsule and the collection will help prevent
hemorrhage and, in this case, intraperitoneal contamination.
Percutaneous drainage plays an important role in the management of children with
infected collections occurring after liver transplantation (193,194). Re-transplantation has
been avoided in some children after successful drainage of infected bilomas, secondary to
hepatic arterial thrombosis. In the immunocompromised patient, focal micro abscesses are
often seen as a consequence of fungal infection. These are usually too small to allow for
drainage but aspiration or biopsy can be performed for diagnostic purposes. The multilo-
culated cysts with satellite cysts characteristically seen on CT with Echinococcus granu-
losa infection are preferentially treated with puncture, aspiration, injection, re-aspiration
technique (PAIR) using 95% alcohol as scolecide agent (195,196). Standard access
440 Temple et al.
technique is used to catheterize the cysts, and portions of the cyst fluid are exchanged with
a quantity roughly equivalent to one-third of the aspirated fluid. Insertion of a catheter is
not necessary and the procedure can be performed with a needle alone. This replacement
technique avoids intraperitoneal spillage of infected fluid during the procedure. Another
series used a similar technique but hypertonic saline was injected instead of alcohol
(197). Antimicrobial therapy alone has (albendazole) alone have been used on some
series though (198). And in those, persistence of symptoms for greater than two weeks,
while on appropriate medical therapy, is an indication for percutaneous management.
Antibiotic therapy is continued for eight weeks or until the catheter is removed (199,200).
Patients who have immigrated from or traveled in underdeveloped areas, particu-
larly in Africa, South America, and Asia are at increased risk for amebic hepatic abscesses.
They present as single or lobulated masses, usually in the right lobe and are most often
treated conservatively. Percutaneous drainage is indicated for failed antimicrobial
therapy or imminent rupture.
Hepatic abscess is a known but rarely reported complication associated with umbi-
lical venous catheter (UVC) placement (189). UVCs are used almost routinely in very low
birthweight (,1000 g) infants. Percutaneous treatment of hepatic abscesses in very low
birthweight infants can be performed safely, with gentle technique and small (5- or 6-
Fr.) catheters, and may represent a desirable alternative to conservative treatment.
5.4.3. Cholecystic and Pericholecystic Collections

Drainage of pyogenic cholecystitis and infected pericholecystic collections is occasionally
performed in the pediatric population using the transabdominal technique described
above. Cholecystostomy can be performed using a transhepatic or peritoneal approach.
The surmised advantage of transhepatic access is a decreased chance of intraperitoneal
leakage of bile contents (201).
5.4.4. Splenic Abscess

The optimum approach to splenic abscesses is controversial. There are concerns about the
safety of transsplenic percutaneous intervention. However, experience in both adult and
pediatric patients suggest that percutaneous drainage of splenic abscesses can be per-
formed safely and effectively (202,203). Percutaneous drainage offers the advantage of
preserving splenic function, important for host immune response. Percutaneous aspiration
can be performed in any size collection in the spleen. Drainage with a catheter should be
considered in a significantly sized lesion that is not complex and is not close to any large
vascular structures.
5.4.5. Pancreatic Collections

Percutaneous drainage of pancreatic fluid collections is indicated in the presence of
infected, symptomatic, or persistently enlarging pseudocysts (204 – 208). Pancreatic
phlegmon, peripancreatic necrosis, or the presence of pseudoaneurysms or varices are
relative contraindications to percutaneous management. Pancreatic abscesses are rare,
but have been seen in particularly immunocompromised children. Depending on their
size and position, they may be aspirated with a thin needle or drained.
Pseudocysts usually develop as a result of acute pancreatitis from whatever cause.
They may present as an upper abdominal mass, which appears hypoechoic on US, with
or without debris. CT confirms the appearance of a low-density collection, which
usually arises close to the pancreas in the region of the lesser sac. Clinically, most of
these pseudocysts will resolve with bowel rest and parenteral nutrition. However, persist-
ent symptomatic collections require treatment, preferably by transgastric drainage. After
defining the extent of the cyst on preprocedure CT, drainage is usually performed under
combined US and fluoroscopic control.
6. CHEST INTERVENTIONS
The most common thoracic interventions are lung biopsy and placement of drainage cath-
eters for pneumothorax and empyema. Angiography is most commonly performed for
diagnosis and embolization of arteriovenous malformations, pulmonary embolus, and hae-
moptysis. Esophageal dilations and tracheal stenting will be discussed below.
6.1. Esophageal Dilatations

Since the advent of balloon dilatation of strictures (209,210), many esophageal strictures
are now dilated in the interventional radiology suite under fluoroscopic guidance. The
majority of dilatations are performed for anastomotic strictures secondary to tracheoeso-
phageal fistulae but can also be required in epidermolysis bullosa, achalasia, gastroeso-
phageal reflux, and following ingestion of a corrosive substance. The risks include
esophageal perforation and bleeding. Complications following dilatation include
pain, tracheal aspiration, and perforation with mediastinitis or hemorrhage (211). Patients
with tight stenoses are at risk of aspiration from the retained contents within the
esophagus.
The stricture is outlined with a small volume of water-soluble contrast. A soft guide-
wire is then advanced through the stricture to guide fluoroscopic placement of a balloon
catheter. The balloon is inflated by hand or pressure device and the stricture is dilated. Nar-
rowing of the balloon, seen as a waist, denotes the point of stricture. As the dilation pro-
gresses, the waist disappears. As marked distension of the esophagus with a balloon can
cause pressure on the posterior wall of the trachea, balloon dilatation must be performed
carefully in children with known airway compromise. At the end of the procedure, contrast
is instilled into the esophagus to exclude an esophageal perforation.
In patients with strictures secondary to epidermolysis bullosa, this procedure is per-
formed in a similar fashion but with extreme gentleness and avoidance of any tape to the
face during the procedure. Similar principles of balloon dilatation are applied to colonic
strictures secondary to necrotizing enterocolitis or anastomoses with variable results
(212 –214). Transcatheter balloon dilatation of strictures, related to necrotizing enteroco-
litis or other causes, is performed on occasion with variable results (212 – 214).
Placement of an esophageal stent has been performed in children with persistent
strictures (215), using either a nitinol coil-type stent or a solid silicone stent (Fig. 34.8).
The nitinol stent is easily placed but is frequently complicated by mucosal overgrowth.
Recurrence of symptoms is commonly seen and is treated with serial dilatations. The
persistence of a tight stricture following dilatation or the inability to physically dilate a
stricture may ultimately necessitate surgical resection.
6.2. Tracheal Stenting

Tracheal stenting is uncommonly performed but is occasionally required in children with
tracheal stenosis or tracheobronchial abnormalities (216,217). Water-soluble contrast is
the agent usually employed to perform bronchography. Small volumes are injected
442 Temple et al.
Figure 34.8 Nitinol stent (arrowheads) placed in the esophagus of a 9-year-old female with a long
history of persistent esophageal stricture related following repair of a tracheoesophageal fistula as an
infant. This procedure was a combined effort between the gastroenterology and the interventional
radiology services.
through a small directional catheter selectively into the relevant bronchus. This is tolerated
moderately well by the airway. Passage of catheters, balloons, wires and deployment of
stents, requires full cooperation within the team, that is, anesthetists, radiologists, otolar-
yngologists, and respiratory physicians for preoxygenation prior to airway manipulation
and for sharing of the endotracheal tube or bronchoscope.
7. BILIARY INTERVENTIONS
The most common pediatric biliary interventions are percutaneous transhepatic cholangio-
graphy (PTC), percutaneous transhepatic transcholecystic cholangiography (PTTC), and
drainage and stenting in native and transplant livers. The necessity for these procedures
has increased substantially with the increasing number of liver transplants performed in
the pediatric population (193,194,218 – 222). Transhepatic removal of biliary calculi and
placement of transjugular intrahepatic portosytemic shunts (TIPS) to deal with sequellae
of portal hypertension are uncommonly performed in children.
7.1. Percutaneous Transhepatic Cholangiography

PTC is performed to opacify the intra- and extrahepatic biliary tree with radio-opaque con-
trast in order to diagnose numerous conditions including obstruction, choledochal cysts,
calculi, and sclerosing cholangitis and occasionally biliary atresia. PTC is commonly per-
formed following transplant to assess for biliary injury or obstruction. While magnetic res-
onance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is becoming increasingly sophisticated, its use
at this time is limited in the pediatric population, especially in those without marked
biliary dilation, because of the inability to resolve tiny structures. PTC is also the initial
step prior to therapeutic measures, for example, drainage, stenting, or dilating. Uncorrect-
able bleeding diathesis, a history of severe contrast reaction, vascular hepatic tumors, vas-
cular malformations, and ascites are regarded as relative contraindications to PTC.
Biliary sepsis is a serious risk, especially in transplant patients and those with
obstructed biliary tracts (223,224), making prophylactic antibiotic administration essen-
tial. Depressed immune function (225) and bacterial colonization with enteric organisms
(223) is common in biliary obstruction, especially associated with liver transplantation
(224) and bile duct reconstruction (226,227). Biliary sepsis from manipulation of infected
ducts is the most common cause of serious complications during interventional pro-
cedures. Therefore, a low threshold should be maintained for the use of preprocedure
antibiotics.
7.2. Transhepatic Transcholecystic Cholangiography

When PTC is unsuccessful, the biliary tree can be opacified through the gall bladder and
cystic duct cholangiography (228,229). Ultrasound is used to introduce a small needle
through the liver into the gall bladder. The transhepatic approach is used in an attempt
to decrease bile leak following the procedure. Dilute contrast is injected to fill the
biliary tree. Trendelenberg positioning and administration of morphine (to constrict
the ampulla of Vater) may be used to aid in filling of the intrahepatic biliary ducts.
At the end of the procedure, the gall bladder is emptied to minimize the chance of
bile leak.
7.3. Biliary Drainage

Biliary drainage is commonly performed to relieve obstruction secondary to ischemic
strictures, following hepatic artery thrombosis in children with liver transplants (193,222).
Biliary drainage is performed by accessing the biliary system with a combination of
sonography and fluroscopy. Diagnostic cholangiography is performed, a wire is intro-
duced through the biliary system (preferably into the duodenum) and a catheter is then
passed over the wire following dilation of the tract. This is an internal –external drain
that allows bile to drain through and around the tube into the duodenum. If initial attempts
to reach the duodenum are unsuccessful in a patient with infective cholangitis, an intrahe-
patic drain will be left to drain externally and the patient brought back at a later date to
advance the catheter into the duodenum. The risk of biliary sepsis in such a patient is
high and precludes prolonging the procedure in an attempt to access the intestinal tract.
444 Temple et al.
Percutaneous transhepatic drainage is particularly well suited to patients with large

postoperative defects or with leaks associated with severe acute necrotizing pancreatitis
(230). Percutaneous drainage may avoid the need for surgical re-exploration, surgical or
endoscopic sphincterectomy, or even hepatic lobectomy. Although endoscopic drainage
is an alternative, it is usually not possible in the presence of a hepaticojejunal anastomosis.
Patients are usually returned to the ward with the catheter left to gravity drainage.
The catheter is flushed twice daily with 5– 10 cc of sterile saline to keep the catheter
and side-holes clear of thrombus or debris. To avoid protein and calorie malnutrition,
fluid and electrolyte depletion, and to assist uptake of drugs (e.g., cyclosporine) that
depend on enterohepatic circulation, early internalization of biliary drainage is desirable.
Once the draining bile clears, a trial of internal drainage is attempted by capping the exter-
nal drain. If this is successful and long-term drainage is anticipated, conversion to a com-
pletely internal drain or stent may be considered.
7.4. Biliary Dilatation and Stenting

Dilatation of biliary strictures is usually performed with balloon catheters over a wire
(219,231 –233). The size of the balloon used for dilatation should be gauged according
the diameter of the duct proximal and distal to the area of stricture. Often, several dilata-
tions are performed, each lasting no more than 15 s. Following dilatation, a biliary drain is
usually left in position with side holes made above and below this area of stricture. Internal
biliary drains are seldom used in the pediatric population. Occasionally, expandable
Palmaz stents have been used for anastomotic strictures in transplants.
7.5. Percutaneous Endoluminal Bile Duct Biopsy

If a ductal or periductal obstructing mass is identified by imaging or suspected in relation-
ship to a biliary stricture, the thin access needle may be exchanged for a suitable sheath.
FNA biopsy may be performed through the sheath for cytopathologic analysis (234). A
biopsy forceps (235) or transvascular needle (236), may be used to obtain histologic
tissue specimens. In smaller children, a periductal tissue sample may be obtained
through a second biopsy needle targeted at the region of obstruction under combined
fluoroscopic guidance and US.
7.6. Portal Venous Interventions

The portal venous (PV) system can be accessed percutaneously via the transhepatic route
quite easily under US guidance. This allows dilatation of posttransplant strictures,
embolization of varices, and direct measurement of PV pressure when the PV and
hepatic sinusoidal systems are discontinuous (e.g., extrahepatic PV obstruction, splenic
vein obstruction, or presinusoidal portal hypertension) (237 –239). Embolization of PV
to hepatic venous malformations is possible in patients with hepatic haemangiomas
(240 –242).
7.6. Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt

The TIPS procedure involves the creation of a parenchymal tract between the hepatic and
portal veins with a metallic stent (243 – 248) (Fig. 34.9). Indications include treatment of
GI bleeding, varices or intractable ascites due to portal hypertension. Other indications for
this procedure include relief of hepatic outflow obstruction (i.e., Budd– Chiari syndrome)
Figure 34.9 Six-year-old female with biliary atresia and numerous episodes of variceal bleeding.
Access is obtained from a right hepatic vein to the right portal vein using an approach similar to that
seen in Figure 34.5. The shunt (ends marked with black arrowheads) extends from the hepatic vein
superiorly into the portal vein. Retrograde flow opacifies a hepatic vein branch (HV) and the superior
mesenteric vein (SMV). Antegrade (hepatopedal) flow has been established through the shunt into
the right atrium (RA).
(249) and reduction of intraoperative morbidity during liver transplant surgery (249 – 255).
Candidates for TIPS should be evaluated with endoscopy to confirm the presence of
varices and exclude other sources of hemorrhage for which alternative therapies would
be more appropriate. Contraindications include heart failure, polycystic liver disease,
infection, severe hepatic encephalopathy, and severe liver failure. TIPS is described as
a safe and effective procedure for the reduction of PV pressure in children as young
as 3 years of age, with a short-term success rate of 75– 90% (247,256,257). Long-term
complications arise due to intimal hyperplasia, stricture, and thrombus within the shunt
lumen (258).
Minor procedural complications have occurred in approximately 10% of cases.
Hepatic encephalopathy occurs in 5 – 35% of patients following TIPS (259). Other
severe life-threatening complications occur less frequently being reported in 5% of
patients. These include haemoperitoneum, haemobilia and biliary fistula, acute hepatic
ischemia, pulmonary hypertension, and pulmonary edema. Chronic complications
include PV thrombosis, haemolysis, and shunt stenosis. Typed and crossed blood
446 Temple et al.
should be available for emergent transfusion, and a PICU bed should be available for close
monitoring, should the need arise.
Following the procedure, there is usually hepatopedal flow to the IVC with collapse
of varices. Rarely, the varices persist despite a well functioning shunt, in which case embo-
lization is performed. If the shunt is felt to be open but the portosystemic gradient remains
above 12 mmHg, the stent is usually dilated to a diameter of 10 mm (260). If the pressure
remains elevated, a second parallel stent can be placed (261).
8. VASCULAR INTERVENTIONS
Radiologists act to both diagnose and treat a large variety of congenital and acquired vas-
cular abnormalities. Vascular anomalies of the liver will be used to illustrate the radiol-
ogist’s role in this area.
8.1. Treatment of Vascular Malformations

The radiologist plays a key role in the management of these rare disorders as repeated
radiological treatments and combined radiological and surgical treatments are sometimes
required.
Managing these congenital anomalies demands a clear understanding of the lesions
and their natural history. The congenital vascular anomalies include vascular tumors (i.e.,
hemangiomas and their variants) and vascular malformations. Hemangiomas are benign
endothelial cell tumors, whilst vascular malformations are due to errors in vascular mor-
phogenesis resulting in isolated channel anomalies (capillary/arterial/venous/lymphatic)
or combined channel anomalies such as arteriovenous malformations and abnormal con-
nections between vascular channels, for example, arterioportal fistulae (262). Vascular
malformations include high flow (arteriovenous) and slow flow (venous) malformations.
Approximately 10% of hepatic hemangiomas require specific treatment in infancy as
they endanger life from associated cardiac failure and thrombocytopenia. These are the most
frequent lesions requiring arterial embolisation of the liver in early infancy. Lesions can be
multifocal (which often have consistent imaging appearances) or focal (which have a more
variable picture). Infants with high-output cardiac failure presenting at birth tend to have
focal lesions and those with mutifocal lesions may present up to several months of age.
The angiographic appearance, however, of all lesions is variable (263,264). Angiography
is carried out in those infants with heart failure in whom embolization is being considered.
It is important to fully evaluate the vascular geography of these lesions as they can be
complex and derive an arterial supply from the internal mammary, the phrenic and the inter-
costal arteries, as well as the hepatic artery. Embolization/surgery should be considered in
infants requiring mechanical ventilatory support or if infants remain in cardiac failure
despite medical support and are failing to thrive (265,266). Embolization does not seem
to help those with massive hemangioma who are not in cardiac failure. Embolization
may need repeating if control of the cardiac failure is suboptimal. Surgical ligation of the
hepatic artery may not provide control of cardiac failure as portohepatic shunts (between
the portal and hepatic veins) as well as arteriovenous shunts (predominantly but not exclu-
sively between the hepatic artery and hepatic veins) can occur (263, 264). Angiography is
needed in these children before any intervention (however, it should be performed with a
view to embolization during the same procedure).
Hepatic arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are rare and can present with neonatal
cardiac failure when it is probably best managed by embolization and surgical resection. In
this age group, an MR scan should be undertaken to distinguish a solitary hemangioma

from an AVM. This will prevent the unecessary pharmacological treatment with angio-
genesis inhibitors (including steroids) of AVMs.
Later in life, most hepatic AVMs are seen in patients with hereditary hemorrhagic
telangiectasia (267). They can result in cardiac failure, hepatic ischemia, and portal hyper-
tension. Embolization should be undertaken with caution as lesions are invariably diffuse
and there is a significant risk of causing hepatic ischemia and necrosis (268).
Arterioportal fistula (APF) can be intra/extrahepatic and congenital/acquired. Most
intrahepatic APF are isolated congenital anomalies and are seen in HHT and Ehlers –
Danlos syndrome, whilst diffuse APFs are seen in EHBA and cirrhosis. Penetrating/
blunt trauma can lead to APFs. The most important clinical manifestation of intrahepatic
APF is portal hypertension. A small number of patients will present with high-output
failure if the ductus venosus is patent. Acute closure of the DV has been implicated in
fatal GI bleeding. Most APF have a large intrahepatic varix, which can be part of the drain-
ing portal vein or a segment of the umbilical vein. The fistula may be a single AV connec-
tion or multiple connections with the same varix. These lesions should be treated as soon
as they are diagnosed because of potential damage to portal veins and bowel and most can
be cured by embolization (269). Following embolization, heparinization should be con-
sidered to avoid portal vein thrombosis.
Acquired vascular abnormalities rarely present clinically and are often found on
noninvasive imaging, for example, on a liver ultrasound scan performed after a percuta-
neous liver biopsy. Arterial pseudoaneurysms and arteriovenous fistulae can follow both
penetrating and blunt liver trauma and most require no specific treatment; however, it is
recommended to treat these on an individual basis. Follow-up is important and if
lesions become life-threatening, such as with pseudoaneurysm rupture, then emergent
catheter embolization should be undertaken.
In the Budd –Chiari syndrome, the obstruction to hepatic venous outflow (in native
and grafted livers) usually involves the main hepatic veins, however, obstruction may
involve the suprahepatic inferior vena cava. From our own experience we have found a
variable angiographic appearance with coexistent critical stenoses and total occlusions
of all hepatic veins. Catheter angiography is needed in these patients to demonstrate the
stenoses and obstructions, measure pressure gradients, and, if suitable, permit vascular
intervention. Balloon angioplasty is now recommended as the intital treatment of
choice and other endovascular techniques such as thrombolysis/stenting could be con-
sidered in those with failed balloon angioplasty (270 – 273). Our experience using
balloon angioplasty and other endovascular recannalizing techniques is encouraging
with technical and early clinical successes seen in most patients.
9. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Continuing advancements in medical imaging, such as interventional MRI, and minimally

invasive procedure technologies, such as energy deposition methods, will likely change
the face of medicine.
Interventional and intraoperative MRI promises to provide radiation free guidance
for procedures. Advanced imaging techniques such as dynamic contrast enhancement
and spectroscopy combined with superior soft tissue differentiation will allow MRI-
guided procedures that are not yet possible.
Energy deposition technologies are another area currently being developed.
Interstitial probes are inserted in order to deposit energy from various sources including
448 Temple et al.
radiofrequency, laser, microwave, and ultrasound. The energy heats tissues and results in
tissue coagulation and cellular death, allowing percutaneous treatment of unresectable
tumors.
High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) is the only method of ablation that is cur-
rently available that can be performed through the intact skin and even the intact cranium
(274,275). Accurate monitoring during ablation assures that only the tumor is treated and
the surrounding structures are not damaged and tissues reach an appropriate level for cell
necrosis. Ablation can be monitored by either ultrasound or MRI. MRI allows accurate,
immediate, real-time monitoring of temperature and tissue destruction. This information
can then be fed back to the ultrasound unit to further guide the ablation (274,275).
Based on the positive results of the 1 year objective and subjective outcomes of MRI-
guided laser ablation of fibroids (276), a pilot study of MRI-guided HIFU fibroid tumor
ablation was performed in 17 women prior to hysterectomy (277). Decreased pain and
improved menorrhagia was reported. Lesions on MRI correlated with those on pathologic
examinations. In 165 ablations of various tumors, a group from China demonstrated the
presence of vascular occlusion in addition to tissue coagulation (278).
Tissue heating below cell death threshold levels from HIFU can be used for focal
gene or drug therapy. HIFU is currently thought to increase vascular and cell membrane
permeability and disrupt tight junctions between cells. This causes drugs to leak into the
tissues, between cells and into cells. Drugs and gene vectors can be used in natural form or
in temperature-sensitive liposomes (279).
HIFU is still experimental and its use in children is extremely limited. To our knowl-
edge, the only reported incidence in the pediatric population was included in a paper by
Wu on pathologic changes related to HIFU ablation of malignant lesions (280). The
stated range of patient age was 3 –89 years. The number of pediatric patients and tumor
types were not indicated. Potential uses of HIFU in the pediatric population include
tumor ablation, local drug and gene therapy delivery, and treatment of vascular
malformations.
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Future Directions
35
Ethical Issues in Pediatric Minimal
Access Surgery
Annie Fecteau
1. Introduction 463
2. Why is the Issue of New Technologies and Surgical
Innovations Important? 464
3. Ethical Issues 464
3.1. Adaptation vs. Innovation and Experimentation 464
3.2. Informed Consent and Learning Curves 465
3.3. Conflict of Interest 466
3.4. Evidence-Based Technology Assessment 466
3.5. Economical and Social Cost of New Technologies 467
4. How Should I Deal with Surgical Innovations or New
Technologies in My Practice? 468
5. The Cases 468
References 469
1. INTRODUCTION
Case 1: JC is a 15-year-old boy, who suffers from pectus excavatum. While as a child, JC
had never been self-conscious about his chest wall deformity. His mother reports that over
the last two years he has become increasingly shy and will no longer swim or interact in
team sports in order to avoid locker rooms. JC wants corrective surgery and has researched
the Internet. He wants to have minimally invasive surgery and has chosen the Nuss pro-
cedure. The procedure involves the insertion of a convex steel bar underneath the
sternum, for a period of two years to allow for chest wall remodeling. The bar is then
removed as an outpatient procedure.
Case 2: GM is a 12-year-old girl suffering from ulcerative colitis since age eight who
is deemed to have failed medical treatment. She is admitted for a lower GI bleed, requiring
transfusion. She had previously received immunosuppressive medications. She has been
463
464 Fecteau
on prednisone and she has fallen off her growth curve. The gastroenterologist and you
agree that GM should have a subtotal colectomy. There is a strong family history and
the father has had a subtotal colectomy and J-pouch done when he was thirty. The
family is quite well informed and is asking for their daughter to have a one-stage laparo-
scopic J-pouch. They are concerned about body image difficulties as GM is entering
adolescence and wants her to avoid the stress of adapting to a stoma.
2. WHY IS THE ISSUE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND SURGICAL

INNOVATIONS IMPORTANT?
New technologies begin as innovative therapies, develop into cutting-edge technologies,

challenge previously accepted paradigms on the choice of treatment, and then may
become the practiced standard of care. Physicians and surgeons are faced with new
ethical issues when a patient demands nonvalidated therapies or techniques not yet
proven to be superior to the standard of care. The balancing of potential benefits and
risks is part of everyday medical practice but is highlighted by the impact of new technol-
ogies. Technologies that promise less pain, trauma, and smaller scars, a speedier recovery,
and comparable results are bound to find early enthusiasts in the medical field as well as in
the public. The Internet, television, and other large-scale information systems make
patients as well as physicians and surgeons more quickly aware of advances in medical
technologies and surgical techniques, often encouraging patients to demand access to
medical procedures before they are fully refined. New technologies are often viewed as
new magic. Doctors and hospitals may be driven to new techniques by the demand of
the public influenced more by the media than by solid clinical evidence. While the
medical debate heats up over the proper role of many minimally invasive operations,
many surgeons and their hospitals, fearful of being left behind, are not waiting for
strong evidence of value before embarking on the technological bandwagon. As Roths-
child points out (1), surgeons have to ask the question: for which surgical procedures
has equipose been reached? When do these minimally invasive methods become the
gold standard and when should traditional options be maintained?
There are several factors that influence the ethics of the decision to use the technol-
ogy. The first factor is physician knowledge. The extent to which the physician under-
stands the disease and how the device functions or a new procedure is performed are
crucial components. This must include knowledge of the risks of the procedure and poten-
tial modes of device failure as well as appropriate actions for dealing with these problems.
The second factor to be considered is the alternative: devices or procedures are safe when
the risks of using them are less than of not using it. Other therapeutic options must be eval-
uated. The third factor is patient preference. Patient empowerment is one of the most
powerful trends in health care today. What is the patient’s willingness to take risks?
What are the implications of a negative or positive outcome? Does the patient have the
knowledge and mindset to participate in the decision?
3. ETHICAL ISSUES
3.1. Adaptation vs. Innovation and Experimentation
Surgeons perform the same surgery somewhat differently on each patient depending on
anatomy and physiologic differences. If one patient has a better result, the surgeon may
want to reproduce what was done with that patient when performing the next procedure.
Ethical Issues 465
Then what are the boundaries between innovation and experimentation? At some point
these adaptations become innovation. How much change has to occur to constitute an
innovative approach and call forth an open and unbiased effort to assess the effectiveness
of a new treatment? (2) An incremental improvement in a conventional procedure in the
course of a rational evolutionary process is typically within the bounds of acceptable clini-
cal innovation, but modification of the fundamental concepts of the operation would not
be. These are important distinctions both for ethical and medicolegal reasons. Surgeons
must remain alert to the possibility of acceptable clinical innovation creeping inexorably
toward reckless experimentation. The line is clearly crossed when surgeons pose clinical
questions to which answers cannot be anticipated. This usually includes those occasions
when surgeons attempt procedures that they personally have never performed before (3).
Surgical innovations must ultimately be put to the test with human subjects. After
the introduction of the Nuremberg code, it was not until the mid-1960s that, after a pub-
lication from Beecher (4), the need for review of medical and surgical experimentation
was brought to the public domain. Thus in 1966, the American Public Health Service
required all research to be reviewed by an institutional committee to ensure ethical accept-
ability. A decade later the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of
Biomedical and Behavioral Research was established and the Belmont report was pub-
lished, in 1979 (1), which remains in force today. Of special importance to the surgical
community, the report noted that “new procedures, while not automatically research, in
the sense that the innovator intends immediate patient benefit rather than the generation
of new knowledge, should however, be made the object of formal research at an early
stage in order to determine whether they are safe and effective” (5).
3.2. Informed Consent and Learning Curves

The surgical profession is currently faced with the ethical dilemma: how to reconcile the
laudable quest for surgical innovations and the application of new technologies with the
need to ensure patient safety and proper informed consent. The Belmont Report also
affirmed the critical role that the informed consent of research subjects should play
before investigations can proceed. The standards for research consents need to be
higher than the standards for consent in medical practice. In research one cannot
assume that participation is likely to benefit the subject. This emphasis in assuring
freedom of choice or autonomy assumes paramount importance: there should be no
immediate obligation to participate in any proposed investigation (1). The consent
process in conventional treatment includes discussion of what is known, but in experimen-
tal or innovative treatment the discussion must concentrate on what is not known. Not only
should the patients and their loved ones know that the proposed intervention constitutes a
departure from what has usually been done in similar circumstances, they deserve infor-
mation relevant to the fact that innovation may well add to the patient’s burden, rather than
relieve it. Information should be specific to the institution and surgeon. The patient should
be informed of the number of procedures performed and the morbidity and mortality to
date. It is not sufficient in these circumstances to cite statistics from other surgeons and
institutions alone (2).
Patients’ safety should always be the paramount concern in the introduction of a new
minimal access procedure. New procedures and technologies require even the most tech-
nically experienced surgeons to submit to additional formal training. When new pro-
cedures and technologies are introduced, education is generally accomplished at short
courses with little proficiency testing. Proctoring and apprenticeships are also employed,
but there are few standards of performance (6). The shepherding of large numbers of
466 Fecteau
surgeons through the lengthy learning curve is posing a real challenge to the surgical com-
munity (7). The learning curve in such cases inevitably continues at the expense of early
patients as the surgeons continue to refine newly acquired skills. A discussion analogous of
what trainees should tell patients about their personal position on the learning curve should
take place. The consensus seems to be that patients should be given that information, as a
reasonable person would want to know it (8).
3.3. Conflict of Interest

With the introduction of new technologies in clinical practice there is the emergence of
specific conflicts of interest. The treating physician or surgeon concomitantly becomes
in many cases the scientific researcher. When this situation arises, it can no longer be
assumed that the interest of the individual patient will prevail over scientific interests.
The clinician/investigator’s loyalty may become conflictual: is the patient or the research
the primary concern? A useful test question should be whether the researcher would, under
similar circumstances, refuse to enroll himself or herself or a relative. Patients need to be
reassured that the patient –doctor relationship will in no way be altered if they choose not
to enroll in the proposed study.
Conflict of interest may also arise when there is a very strong economical incentive
for the surgeon to develop a reputation as a minimal access surgery expert and thus
increase referrals. The interest of the individual patient must succeed over practice build-
ing strategies.
3.4. Evidence-Based Technology Assessment

In the era of evidence-based medicine, surgeons are similarly accountable when they
employ procedures of uncertain worth or invent new operations. Surgeons will increas-
ingly need to demonstrate that their preferred approach has solid justification through
acceptable and appropriate research strategies and that the new techniques actually accom-
plish what they are designed to. What is new, especially when endorsed by influential
members of the surgical community, stands a good chance of being adopted before its use-
fulness has been demonstrated adequately. In the past, the scientific basis for many such
novelties has only been theoretical (2) before these novelties have been diffusely
embraced.
New techniques have developed faster than the profession’s ability to provide evi-
dence-based data before widespread acceptance and application. It is necessary to speed
up health technology assessment as new technologies may antiquate the results of well-
designed and well-performed clinical trials, sometimes even before completion or diffu-
sion of their results. The American College of Surgeons addressed the need to protect
society while promoting scientific progress in its 1994 statement on Emerging Surgical
Technologies. The College warned, “it is equally essential that the value and safety of a
new procedure be established before it is widely used on patients” (9). New ideas come
along at a furious pace and many obstacles exist, such as time, money, and bureaucracy,
which inhibit or discourage the conversion of innovative ideas into formal research proto-
cols. It is important when designing a trial for evaluating a new technique to ensure a fast
enough accrual rate of subjects to complete the trial in a timely fashion, and thus avoid the
trial being antiquated by the introduction of another refinement before completion.
Surgical procedures are frequently introduced into general practice on the basis of
uncontrolled studies that are less rigorous than those required for the approval of
medical intervention (10). The standard for the evaluation of surgical therapy is lower
Ethical Issues 467
because of the complexity of designing and conducting scientifically valid and ethically
acceptable clinical trials for surgical procedures (11). There is a time-related phenomenon
that cannot be ignored: the surgeon’s experience with a procedure and the refining of the
operative details make too much of a difference for surgery to be subjected to the same
testing methods used in the rest of medicine. One needs to recognize the inadequacy of
case studies and historical comparisons under most circumstances as those controls
cannot account for a variety of confounding variables: selection of treated patients, tem-
poral increase in total effectiveness of care, etc.
Randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trials offer the most effective way to
control the placebo effect of having surgery and investigator bias. Once the pilot study is
concluded, based on well-thought-out criteria for prematurely stopping or completing the
feasibility study, surgeons should undertake an appropriately designed controlled clinical
trial with sufficient patients (i.e., statistical power) to reach generalizable results about the
efficacy of the new treatment.
However, it is estimated that only 7% of surgical investigators use a randomized
study design of any type (12). There is an under-usage of randomized control trial
(RCT) in surgical research. The fundamental criticism is that RCTs deprive the surgeons
and their patients of the opportunity to make choices based on the surgeon’s clinical intui-
tions, skill, and experience and the patient’s preferences, that is, RCTs undermine the
fundamental obligation of the doctor to try to help the patient accept what the surgeon
believes is best, under the circumstances. The question arises if individual freedom
should ever trump valid attempts to gain the most knowledge, especially when we
reflect on all the unnecessary disfiguring and disabling surgical treatments previously
believed to offer great benefits?
The crucial issue is that surgeons as fiduciaries must balance technological advance-
ments and ethical responsibilities, a subject rarely broached in our data-driven surgical
publications. Ethical reasoning and scientific methodologies are different and equally
important constructs. The ethics gap in surgery is becoming more apparent. As a task-
oriented specialty, we must continually remind ourselves that positive scientific outcomes
do not justify ethical breaches. Confusion can follow if one relies solely on surgical
science as the measure of good practice (2).
3.5. Economical and Social Cost of New Technologies

The key to determining whether a new procedure is a true advance or a gimmick lies in the
surgeons’ ability not only to evaluate the outcomes, but also to observe the advantages of
the procedure from the perspective of all the stakeholders in the medical system (patients,
providers, payer, and industry) to determine its true value (13). Surgeons must recognize
the fact that the high-tech arena is an expensive one in which to play. They must, therefore,
balance the high costs against the scientifically proven advantages of each of the oper-
ations. Higher costs must be justified by superior results (14). How should society evaluate
the costs and allocate additional resources among new technologies? With the present rate
of growth in medical technology the gap is widening between what is medically possible
for most given illnesses and what is affordable by society.
Clearly, technology is not an unequivocal savior. With it come difficult social,
ethical, and economical choices. Some moral questions arise concerning the technology
and whether it is justified in light of moral values. Technologies are expressions of funda-
mental values, such as the search for knowledge or the relief from suffering. However,
these values can no longer be taken as implicitly given, but as the starting point of
other motivating values in society (15). Some new technologies are advertised as solutions
468 Fecteau
for problems that did not previously exist; some are marketed without any identified need.
Some technologies are looking for an application, creating their own market, inducing a
particular need. The availability of technology may also induce for patients some alien-
ation from their own subjective experience. For example, the possibility of kidney trans-
plant in children and the advantages of living-related minimally invasive nephrectomy
place family relations in a very different perspective. Technologies take over an increasing
part of our lives and medical practice, and we need to reflect on their value and meaning
before embracing them and incorporating them in our clinical armamentarium. Economi-
cal pressures to adopt new technologies in order to improve their share of the market,
should not deter surgeons from basing their practice decisions on sound clinical and
ethical evaluations of those technologies.
4. HOW SHOULD I DEAL WITH SURGICAL INNOVATIONS OR NEW

TECHNOLOGIES IN MY PRACTICE?
Honesty and truly informed consent seem to be the two important concepts when dealing
with new technologies and surgical innovations such as minimal access surgery. Patients
should be well informed about the levels of evidence in the literature for a new technique
or procedure. Each surgeon should divulge his level of training, expertise, and experience
with a new procedure and be able to inform the patient of his/her true mortality and
morbidity and how it compares to the gold standard of the institution. Surgeons should
strive to formally evaluate new technologies and procedures with the ethics board-
approved controlled trials before making them the standard of care and resist being
pushed by the industry or the public in adopting nonvalidated therapies.
5. THE CASES
Case 1: You discuss with JC and his parents, the known risks and benefits of both the Nuss
procedure and the Ravitch procedure (the present standard of care in your hospital). You
also remind them that there are no long-term results available in his age group for the Nuss
procedure. You reinforce that your experience with the Ravitch procedure is extensive, but
that the Nuss procedure is new to your repertoire and your limited experience consists of
two patients. There has been no mortality or morbidity so far for the Nuss procedure but
the procedures were both done within the last 6 months. You have recently joined a multi-
center study group comparing both procedures in a prospective trial. You explain to them
the mechanism of the trial and what it entails for them. You explain that this trial is the
only way to determine which of the two procedures is the best surgical option. They
agree to participate in the trial.
Case 2: You review with GM and her parents the indications for subtotal colectomy.
Her nutritional status is good despite her ulcerative colitis but she has been on recent
immunosuppression and is still on prednisone even though on a low dose. You would rec-
ommend a two-stage approach for her subtotal colectomy, and J-pouch to minimize the
chance of postoperative complications (16). Laparoscopic-assisted J-pouch has been
reported in the pediatric literature (17). You explain to the parents that your institution
has the experience of 20 laparoscopic-assisted subtotal colectomies, of which you have
personally performed 10 but you have yet to perform a laparoscopic-assisted J-pouch.
On reviewing your data, there has been no mortality and the morbidity is not statistically
different in a retrospective comparison with open subtotal colectomy. Surprisingly you
Ethical Issues 469
have found that the length of stay, postoperatively, is the same for the two procedures. You
offer them contact information for an adult colleague who you know has performed one-
stage laparoscopic J-pouches, if they want to pursue a second opinion. The parents want to
think about it some more and give you their decision at a later time.
REFERENCES
1. Rothschild JG. What alternatives has minimally invasive surgery provided the surgeon? Arch
Surg 1998; 133:1156 – 1159.
2. Frader JE, Caniano DA. Research and innovation in surgery. In: McCullough LB, Jones JW,
Brody BA, eds. Surgical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998:216 – 241.
3. Jones JW. Ethics of rapid surgical technological advancement. Ann Thorac Surg 2000;
69:676 – 677.
4. Beecher HK. Ethics and clinical research. NEJM 1966; 274:1354 – 1360.
5. National Commission for the protection of human subjects of biomedical and behavioral
research. “The Belmont report: ethical principles for the protection of human subjects of
research.” OPRR Reports. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979.
6. Abele JE. The ethics of technology introduction. Artifial Organs 1998; 22:75– 76.
7. Rattner DW. Future dirrections in innovative minimally invasive surgery. Lancet 1999;
353:SI12 – SI15.
8. Cooper TR, Caplan WD, Garcia-Prats JA, Brody BA. The interrelationship of ethical issues in
the transition from old paradigms to new technologies. J Clinic Ethics 1996; 7:243– 250.
9. American College of Surgeons statement on emerging technologies and evaluation of creden-
tials. Am Coll Surg Bull 1994; 79:40 – 41.
10. Spodick DH. Revascularization of the heart-numerators in search of a denominators. Am Heart
J 1971; 81:149– 157.
11. Lowe JW. Drugs and operations: some important differences. JAMA 1975; 232:37 –38.
12. Reeves B. Health-technology assessment in surgery. Lancet 1999; 353:(suppl 1):S13– S15.
13. Traverso LW. Technology and surgery: dilemma of the gimmick, true advances and cost
effectiveness. Surg Clinics North Am 1996; 1:129– 138.
14. Appel MF. Whither Laparoscopy? Int Surg 1994; 79:376 – 377.
15. ten Have H. AMJ. Medical technology assessment and ethics: ambivalent relationship.
Hastings Center Report 1995; 25:13 –19.
16. Rintala RJ, Lindahl HG. Protocolectomy and J pouch in children. J Pediatr Surg 2002;
77:66 – 70.
17. Georgeson KE. Laparascopic-assisted total colectomy with pouch reconstruction. Semin
Pediatr Surg 2002; 11:233 – 236.
36
Education and Training for Pediatric
Minimal Access Surgery
David A. Rogers
Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, Illinois, USA
1. Introduction 471
2. A Needs Assessment for MAS training in Pediatric Surgery 472
3. Evidence-Based Technical Skills Education 472
4. Principles for Skills Curriculum Design 472
4.1. Psychomotor Skill Acquisition 472
4.2. The Learning Curve 473
4.3. Skill Retention 473
4.4. Surgical Innovation 474
5. Pediatric Surgery MAS Training: An Opportunity for Leadership 475
5.1. We Should be the Most Sophisticated Consumers
of Skills Courses 475
5.2. We Should Create and Administer the Best Skills Courses 475
5.3. We Should Create a Program Designed to Teach Pediatric
Surgeons How to Teach Surgical Skills. The Program
Should be Mandatory for All Those Instructing in Courses 476
5.4. We Should Develop Permanent Training Centers for
Both Residents and Trained Surgeons 476
5.5. We Should Provide Leadership in Documenting the Improvement
That Educational Courses Have in Practice 476
References 477
1. INTRODUCTION
A review of the history of minimal access surgery (MAS) is notable in that pediatric sur-
geons played a substantial role in the early clinical application of the improving technol-
ogy associated with this type of procedure (1,2). Yet, pediatric surgeons have been slow to
adopt minimal access technology even when it was introduced by general surgeons (3).
One possible explanation for this reticence is that “. . . many of the leaders in pediatric
surgery were not skilled in this new technology . . . .” (4). Perhaps if there had been an
471
472 Rogers
effective way to train pediatric surgeons in these new techniques, we would be leaders in
MAS instead of followers.
2. A NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR MAS TRAINING IN

PEDIATRIC SURGERY
The limited information about MAS training needs for pediatric surgeons suggests that a sig-
nificant number desire more of this type of instruction during their pediatric surgery training
(5). The majority of pediatric surgeons who routinely perform MAS received their training
in a postgraduate course (6). This is not an indictment of the residency program but speaks of
the importance of postgraduate training in the career of a pediatric surgeon.
When contrasted to an adult surgery practice, pediatric surgery remains very broad
in scope (7). The diversity of patient population is also quite wide now, ranging from the
fetus to the adult (5). This diversity of practice creates substantial challenges in consider-
ing how MAS education can best be provided for pediatric surgeons and pediatric surgery
residents. Possible solutions are suggested by first considering what is known of skills
education for all surgeons.
3. EVIDENCE-BASED TECHNICAL SKILLS EDUCATION
With the advent of laparoscopic cholecystectomy, a huge demand for training in MAS
developed among general surgeons. This demand was met through courses developed
by surgeons who had already gained experience with these techniques. The workshop-
style courses were typically fairly expensive, involved one to two days of instruction
with the awarding of a certificate of attendance serving as the only measurable educational
outcome. Concern about this type of training developed almost immediately and has
persisted (8 –15). The Society of American Gastrointestinal Surgeons (SAGES) moved
quickly to develop guidelines for training (16) but the evidence is that a substantial pro-
portion of surgeons did not follow these recommendations (17). Most participants felt
that these types of courses did not adequately prepare them to perform the procedure
(14). Additionally, it has been shown that the complication rate was higher for surgeons
who began performing these procedures after having only taken one of these courses
(18). Completely absent from the discussion about MAS training is the challenge of
providing training for pediatric surgery residents.
We can conclude from this brief review that the workshop method of skills instruc-
tion is flawed. Therefore, there is an opportunity to consider other options in designing a
more effective training program. To begin this process, we should consider what is known
of surgical skills acquisition and retention. Further, we should consider the role of
education in the process of surgical innovation.
4. PRINCIPLES FOR SKILLS CURRICULUM DESIGN

4.1. Psychomotor Skill Acquisition
The study of psychomotor acquisition begins with the introduction of telegraphy over a
century ago (19). While there are a number of descriptions of how skill acquisition
occurs (20), the most frequently cited model describes three stages of learning (21).
The first stage is the cognitive stage during which the learner gains an understanding of
the task. The second or associative stage follows where the learner begins to attempt to
Education and Training 473
perform the task. During this stage the surgeon practices the skill and eliminates error. Error
identification and elimination occurs through both internal and external feedback. Internal
feedback occurs as the surgeon makes his or her own comparisons between actual and ideal
performance. External feedback occurs when an expert examines the performance, ident-
ifies errors, and prescribes a plan for eliminating them. Practice is recognized as a critical
element in attaining expertise (22) and yet it is unlikely that a short course allows for an
adequate period of practice. The result is that the course ends with the learner in the
early aspect of this phase of learning and no opportunity for additional practice before
they begin performing the procedure on patients. The final stage of psychomotor learning
is the automatic phase where the task is performed without active conscious input.
4.2. The Learning Curve

When outcome measures of performance are plotted as a function of experience, the result
is often called the learning curve. In fact, it is more accurately called a performance curve
because it is performance that is being measured and learning should never stop (23,24).
There are some generalizations about performance curves that have important impli-
cations for skills curricula design. The first is that there is substantial improvement in
the early part of the experience (Fig. 36.1). This suggests that outcomes of an educational
intervention designed to teach surgical skills could be significantly improved with little
increase in resources. The second important generalization is that individual performance
curves do not follow the pattern described for performance curves for groups. It is
common to see plateaus in performance where no additional improvement is seen for
several repetitions (Fig. 36.2). A course of study must then be designed so that all partici-
pants can attain an acceptable level of performance.
4.3. Skill Retention

The practice of pediatric surgery is unique in that it is common for surgeons to perform
complex cases infrequently (7) and raises concerns about retention of skill in the
absence of practice. Some preliminary evidence supports the idea that loss of skills is
related to clinical volume (25). The area of MAS skill retention has not been investigated
70
60
Mean Actual Time
50
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Task Repetitions
Figure 36.1 A performance curve that demonstrates the relationship between operative time and
experience for a group of novice learners. (Courtesy of Dr. Jeannie MacDonald and the Southern
Illinois University School of Medicine Department of Surgery Skills Laboratory.)
474 Rogers
50
Value Actual Time
40
30
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Task Repetitions
Figure 36.2 A performance curve that demonstrates the relationship between operative time and
experience for a single novice learner. (Courtesy of Dr. Jeannie MacDonald and the Southern Illinois
University School of Medicine Department of Surgery Skills Laboratory.)
but some general principles of retention do exist (19) and would seem to relate to surgical
skill. For example, it has been shown that forgetting increases as a function of interval
from learning and that relearning is more rapid than the original learning.
4.4. Surgical Innovation

MAS can properly be viewed as a substantial innovation in pediatric surgery. The process
of the spread of diffusion has not been studied in surgery but some general principles of
this process have been developed (26) that would seem to apply to the process of diffusion
of surgical innovation. The first principle is that there are a number of factors that affect the
rate at which an innovation is adopted. These factors include perceived attributes of the
innovation (e.g., relative advantage), type of innovation-decision (e.g., optional), com-
munication channels (e.g. media), nature of the social system (e.g., network interconnect-
edness) and extent of change agent’s promotion efforts. An educational intervention would
play several potential roles in the changing of perceptions about the innovations. First,
information about the procedure could alter perceptions regarding the attributes of a
new surgical procedure. Clear explanations might make it appear less complex. Further,
educational sessions serve as one type of communication channel. In the case of
laparoscopic cholecystectomy, this form of communication was much more rapid than
communication that occurred through the traditional medical literature.
Another aspect of the innovation diffusion process that has application for MAS
education is the description of how individuals adopt in an innovation. The first surgeons
to adopt a new practice are the “Innovators.” They are described as individuals who
embrace new ideas and tolerate a high degree of uncertainty but who do not necessarily
enjoy the respect of the remainder of the group. The second group to adopt the new prac-
tice is the “Early adopters” who do have the respect of the community. The third group to
adopt the new practice is the “Early majority” and is described as being more deliberate in
their decisions. The “Late majority” adopts ideas after the average period of adoption and
requires the pressure of peers to do so. Finally, the last group to adopt an innovation is the
“Laggards.”
A number of forces act to propel a surgical innovation. In the case of laparoscopic
cholecystecomy in adults, a major force was demand by the patients and so surgeons and
hospitals recognized that they must provide this procedure or lose a substantial share of
their patient base. Given the frequency of this procedure, the costs of training and equipment
were relatively small when compared to the loss of revenue gained from biliary surgery. In
contrast, the number of Pediatric Surgery MAS at any given hospital is smaller and so the
costs of initiating the program more substantial (3). Another powerful force is the perception
by patients and their parents. This perception is now more often being influenced by infor-
mation that they obtain via the Internet, much of which is inaccurate (27).
A review of the pediatric surgical literature provides an interesting contrast between
two different MAS procedures in how they are accepted. In both cases, the external forces
and individuals interact in the process of adoption or rejection of the innovation. The
initial descriptions of laparoscopic cholecystecomy (28 – 30) in children were followed
by very little opposing literature and this has rapidly become the standard approach to
this procedure (6). In contrast, the initial description of the Nuss procedure (31) has gen-
erated a number of reports comparing the traditional Ravitch procedure that cast doubt that
this will become the standard approach for the treatment of all children with pectus exca-
vatum (32 –34). Time will tell whether the Nuss procedure will become the standard
approach to the correction for all chest wall deformities or for just a subset of these of
patients. “Early adopters” serve as opinion leaders and play a major role in determining
the outcome of an innovation. They, along with the “Innovators,” are the logical choice
for providing leadership in the education and training of the remaining pediatric surgeons.
The unique sociology of pediatric surgery provides an opportunity to create a model
for other surgical disciplines in how education can provide for the most thoughtful and
safest introduction of innovation. While the number of pediatric surgical training pro-
grams has increased (35,36) thus expanding the number of pediatric surgeons, the
group remains quite small compared to other surgical subspecialties and behaves some-
what like an extended family (37). Bearing these unique attributes in mind and applying
the principles of skills training above, it is possible to consider the development of an edu-
cational program for pediatric surgeons that will allow them to demonstrate that they are
leaders in innovation.
5. PEDIATRIC SURGERY MAS TRAINING: AN OPPORTUNITY

FOR LEADERSHIP
5.1. We Should be the Most Sophisticated Consumers
of Skills Courses
Despite their shortcomings, skills workshops are utilized by a significant percentage of
pediatric surgeons and it is anticipated that they will continue to meet a necessary edu-
cational need. Pediatric surgeons need to be sophisticated consumers of these types of
courses and attend only those courses with specific attributes (Table 36.1).
5.2. We Should Create and Administer the Best Skills Courses

All pediatric surgery MAS courses should meet the requirements outlined by SAGES. A
recent review describes various methods, including simulation, animate and inanimate
models, that have been used in surgical skill instruction (39). Some specific work has
476 Rogers
Table 36.1 Suggestions for Selecting an Optimal MAS Workshop
The course should have a set of formal educational objectives and a description of the assessment
methodology
The faculty should be qualified to both perform and teach the procedure
The participants of a course should possess the appropriate prerequisite skills and knowledge
The facility should be adequate
The curriculum should be designed to minimize time required with the optimal outcome.
Source: Adapted from Rogers et al. (38).
been done for MAS (40,41) that validates the approach of using a series of basic structured
tasks or drills to develop the skills necessary to do MAS procedures. Courses could be sub-
stantially improved by simply making them longer. A weeklong course would offer an
opportunity for more practice, which is the element most lacking in the very short
courses. It would be more expensive and less convenient but would accomplish some
worthy educational goals that produce better patient outcomes. More opportunity for prac-
tice should position individuals further along their individual performance curves to assure
that innovation is introduced with fewer errors.
5.3. We Should Create a Program Designed to Teach Pediatric

Surgeons How to Teach Surgical Skills. The Program
Should be Mandatory for All Those Instructing in Courses
Professional athletes gain a high level of expertise in their particular sport. They still
require coaching and it is doubtful that their coaches are as proficient in the sport as are
the athletes themselves. Further, not all professional athletes are excellent coaches. In
the same way, gaining expertise in the performance of a surgical skill does not guarantee
that one is expert at instructing others. The elements of effective skills instruction are fairly
simple and educated instructors would enhance educational outcomes in a course.
5.4. We Should Develop Permanent Training Centers for

Both Residents and Trained Surgeons
The historical evaluation of graduate and postgraduate training (42) has led to an unfortunate
separation between education in these two continuous aspects in the pediatric surgeon’s
career. We should take the leadership in demonstrating that education is a constant feature
in the life of a pediatric surgeon. Training programs should cooperate to develop courses
where all trainees are exposed to existing or new surgical techniques. The precedent for
this type of centralized training has already been established (43,44). These sessions could
take place at some of the established pediatric surgery residency sites, a MAS center, or at
one of the sites the commercial vendors of MAS equipment have erected. In addition to
providing training in new techniques, an established center could allow a surgeon to
return periodically to practice an established skill and thereby improve retention.
5.5. We Should Provide Leadership in Documenting the Improvement

That Educational Courses Have in Practice
The effects of continuing medical education offerings have only been rarely followed
into practice (45). What is needed is a network that would allow for the collection of
information about patient outcomes as pediatric surgeons begin to perform new pro-
cedures in patients. Such networks already exist for ECMO, childhood cancers, and
trauma. It is time to apply the lessons learned from the creation and administration of
these networks to all important clinical outcomes. This type of multi-institutional
network would produce better early information about the value of a proposed innovation
than is currently available from single institutional experiences. Further, it would also
allow for an improved understanding of how an educational intervention affects physician
learning and, ultimately, patient outcomes.
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eds. Pediatric Laparoscopy and Thoracoscopy. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1994:1 –5.
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Pediatric Endoscopic Surgery. Norwalk: Appleton and Lange, 1994:1 – 7.
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4. Holcomb GW III. Laparoscopy in infants and children (editorial). Surg Endosc 2000; 14:1097.
5. Parkerton PH, Gieger JD, Mick SS, O’Neill JA Jr. The market for pediatric surgeons: a survey
of recent graduates. J Pediatr Surg 1999; 34:931– 939.
6. Firilas AM, Jackson RJ, Smith CD. Minimally invasive surgery: the pediatric surgery experi-
ence. J Am Coll Surg 1998; 186:542 – 544.
7. Rowe MI, Courcoulas A, Reblock K. An analysis of the operative experience of North Amer-
ican pediatric surgical training programs and residents. J Pediatr Surg 1997; 32:184– 191.
8. Dent TL. Training, credentialing, and granting of clinical privileges for laparoscopic general
surgery. Am J Surg 1991; 161:399 – 403.
9. Gadacz TR, Talamini MA. Traditional versus laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Am J Surg 1991;
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10. Zucker KA. Training issues (editorial). Surg Lapar Endosc 1992; 2:187.
11. Rock JA, Warshaw JR. The history and future of operative laparoscopy. Am J Obstet Gynecol
1994; 170:7 – 11.
12. Gates EA. New surgical procedures: can our patients benefit while we learn? Am J Obstet
Gynecol 1997; 176:1293 –1299.
13. Reznick R. Let’s not forget that CME has an “E”. Foc Surg Ed 1999; 17:1 – 2.
14. Morino M, Festa V, Garrone C. Survey on Torino courses. The impact of a two-day practical
course on apprenticeship and diffusion of laparoscopic cholecystecomy in Italy. Surg Endosoc
1995; 9:46 – 48.
15. Wright D, O’Dwyer PJ. The learning curve for laparoscopic hernia repair. Semin Lapar Surg
1998; 5:227 – 232.
16. Guidelines for granting privileges for laparoscopic (peritoneoscopic) general surgery. Surg
Endosc 1993; 7:67– 68.
17. Escarce JJ, Shea JA, Schwartz JS. How practicing surgeons trained for laparoscopic cholecys-
tecomy. Med Care 1997; 35:291– 296.
18. See WA, Cooper CS, Fisher RJ. Predictors of laparoscopic complication after formal training
in laparoscopic surgery. JAMA 1993; 270:2689 – 2692.
19. Adams JA. Historical review and appraisal of research on the learning, retention, and transfer
of human motor skills. Psych Bull 1987; 101:41– 74.
20. Hamdorf JM, Hall JC. Acquiring surgical skills. Br J Surg 2000: 87;28 –37.
21. Fitts AM, Posner MI. Human Performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1967.
22. Ericsson KA, Krampe RT, Tesch-Romer C. The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of
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23. Magill RA. Motor learning concepts and applications. 4th ed. Indianapolis: WCB Brown and
Benchmark, 1993.
24. Schmidt RA. Motor Learning and Performance. From Principles to Practice. Champaign,
Illinois: Human Kinetics Books, 1991.
25. Ali J, Howard M, Williams J. Is attrition of ATLS(R) acquired skills affected by trauma patient
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27. Chen LE, Minkes RK, Langer JC. Pediatric Surgery on the Internet: is the truth out there?
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28. Sigman HH, Laberge JM, Croitoru D, Hong A, Sigman K, Nguyen LT, Guttman FM. Laparo-
scopic cholecystecomy in children. J Pediatr Surg 1991; 26:1181 –1183.
29. Newman KD, Marmon LM, Attorri R, Evans S. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pediatric
patients. J Pediatr Surg 1991; 26:1184– 1185.
30. Holcomb GW III, Olsen DO, Sharp KW. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the pediatric
patient. J Pediatr Surg 1991; 26:1186– 1190.
31. Nuss D, Kelly RE Jr, Coritoru DP, Katz ME. A 10-year review of a minimally invasive
technique for the correction of a pectus excavatum. J Pediatr Surg 1998; 33:545 – 552.
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results of the Nuss procedure. J Pediatr Surg 2000; 35:246– 251.
33. Hebra A, Swoveland B, Egbert M, Tagge EP, Georgeson K, Othersen HB Jr, Nuss D. Outcome
analysis of minimally invasive repair of pectus excavatum: review of 251 cases. J Pediatr Surg
2000; 35:252 – 257.
34. Molik KA, Engum SA, Rescorla FJ, West KW, Scherer LR, Grosfeld JL. Pectus Excavatum
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tudinal analysis of the pediatric surgeon workforce. Ann Surg 2000; 232:442 – 453.
37. A genealogy of North American pediatric surgery from Ladd until Now. Glick PL,
Azizkhan RG, eds. St. Louis: Quality Medical Publishing Inc., 1997.
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39. Hamdorf JM, Hall JC. Acquiring surgical skills. Br J Surg 2000; 87:28 –37.
40. Rosser JC Jr, Rosser LE, Savalgi RS. Objective evaluation of a laparoscopic surgical skill
program for residents and senior surgeons. Arch Surg 1998; 133:657 – 661.
41. Derrossis AM, Fried GM, Abrahamowica M, Sigman HH, Barkun JS, Meakins JL.
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42. Ludmerer KM. A time to heal: an American medical education from the turn of the century to
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43. Bevan PG. Craft workshops in surgery. Br J Surg 1986; 73:1 – 2.
44. Bevan PG. The anastomosis workshop, March 1981. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1981; 63:405 – 410.
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JAMA 1999; 282:867 – 874.
37
Robotically Assisted Pediatric Surgery
David Le and Russell Woo
Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Stanford, California, USA
Craig T. Albanese
1. Introduction 479
2. Limitations of MAS 480
2.1. Movement Limitation 480
2.2. Haptic Limitations 480
2.3. Visual Limitations 481
3. Robotics in Surgery 481
4. Classification of Robotic Surgery Systems 482
5. Teleoperators 483
5.1. The Zeus System 483
5.2. The da Vinci System 485
6. Application of Robotic Technology to Pediatric Surgery 486
7. Future Directions 490
8. Conclusion 491
References 492
1. INTRODUCTION
Innovations in endoscopic technique and equipment continue to broaden the range of

applications in minimal access surgery (MAS). However, in the adult population
many of these procedures have yet to overtake the traditional open approach due to
their technical difficulty. Difficulties remain in achieving dexterity and precision of
instrument control within the confines of a limited operating space. These difficulties
are further compounded by the need to operate from a video image. In the pediatric
population, such challenges are amplified by the significantly smaller workspace, as
well as the size and delicacy of tissues. The application of robotic technology has
the potential to contribute significantly to the advancement of minimal access pediatric
surgery.
479
480 Le, Woo, and Albanese
2. LIMITATIONS OF MAS
While minimal access techniques have revolutionized many surgical procedures, the intro-
duction of MAS also brought with it certain unique complexities that are not present with
conventional open surgery.
2.1. Movement Limitation

First, MAS instruments work through cannulas, or ports in the body wall. These ports act as
pivot points that consequently reverse the direction of motion of the instrument tip in
relation to the motion of the instrument handle. For instance, in order to move the instrument
tip to the left inside the body cavity, the surgeon is required to move his hands to the right
outside the body, and so on. This reversal of movement requires nonintuitive instrument
control that is mentally taxing, especially as the complexity of the surgical task increases.
Second, the majority of MAS instruments consist of an end-effector mounted to the
tip of a long, rigid shaft. The endoscopic cannula allows these instruments to pivot around
the fixed point within the body wall, but restricts motion laterally. The six degrees of
freedom of position and orientation (defined as motion along the X, Y, Z axes, and rotation
about each of these axes) of open instruments is therefore reduced to four degrees of
motion (pitch, yaw, roll, and insertion) for MAS procedures (Fig. 37.1). An additional
two degrees of freedom could be restored to MAS instruments by constructing articula-
tions at the distal end, past the location of the cannula pivot point (Fig. 37.2). However,
the precise and dynamic control of these distal articulations during an operative procedure
would be difficult to coordinate without the assistance of computer control.
2.2. Haptic Limitations

The long shafts of MAS instruments force a separation of the surgeon’s hands from the
operative anatomy, which significantly decreases the amount of tactile sensation and
force reflection available. The extended length of the instruments also significantly
Figure 37.1 Traditional four degrees-of-freedom endoscopic instrument.

Robotically Assisted Pediatric Surgery 481
Figure 37.2 Fully articulated six degrees-of-freedom robotic instrument.
magnifies any existing hand tremor. Furthermore, the excursion of an instrument tip is
highly dependent on its depth of insertion. For instance, an instrument that is shallowly
inserted requires comparatively large hand movements to accomplish a given instrument
movement inside the body, while a deeply inserted instrument requires much less hand
movement to sweep the instrument tip around. Consequently, the dynamics of the instru-
ment change constantly as it is inserted and retracted throughout a procedure. Overall, all
these factors can lead to less precise and less predictable movements when compared to
standard, open surgical techniques.
2.3. Visual Limitations

The introduction of an endoscope forces a surgeon to be guided by a video image instead of
direct vision. The video monitor is often located on the far side of the patient, and the differ-
ences in orientation between the endoscope, instruments, and monitor requires the surgeon
to perform a difficult mental transformation between the visual and motor coordinate frame
(1). This problem is further exacerbated whenever an angled endoscope is used.
The majority of conventional endoscopes are built around a single lens train that is
only capable of displaying images in a flat two-dimensional format. This removes many of
the depth cues of normal binocular vision, complicating tasks such as dissection between
tissue planes. Some stereoscopic vision systems exist, but their performance is limited by
the resolution and contrast characteristics of the endoscopes themselves, as well as the
display technologies. In addition to these limitations, conventional endoscopes often
require a dedicated assistant to hold and manipulate them. The natural tremors and move-
ments of the handling assistant are exacerbated by the magnified image.
3. ROBOTICS IN SURGERY
For several decades now, robots have served in a variety of applications such as manu-
facturing, deep-sea exploration, munitions detonation, military surveillance, and
entertainment. In contrast, the use of robotic technology in surgery is still a relatively

young field. Improvements in mechanical design, kinematics, and control algorithms
that were originally created for industrial robots are directly applicable to many surgical
applications. The use of robotic technology is, in large part, aimed at addressing the
numerous aforementioned limitations with conventional MAS.
The first recorded application of robotics in a surgical procedure was for CT-guided
stereotactic brain biopsy in 1987 (2). Since then, technological advancements have led to
the development of several different robotic systems. These systems vary significantly in
complexity and function.
4. CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTIC SURGERY SYSTEMS
Robots can interact with surgeons in many ways. One method of classifying robots is by their
level of autonomy. Using this classification, there are currently three types of robots used in
surgery: autonomous robots, surgical assist devices, and teleoperators (Table 37.1).
An autonomously operating robot carries out a preoperative plan without any
immediate control from the surgeon. The tasks performed are typically focused or repeti-
tive but require a degree of precision not attainable by human hands. An example is the
ROBODOCw system used in orthopedic surgery to accurately mill out the femoral
canal for hip implants (3). Another example is the CYBERKNIFEw system that consists
of a linear accelerator mounted on a robotic arm that is used to precisely deliver radiother-
apy to treat intracranial and spinal tumors (4,5).
The second class of robots is the surgical assist devices, where the surgeon and robot
share control. The most well known example of this group is the AESOPw (Automatic
Endoscopic System for Optimal Positioning; Computer Motion, Inc., Goleta, CA). This
system allows a surgeon to attach an endoscope to a robotic arm that provides a steady
image by eliminating the natural movements inherent in a live camera holder. The
surgeon is then able to reposition the camera by voice commands. Today, the AESOP
is used in many different surgical disciplines including general surgery (6,7), gynecologic
surgery (8), cardiothoracic surgery (9), and urology (10).
The final class consists of robots whose every function is explicitly controlled by the
surgeon. The hand motions of the surgeon at a control console are tracked by the electronic
controller and then relayed to the slave robot in such a manner that the instrument tips per-
fectly mirror every movement of the surgeon. Because the control console is physically
separated from the slave robot, these systems are referred to as teleoperators. All the
recent advances in robotically assisted procedures in pediatric surgery have involved
this class of machines.
Table 37.1 Classification of Robotic Surgical Systems
Type of system Definition Example
Autonomous System carries out treatment without immediate Cyberknife

input from the surgeon Robodoc
Surgical assist Surgeon and robot share control Aesop
Teleoperators Input from the surgeon directs movement Intuitive Surgical da Vinci
of instruments System
Computer Motion
Zeus System
5. TELEOPERATORS
In the realm of true operative procedures, previously there were two systems commercially
available—the da Vinci Surgical System by Intuitive Surgical, Inc. (Sunnyvale, CA) and
the Zeus system by Computer Motion (Goleta, CA). Recently, the two companies have
merged, and it is expected that the da Vinci system will become the predominant
robotic operative platform.
Though these systems are popularly referred to as surgical robots, this is a misnomer
as “robot” implies autonomous movement. In neither the da Vinci nor the Zeus does the
system operate without the immediate control of a surgeon. A better term may be “com-
puter-enhanced telemanipulators.” However, for the sake of consistency with published
literature, this chapter will continue to refer to such systems as robots.
The integration of computer technology into both the da Vinci and Zeus helps to
resolve many of the limitations of MAS surgery. By scanning the surgeon’s hand
motions, information is relayed to the instruments in order to move them in the corre-
sponding direction and orientation. Intuitive nonreversed instrument control is therefore
restored, while preserving the minimal access nature of the approach.
The presence of a computer control system allows one to filter out inherent hand
tremor, thus making the motion of the endoscope and the instrument tips steadier than
with the unassisted hand. In addition, the system allows for variable motion scaling
from the surgeon’s hand to the instrument tips. For instance, a 3 : 1 scale factor maps
3 cm of movement of the surgeon’s hand into 1 cm of motion at the instrument tip. In
combination with image magnification from the video endoscope, motion scaling makes
delicate motions easier and more precise to perform (11).
In both systems, the instruments are also engineered with articulations at the “wrist”
distally that increases their dexterity compared to simpler MAS tools. The da Vinci system
alone possesses instruments capable of the full six degrees of freedom of the human wrist.
5.1. The Zeus System

The Zeus system (Computer Motion, Goleta, CA) is a telemanipulator system that consists
of a surgeon’s console and three robotic arms (Figs. 37.3 –37.5). The surgeon operates
from a console several feet away from the operating table. There he uses handheld manip-
ulators to control the two robotic arms and surgical instruments, a foot pedal to activate the
computer driven system, and voice commands to direct a camera controlled by an AESOP
arm (12). Like the da Vinci system, the Zeus system offers tremor reduction and motion
scaling.
The Zeus system consists of three modular, freestanding robotic arms that are
attached to the operating table. This design allows the system to be oriented to many
different configurations. The Zeus system also features 3.5– 5 mm instruments, several
of which are capable of increased articulation through the Zeus Microwrist. This joint pro-
vides the instrument with an additional degree of freedom at the wrist, giving a total of five
degrees of freedom. The Zeus system also features the ability to accommodate a variety of
visualization options (3D and 2D) and telescope sizes.
The Zeus system has received generalized clearance for surgery under Conformité
Européenne (CE) guidelines. In the United States, the Zeus system received Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) clearance for general laparoscopy and has been used for thor-
acic and cardiac procedures. To date, the Zeus system has been used to perform multiple
operations in adults in different surgical specialties throughout the world (13 –18).
Figure 37.3 The Computer Motion Zeus robotic surgical system. (Courtesy of Intuitive Surgical,
Sunnyvale, CA.)
Figure 37.4 The Zeus surgeon’s console with its video display and master controls. (Courtesy of
Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA.)
Figure 37.5 The Zeus system as arranged in an operating room. (Courtesy of Computer Motion,
Goleta, CA.)
5.2. The da Vinci System

The da Vinci system is made up of two major components (19) (Figs. 37.6– 37.8). The first
is the surgeon’s console, which houses the visual display system, the surgeon’s control
handles, the user interface buttons, and the electronic controller. The second component
is the patient side cart, which consists of two arms that control the operative instruments
and a third arm that controls the video endoscope.
The operative surgeon is seated at the surgeon’s console, which can be located up
to 10 m away from the operating table. Within the console are located the surgeon’s
control handles, or masters, which act as high resolution input devices that read the
position, orientation, and grip commands from the surgeon’s finger tips. They also act
as haptic displays that transmit forces and torques back to the surgeon’s hand in response
to various measured and synthetic force cues. This control system also allows for computer
enhancement of functions such as motion scaling and tremor reduction.
The image of the operative site is projected to the surgeon through a high-resolution
stereo display system that uses two medical grade cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors to
display a separate image to each of the surgeon’s eyes. The surgeon’s brain then fuses
the two separate images into a virtual three-dimensional construct. The image plane of
the stereo viewer is superimposed over the range of motion of the masters, which restores
visual alignment and hand–eye coordination. In addition, because the image of the
endoscopic instrument tips is overlaid on top of where the surgeon senses his hands,
the end effect is that the surgeons feels that his hands are virtually inside the patient’s body.
Since its inception in 1995, the da Vinci system has received generalized clearance
under European CE guidelines for all surgical procedures. In the United States it has
received clearance for general, thoracic surgery, and urologic procedures. In addition,
the da Vinci system recently received FDA clearance for cardiac procedures involving
Figure 37.6 (Courtesy of Computer Motion, Goleta, CA.)
a cardiotomy. To date, thousands of surgical procedures in multiple disciplines have been

performed using the da Vinci system (20 – 27).
6. APPLICATION OF ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGY TO

PEDIATRIC SURGERY
To date, there is only a small body of literature regarding the application of robotic tech-
nology for pediatric surgical procedures. Hollands (12, 28, 29) and Lorincz (30) have both
described the application of the Zeus robotic system in a porcine model. Technically
challenging procedures such as entero-enterostomy, hepaticojejunostomy, portoenterost-
omy, and esophago-esophagostomy were all demonstrated to be technically feasible
Figure 37.7 An array of fully articulated, 6 degrees-of-freedom robotic endoscopic instruments.

(Courtesy of Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA.)
Figure 37.8 At the surgeon’s console, alignment of the visual axis to the master controls creates
the illusion that the surgeon’s hands are operating virtually within the patient. (Courtesy of Intuitive
Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA.)
(Table 37.2). Similarly, Malhotra (31), Aaronson (32), and Olsen (33) have described the
application of the da Vinci system in animal models to perform complex pediatric cardi-
ovascular, neurosurgical, and urologic procedures.
Several authors have reported a small but assorted variety of human pediatric cases
performed with both the Zeus and da Vinci systems (Table 37.3). On average, setup and
operative times were longer with the robotic cases when compared to standard laparo-
scopy. The rate of complications or conversion to open surgery has been low. Significant
long-term follow-up for any differences in clinical outcome has yet to be reported.
Specialized training of the surgical teams and the expense of the equipment remain
substantial obstacles to widespread adoption. However, the authors in common have
applauded the introduction of high-quality three-dimensional vision, articulated instru-
ment tips, and intuitive instrument control, all of which seem to enhance surgical pre-
cision. To fully evaluate the potential benefits and application to pediatric surgery,
further studies are warranted.
Procedures such as repair of esophageal atresia, portoenterostomy, and ureteral
reimplantation can all be performed using existing endoscopic equipment. However,
488
Table 37.2 Robotic Procedures in Porcine Models Using the Zeus Surgical System
Robotic Procedure times, Procedure times,

Author Operative procedure system laparoscopic (mean) robotic (mean)
Hollands et al. (12,28,29) Porcine Enteroenterostomy (28) Zeus Anesthesia ¼ 176 min Anesthesia ¼ 154 min
(5 laparoscopic, 5 robotic) Operative time ¼ 143 min Operative time ¼ 139 min
Anastomotic time ¼ 109 min Anastomotic time ¼ 93 min
Porcine Hepaticojejunostomy (12) Zeus Anastomotic time ¼ 66 min Anastomotic time ¼ 93 min
(5 laparoscopic, 5 robotic)
Porcine Esophagoesophagostomy (29) Zeus Anesthesia time ¼ 124 min Anesthesia time ¼ 151 min
Porcine Portoenterostomy (12) Zeus Anesthesia time ¼ 125 min Anesthesia time ¼ 164 min
Lorincz et al. (30) Porcine Portoenterostomy Zeus N/A Mean operative time 330 min
(8 robotic)
Porcine Esophagoesophagostomy Zeus N/A Mean operative time 120 min
(7 robotic)
Malhotra et al. (31) Juvenile ovine thoracic aortic da Vinci N/A Aortic clamp time ¼ 47 min
anastomosis (4 robotic); juvenile ovine Anastomotic time ¼ 26 min
thoracic longitudinal aortotomy with
patch aortoplasty (1 robotic)
Aaronson et al. (32) Intrauterine fetal ovine simulated da Vinci N/A In utero procedure
myelomeningocele repair—creation time ¼ Steep learning
and repair of full-thickness skin curve from just under 120 min
lesions (6 robotic) to just over 30 min within 6 cases
Olsen et al. (33) Porcine Cohen cross-trigonal ureter da Vinci N/A Mean operative time ¼ 68 min
reimplantations
(14 robotic reimplantations)
Le, Woo, and Albanese
Table 37.3 Pediatric Clinical Experience with the Zeus and da Vinci Robotic Systems
Robotic
Author system Patient (N) Operative procedure Results Comments
Le Bret et al. (13) Zeus 56 Patent ductus arteriosus ligation Operating room time Longer operative time for
(28 thoracoscopic, 28 robotic) thoracoscopic ¼ 83 min; robotic group; 1
robotic ¼ 162 min conversion to
Surgical procedure time videothoracoscopic; no
thoracoscopic ¼ 24 min; significant difference in
robotic ¼ 50 min complications or
outcome
Lorincz et al. (30) Zeus 7 5 Nissen fundoplication; Operative time for Rapid improvement in
1 cholecystectomy; 1 Heller myotomy fundoplication reduced case times as team
from 4.5 h to 1.5 h progressed along
Robotically Assisted Pediatric Surgery
learning curve
Gutt et al. (39) and da Vinci 14 11 fundoplication; 2 cholecystectomy; Operative times: No complications or
Heller et al. (40) 1 bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy fundoplication ¼ 146 min (mean); conversion to
Cholecystectomy 105, 150 min; laparotomy
salpingo-oophorectomy 95 min
Luebbe et al. (41) da Vinci 20 10 fundoplication; 3 cholecystectomy; Mean times: OR setup ¼ 45 min; 15% complications
2 splenectomy; 1 urachus resection; patient preparation ¼ 17 min; (2 conversions to
1 Morgagni diaphragmatic hernia; console operating time ¼ 93 min laparotomy for
3 biopsies; 1 lymphadenectomy (range 10 –299 min) bleeding,
1 pneumothorax)
Mijalijavic et al. (42) da Vinci 2 Vascular ring dissection Total operative Total operative time
times: 172.5 min (mean) longer than usually
Robotic procedure required for standard
times: 106.5 min (mean) thoracoscopic
procedure due to setup;
dissection time slightly
shorter in robotic cases
489
mastery of these complex techniques in an endoscopic environment is challenging. Com-

pared to open surgery, few would argue that there are significant sacrifices made in terms
of the maneuverability and dexterity of the instrument tips, the precision and delicacy of
dissection, and the sheer ease with which procedures may be accomplished.
There are a number of distinct and compelling advantages associated with the use of
the surgical robot that may enhance current operative technique. Unlike conventional
laparoscopic instrumentation, which requires manipulation in reverse, the proportional
movement of the robotic device allows the instruments to follow directly the movement
of the surgeon’s hands. The intuitive control of the instruments is particularly
advantageous for the novice endoscopist. In addition to mimicking the surgeon’s move-
ments in an intuitive manner, the robotic instruments also offer six degrees of freedom
and grip, two more than conventional instruments. This technology permits a large
range of motion and rotation that follows the natural range of articulation of the human
wrist, and may be particularly helpful when working space is limited. The electronic
control system is capable of filtering out hand tremors as well as motion scaling,
whereby gross hand movements at the surgeon’s console may be translated into much
finer movement of the instrument tips at the operative site.
The three-dimensional vision system adds an additional measure of safety and
surgical control beyond what is available with the traditional endoscope. The three-
dimensional display improves depth perception, and the ability to magnify images by a
factor of ten, and allows extremely sensitive and accurate surgical manipulation. The
alignment of the visual axis with the surgeon’s hands in the console further enhances
hand –eye coordination to a degree uncommon in traditional endoscopic surgery.
Despite these improvements, there remain significant obstacles to the widespread
adoption of these robotic systems. Chief among these is the cost for both the robotic
systems and their array of instruments. Robotic procedures, times are predictably longer
when compared to the conventional laparoscopic approach, at least for the initial series
of cases until the surgical team becomes facile with the use of the new technology. The
robotic systems themselves are somewhat large and obtrusive, at times impeding access
by the anesthesiologist or patient side surgeon. Until recently, the robotic instruments
were significantly larger than their laparoscopic equivalents. For instance, the da Vinci
instruments required 8-mm ports and the 3D endoscope required a 12-mm port. Finally,
the lack of significant haptic feedback continues to be a major drawback to precise surgical
dissection. Undoubtedly, many of these issues will be remedied in the next generation of
equipment as the technology continues to improve.
7. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
While the current robotic systems represent great strides in technology, the possibilities for
innovation are virtually endless. The use of a video image that is processed through a com-
puter system, rather than direct vision, allows for the overlay of any number of images or
information. For instance, vital signs and other patient data may be projected directly in
front of the surgeon’s eyes while he is operating. A three-dimensional image of a tumor
may be directly overlaid on top of the operative field as the dissection is carried out.
Virtual models of heart valves, orthopedic implants, or vascular conduits may be test-
fitted before the costly objects are requisitioned.
Because the computer systems may be made aware of both the patient’s anatomy as
well as the position of the operative instruments, a virtual “safety envelope” may be
defined. The system can then track the surgeon’s hand movements and prevent inadvertent
damage to collateral tissue.
One of the “holy grails” of robotic surgery is to endow the systems with true force
reflection and haptic feedback. However, the presence of the numerous mechanical joints
inherently imparts additional friction to the entire kinematic chain. It is therefore difficult
to distinguish friction that originates from the robotic system versus forces from living
tissue. This limitation will be overcome with the development of newer computer algor-
ithms and microsensors that can be positioned at the tips of the instruments.
The control handles of a system, such as the da Vinci, not only sense a surgeon’s
hand movements, but are also electronically powered and can relay forth information
back to the surgeon. Not only can tissue tension be delivered as is familiar in conventional
surgery, but also any range of biological data. For instance, the pulsations of a diminutive
artery can be enhanced and magnified such that it is palpable to the surgeon at the console.
Other variables that are not in the average realm of human perception such as oxygen
tension, temperature, and tissue density may also be conveyed, as demonstrated by the
NASA Smart Probe project (34).
Computer systems are also much more facile than the human mind at processing
complex coordinate frames of reference. For instance, the operative instruments can be
programmed to always align with the axis of view of the endoscope. Thus wherever the
endoscope is angled, it would appear to the surgeon that he is positioned at the end of
the endoscope. For example, an angled endoscope inserted into the mouth and directed
back towards the nasopharynx could establish a vantage point for the operative instru-
ments such that one would seem to operate through the back of the patient’s head.
The fact that robotic systems can track a surgeon’s hand movements brings with it the
ability to record a wealth of data. Thus every nuance of a master surgeon’s performance, as
well as the visual information from the operation, may be preserved. All that information
may then be replayed in its entirety for those in training. Rather than stumble through an
operation step by step, a novice may be able to first mimic and then perform an operation
as it was meant to be. This “player piano” model may be invaluable in surgical education
and could change the manner in which future generations learn to operate.
A much-popularized idea is the concept of telesurgery, whereby a surgeon can
perform an operation from a distance by means of a remote interface. This concept,
first conceived for military applications, would allow for the delivery of surgical care to
remote or inhospitable areas. It also allows a surgical authority to perform operations
far beyond his immediate geographical vicinity. Recently, the world’s fist trans-Atlantic
laparoscopic cholecystectomy was performed remotely, in which a surgeon located in
New York operated on a patient in Strasbourg, France (35). However, this concept is
still severely restricted by the cost and capacity of current bandwidth technology, as
well as the inviolate limit of the speed of light. A less ambitious application is telementor-
ing, whereby an experienced specialist can observe and advise a surgical team operating in
a remote location. Already, a growing number of procedures have been accomplished
using this technology (36 – 38).
8. CONCLUSION
The advent of minimal access surgery has brought with it a wealth of potential benefits for
both the patient and our health care system. However the inherent limitations of operating
in an endoscopic setting pose significant challenges for the surgeon, and this is only mag-
nified as procedures become more complex such as those encountered in pediatric surgery.
The incorporation of robotic and computer technology has the potential of contributing
significantly to the advancement of this area. As the technology continues to be refined,
its ultimate acceptance will demand that the issues of cost, training, safety, efficacy,
and clinical utility, will all have to be addressed.
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from tele-education to tele-manipulation. Bull Acad Natl Med 1999; 183(3):509– 521.
39. Gutt CN, Markus B, Kim ZG, Meininger D, Brinkmann L, Heller K. Early experiences of
robotic surgery in children. Surg Endosc 2002; 16(7):1083– 1086.
40. Heller K, Gutt C, Schaeff B, Beyer PA, Markus B. Use of the robot system Da Vinci for
laparoscopic repair of gastro-oesophageal reflux in children. Eur J Pediatr Surg 2002;
12(4):239– 242.
41. Luebbe B, Woo R, Wolf S, Irish M. Robotically assisted minimally invasive surgery in a
pediatric population: initial experience, technical considerations, and description of the
da Vinci Surgical System. Pediatric Endosurgery and Innovative Techniques 2003;
7(4):385– 402.
42. Mihaljevic T, Cannon JW, del Nido PJ. Robotically assisted division of a vascular ring in
children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 125(5):1163– 1164.
Index
Access failure, Appendicitis, diagnosis, 210

retroperitoneoscopy, 116 Arachnoid cysts
Achalasia, 201– 204 cystocisternostomies/
botulinum injection, 203 ventriculocystostomies,
diagnosis, 201– 202 374 – 375
management, 202 intracranial cysts, 373 – 378
calcium-channel blockade, 202 treatment, 374
esophagomyotomy, 203– 204 Armless neuronavigation
Heller myotomy, 203– 204 system, 387
pneumatic dilation, 202 Arterioportal fistula (APF), 447
minimal access myotomy, 204 Arterio-venous malformation
Allograft fibular rings, technical (AVM), 378
advances, 399– 400 embolization, 380
Amniotic band syndrome, 69, 70 hepatic, 446
Anesthesia microsurgical excision, 379 – 380
considerations pre-surgery, 18– 19 pediatric neurosurgery, 378
minimal access surgery, 15– 27 radiosurgery, 381 – 383
pediatric interventional radiology, success rate, 383 – 384
preprocedure, 428–429 treatment goals, 378
Anoplasty, anorectal pull-through,
technique, 253 Balloon occlusion bronchial blockers,
Anorectal malformation ventilation techniques, 25
(ARM), 241– 257 Balloons, for pediatric interventional
anatomy, 244– 246 radiology, 427
classification, 246– 247 Bariatric surgery, 319 – 326
management, 246–247 adolescents, 324 – 325
physiology, 244– 246 malabsorptive vs. restrictive
surgical history, 242– 243 procedures, 321 – 322
Appendectomy, 209 pediatric obesity, 322 – 324
laparoscopic techniques, 210 surgical principles, 320
laparoscopic vs. open, 211 bypass procedure, 320 – 321
Appendiceal mass, laparoscopic restrictive procedures, 321
appendectomy for, 213 Biliary atresia, 129
495
496 Index
Biliary dilatation, stenting, 444 techniques, 410 – 417

Biliary drainage, 443– 444 heart– lung machine modifications,
Biliary interventions 410 – 411
biliary dilatation, 444 surgical incisions, 411 – 412
biliary drainage, 443– 444 video-assisted cardiac surgery, 412
pediatric interventional radiology, Cardiopulmonary complications
442– 446 body position, 110 – 111
percutaneous endoluminal bile carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum,
duct biopsy, 444 109 – 110
percutaneous transhepatic controlled trials, 111 – 112
cholangiography, 443 intraabdominal pressure, 110
portal venous interventions, 444 surgical complications, 109 – 112
transjugular intraphepatic Cardiorespiratory effects, 21– 23
portosystemic shunt, Cardioscopy, 412
444– 445 Catheters, in pediatric interventional
Biliary system radiology, 426
atresia, 129 Cecostomy, 197
cholecystectomy, 126 enteral access, 435
choledochal cyst, 130 Central venous line, vascular
choledocholithiasis, 126– 127 access, 431 – 432
ERCP/MRCP, 128– 129 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 368
jaundiced infant, 127– 128 Chest interventions
laparoscopic cholangiography, 128 esophageal dilatations, 441
percutaneous cholangiography, 129 pediatric interventional
surgical approaches, radiology, 441 – 442
126– 130 tracheal stenting, 441 – 442
Biopsies Childhood hepatobiliary disorder,
pediatric interventional, basic surgical approaches,
procedures, 125 – 133
435– 436 Cholecystectomy, biliary
transvenous, 436–437 system, 126
Bladder injuries, surgical Cholecystic collection,
complications, 107 drainages, 440
Body position, cardiopulmonary, Choledochal cyst, biliary system, 130
110– 111 Choledocholithiasis, 126 – 127
Botulinum injection, 203 Clavien classification, surgical
Bowel injuries, surgical complications, complications, 144
106– 107 Colloid cyst
craniotomy, 377
cyst aspiration, 377
Calcium-channel blockade, endoscopic removal, 378
Nifedipinew, 202 intercranial cysts, 376 – 378
Cannula, in neonatal surgery shunting, 377
fixation, 35 Colostomy, Hirschsprung
insertion, 36–37 disease, 236
position, 35– 36 Computed tomography (CT), imaging
Carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum, modalities, 424
109– 110 Congenital diaphragmatic hernia
Cardiac surgery, 409– 418 (CDH), 44
robotic fetal techniques, fetal surgery, 44 –50
415– 417 tracheal occlusion, 46 – 47
robotic telemanipulation, 415 Congenital heart defects, 65
robotic video-assisted cardiac Craniotomy, colloid cyst, 377
surgery, 413– 415 Cyst aspiration, 377
Index 497
Cystic ovarian lesions/ Energy sources

masses, 262– 263 electrocoagulation, 114
Cystocisternostomies/ harmonic scalpel, 114 – 115
ventriculocystostomies, Enteral access
374– 375 cecostomy, 435
gastrostomy and gastrojejunostomy,
da Vinci system, 485– 486 432 – 434
Diaphragm, thoracoscopy, 313–316 pediatric interventional radiology,
Dissection, laparoscopically assisted basic procedures,
anorectal pull-through, 432 – 435
249– 250 Esophageal dilatations, chest
Double-lumen endotracheal tubes, 24 interventions, 441
Drainage Esophagomyotomy, 203 – 204
cholecystic collection, 440 Esophagus, thoracoscopy, 313 –316
hepatic abscess, 440 Ethical issues, 463 – 469
liver abscess, 439– 440 adaptation, 464 – 465
pancreatic collections, 440 conflict of interest, 466
pediatric interventional radiology, basic evidence-based technology assessment,
procedures, 438– 441 466 – 467
peritoneal abscess, 439 experimentation, 464 – 465
splenic abscess, 440 informed consent, 465 – 466
Duodenal obstruction, intestinal rotation innovation, 464 – 465
abnormalities, 274 learning curves, 465 – 466
technology, 464
Electrocoagulation, energy cost, 467 – 468
sources, 114
Embolic material, pediatric interventional Fetal balloon valvuloplasties, 67
radiology, 427 Fetal cysts, laparoscopy for, 265 – 266
Emphysema, retroperitoneoscopy, 116 Fetal lower urinary tract obstruction
Empyema (LUTO), 54
drainage, surgical approaches, Fetal minimal access surgery, 41 –71
305– 306 Fetal surgery
management, 303–311 amniotic band syndrome, 69, 70
fibrinolytic therapy, 305 applications, 42 – 43
thoracoscopic debridement, 306 congenital diaphragmatic hernia,
thoracotomy, 309 44 – 50
video-assisted thoracoscopic congenital heart defects, 65
debridement, 309 gastroschisis, 69 – 70
Endoscope-assisted microneurosurgery membrane premature rupture, 68 – 69
(EAM), 373 myelomeningocele, 62– 63
Endoscope-controlled microneurosurgery obstructive uropathy, 54
(ECM), 373 sacrococcygeal teratoma, 60 – 62
Endoscopic anatomy, spinal surgery, tension hydrothorax, 63 – 65
395– 396 twin reversed arterial perfusion,
Endoscopic intravesical 52 – 54
reimplantation, 359 twin– twin transfusion syndrome,
Endoscopic neurosurgery (EN), 373 50 – 52
Endoscopic removal, colloid cyst, 378 Fetal therapy, posterior urethral
Endoscopic retrograde valves, 59
cholangiopancreatography FETENDO balloon, 49
(ERCP), 126 FETENDO clip experience, 48
biliary system, 128– 129 Fibrinolytic therapy, empyema
Endoscopic treatment, pediatric intracranial management, 305
cysts, 372– 378 Fluoroscopy, imaging modalities, 424
498 Index
Fowler – Stephens procedure (FS), 291 Imaging modalities

complications, 294–295 computed tomography, 424
Fundoplication, laparoscopic, fluoroscopy, 424
165– 186 magnetic resonance, 425
ultrasound, 424
Gamma knife (GK), 382 Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis
Gas embolism (IHPS), 157
pneumoperitoneum, 108 laparoscopic pyloromyotomy, 157 – 163
retroperitoneoscopy, 116 open pyloromyotomy, 157 – 163
Gastostomy, 189– 190 Insufflation gases, pneumoperitoneum,
open, 190 107 – 108
Gastroesophageal reflux (GER), 165 Intercranial cysts, 376 – 378
Gastroesophageal reflux disease Interstitial lung disease (ILD), 298 – 299
(GERD), 190 Intestinal duplication, 219 – 220
clinical manifestations, 168– 169 results, 220
diagnostic evaluation, 169– 170 surgery, indications for, 219 –220
laparoscopic fundoplication, 167 surgical technique, 220
pathophysiology, 166– 167 Intestinal rotation abnormalities, 271 – 282
protection factors, 166 associated anomalies, 273
technique, 170– 177 classification, 272
Gastrojejunostomy, enteral access, clinical presentation, 273 – 274
432– 434 asymptomatic, 274 – 275
Gastroschisis, fetal surgery, 69– 70 duodenal obstruction, 274
Gastrostomy midgut volvulus, 274
device considerations, 194– 196 diagnosis, 275
gastrojejunostomy, enteral embryology, 272
access, 432– 434 laparoscopic treatment, 276
laparoscopic fundoplication, preoperative management, 276
177– 179 surgical treatment, 276 –281
technique, 277 – 278
Harmonic scalpel, energy volvulus vs. non-volvulus, 278 – 281
sources, 114– 115 Intra-abdominal pressure,
Heller myotomy, achalasia, cardiopulmonary, 110
203– 204 Intra-abdominal testis (IAT), 291
Hepatic abscess, umbilical venous catheter Intracranial cysts, 373 – 378
placement, 440 endoscopic treatment, pediatric
Hepatic arteriovenous malformations neurosurgery, 372 – 378
(AVMs), 446 Intussusceptions, 221 – 222
High intensity focused ultrasound results, 222
(HIFU), 448 surgical technique, 222
Hirschsprung disease, 235– 238
colostomy, 236 Jaundiced infant, biliary system,
laparoscopic pullthrough, 236 127 – 128
transanal pullthrough, perineal, Jejunostomy, 189 – 197
236– 237 J-pouch reconstruction, 225 – 233
Hydatid cyst, liver, 133
Hydrocephalus Kidney retrieval, nephrectomy, 355
pediatric neurosurgery, 368– 372
third ventriculostomy, 370 Laparoscopic adrenalectomy
Hypercapnia, retroperitoneoscopy, 116 adults, 153
children, 151 – 155
Image-guided therapy (IGT), 423 pediatric cancer, 96 – 97
pediatric interventional pediatric experience, 153 – 155
radiology, 423 technical considerations, 151 – 153
Index 499
Laparoscopic appendectomy, 209– 214 operative time, 142

Laparoscopic biopsy diagnosis, pain, 142
pediatric cancer, 95 technical factors, 138 – 141
Laparoscopic cholangiography, 128 Laparoscopic surgery, working
Laparoscopic exploration, second-look space, 34 – 35
procedure, 95 Laparoscopic techniques,
Laparoscopic extravesical appendectomy, 210
reimplantation, 359 Laparoscopic urological
Laparoscopic fundoplication, 165– 186 procedures, 360 – 361
gastroesophageal reflux, 167 Laparoscopic vs. open
gastrostomy, 177– 179 appendectomy, 211
postoperative management, 179– 182 Laparoscopic vs. open
results, 182– 186 nephrectomy, 355
Laparoscopic gastrostomy, 192 Laparoscopically assisted anorectal
Laparoscopic hepatectomy, liver, 132 pull-through (LAARP), 242
Laparoscopic intervention, neonatal potential complications, 254 – 255
surgery, 32– 33 rationale, 247
Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication results, 255 – 257
(LNF), 166 single-stage approach, 247 – 248
Laparoscopic oophoropexy, 96 technique, 250 – 253
Laparoscopic pancreatectomy, anoplasty, 253
131– 132 dissection, 249 – 250
Laparoscopic placement of preparation, 248
gastrostomy tube trocar placement, 248 – 249
(LAPGT), 190 three-stage approach, 248
Laparoscopic proctocolectomy, 225– 233 two-stage approach, 248
Laparoscopic pullthrough Laparoscopy, 21 – 23
Hirschsprung disease, 236 appendicitis, 210
one-stage, 237– 238 fetal cysts, 265 –266
transition zone identification, 237 neonatal cysts, 265 – 266
Laparoscopic pyloromyotomy nonpalable testis, 293 – 294
complications, 160– 161 ovarian masses, 265 – 267
efficacy, 160 ovarian pathology, 261 – 267
infantile hypertrophic pyloric ovarian torsion, 267
stenosis, 157–163 perimenarchal cysts, 266
literature review, 158 premenarchal ovarian cysts, 266
open pyloromyotomy solid ovarian lesions, 266 – 267
complications, 159 surgical complications, 105 – 106
outcome data, 159 trauma, 85 – 85
postoperative recovery, 158– 160 varicocele, operative
surgery duration, 158 technique, 287
Laparoscopic retroperitoneal lymph Laparoscopy-assisted orchidopexy
node sampling (LAO), 291
complications, 98 complications, 294
pediatric cancer, 97 Line fragment retrieval, 432
Laparoscopic retroperitoneal Linear accelerator (LINAC), 382
pyeloplasty, 358 Liver
Laparoscopic splenectomy, 137– 146 hydatid cyst, 133
accessory spleen detection, 141– 142 laparoscopic hepatectomy, 132
adjuncts, 138 staging laparoscopy, 132 – 133
complications, 144– 146 surgical approaches, 132 –133
cost, 143– 144 Lobectomy, 299 – 300
length of stay, 143 Lower esophageal sphincter
long-term sequelae, 144– 146 (LES), 165
500 Index
Lower urinary tract minimal access, 29– 37

major reconstruction, 360 thoracoscopic intervention, 31 – 32
pediatric urology, 358– 360 Nephrectomy
vesicoureteral reflux treatment, indications, 353
358– 360 kidney retrieval, 355
Lower urinary tract laparoscopic vs. open, 355
obstruction (LUTO), 54 retroperitoneal approach, 353 – 354
Lung biopsies, thoracoscopy, 298– 299 upper urinary tract, 353 – 355
Neuronavigation
Magnetic resonance accuracy, 387 – 389
cholangiopancreatography armless system, 387
(MRCP), 126, 443 pediatric neurosurgery, 384 – 389
biliary system, 128– 129 Nifedipinew, calcium-channel
Magnetic resonance imaging blockade, 202
modalities, 425 Nonpalpable testis (NPT), 291
Malignancy, thoracoscopic anatomy, 291 – 292
procedure, 94– 95 diagnostic laparoscopy, 293
Meckel diverticulum, 218– 219 history, 291 – 292
results, 219 operative technique, 293
surgery indications, 218 Nonpalpable undescended testis, 291 – 295
surgical technique, 218– 219 Nuss procedure
Mediastium, thoracoscopy, 313– 316 evidence-based outcome, 338 – 339
Membrane premature rupture modifications, 343 –345
(PROM), 68 pectus excavatum, 337 – 338
fetal surgery, 68–69
Midgut volvulus, clinical Obstructive uropathy, fetal surgery, 54
presentation, 274 Open gastostomy, 190
Minimal access fetal surgery Open nephrectomy vs. laparoscopy, 355
(MAFS), 44 Open pyloromyotomy (OP), 157
Minimal access myotomy, 204 infantile hypertrophic pyloric
Minimal access neonatal stenosis, 157 –163
surgery, 29– 37 laparoscopic pyloromyotomy
Minimal access surgery (MAS), complications, 159
7, 10 outcome data, 159
cardiorespiratory effects, 21– 23 Operative time, laparoscopic
complications, 26–27 splenectomy, 142
education, training, 471– 477 Ovarian masses
fetal, 41– 71 cystic ovarian lesions, 262 – 263
laparoscopy, 21– 23 diagnosis, 264 – 265
pediatric cancer, 89– 99 history, 262 – 264
robotically assisted, 479– 492 laparoscopy, 265 – 267
thoracoscopy, 23– 26 ovarian torsion, 267
trauma, 81– 87 perimenarchal cysts, 266
Myelomeningocele fetal solid ovarian lesions, 263 – 264
surgery, 62– 63 laparoscopy for, 266 –267
outcome, 64 Ovarian pathology, laparoscopy for,
261 – 267
Neonatal cysts, laparoscopy, 265– 266 Ovarian torsion, laparoscopy for, 267
Neonatal surgery
cannula fixation, 35 Pain management, 19 – 21
cannula insertion, 36– 37 Pancreas
cannula position, 35 laparoscopic pancreatectomy, 131 –132
instruments, 37 pancreatic pseudocyst, 130 – 131
laparoscopic intervention, 32–33 surgical approaches, 130 –132
Index 501
Pancreatic collections, drainages, 440 radiation protection, 428

Pancreatic disorders, surgical approaches, Seldinger technique, 423
125– 133 vascular intentions, 446 – 447
Pancreatic pseudocyst, pancreas, Pediatric laparoscopic adrenalectomy,
130– 131 diagnoses, 154
Partial nephrectomy Pediatric MAS, anesthesia, 15 – 27
indications, 355– 356 Pediatric minimal access surgery
retroperitoneal lower pole, 356 complications, 103 – 118
retroperitoneal technique, 356 evidence-based approach, 1 – 5
upper urinary tract, 355– 356 history, 7 – 14
Patient positioning, 17– 18 Pediatric neurosurgery, 367 – 389
thoracoscopic surgery, 33 arterio-venous malformation, 378
Patient selection, 16– 17 historical perspective, 367 – 368
Pectus excavatum (PE), 331– 345 hydrocephalus, 368 –372
clinical review, 332– 334 intracranial cysts, endoscopic
embryology/etiology, 332 treatment, 372 – 378
indications, 334– 335 neuronavigation, 384 – 389
minimally invasive repair, 337– 338 Pediatric surgery, minimal access,
Nuss procedure, 337– 338 12 – 13
open surgical repair, 335– 336 Pediatric urology, 349 – 361
standard repair complications/ laparoscopic procedures, 360 – 361
outcomes, 336– 337 lower urinary tract, 358 – 360
Pediatric adrenalectomy, report renal access, 351 – 353
summary, 154 upper urinary tract, 350
Pediatric cancer Percutaneous cholangiography, 129
laparoscopic adrenalectomy, 96– 97 Percutaneous endoluminal bile duct
laparoscopic biopsy diagnosis, 95 biopsy, 444
laparoscopic exploration, second-look Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy
procedure, 95 (PEG), 190 – 192
laparoscopic oophoropexy, 96 Percutaneous transhepatic
laparoscopic retroperitoneal lymph node cholangiography (PTC), 443
sampling, 97 Percutaneous transhepatic transcholecystic
minimal access surgery, 89– 99 cholangiography (PTTC), 443
random clinical trials, 98 Perimenarchal cysts, laparoscopy, 266
thoracoscopic lung biopsy, 91– 92 Perineal/transanal pullthrough,
thoracoscopic mediastinal Hirschsprung disease, 236 – 237
biopsies, 92– 93 Peritoneal abscess, drainages, 439
Pediatric interventional radiology Peritoneal perforation,
(PIR), 422– 448 retroperitoneoscopy, 117
biliary interventions, 442–446 Persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia
chest interventions, 441– 442 of infancy (PHHI), 131
equipment, 425– 427 Pneumatic dilation, achalasia, 202
high intensity focused ultrasound Pneumoperitoneum
(HIFU), 448 gas embolism, 108
image-guided therapy (IGT), 423 insufflation gases, 107 – 108
imaging modalities, 423– 425 other causes, 109
postprocedure management, 429 pneumothorax, 108 – 109
preprocedure care/workup, Pneumothorax
427– 429 pneumoperitoneum, 108 – 109
procedures, 429– 441 thoracoscopy, 300 –301
biopsies, 435–436 Port insertion, vascular access, 432
drainages, 438– 441 Port site recurrence, complications, 94
enteral access, 432–435 Portal venous interventions, 444
vascular access, 430– 432 Positioning, surgical complications, 113
502 Index
Premature rupture of Sacrococcygeal teratoma (SCT), 60 – 62

membranes (PROM), 68 Seldinger technique, 423
Premenarchal ovarian cysts, laparoscopy Sheaths, pediatric interventional
for, 266 radiology, 426
Proctocolectomy, 225– 233 Shunting, colloid cyst, 377
operative technique, 225– 232 Single lung ventilation techniques, univent
results, 232– 233 tubes, 26
Pull-through, laparoscopically assisted, Single-lumen endotracheal tubes, 25
technique, 250– 253 Single-lung ventilation techniques
Pyeloplasty balloon occlusion bronchial blockers, 25
indications for, 357– 358 double-lumen endotracheal tubes, 24
laparoscopic retroperitoneal, 358 single-lumen endotracheal tubes, 25
upper urinary tract, 357– 358 thoracoscopy, 24 – 26
Small bowel obstruction, 220 – 221
Radiation protection, preprocedure, 428 results, 221
Radiosurgery surgical technique, 221
arterio-venous malformation, Solid ovarian lesions
381– 383 laparoscopy for, 266 – 267
success rate, 383– 384 ovarian masses, 263 – 264
Renal access Spinal surgery, 393 – 407
retroperitoneal approach, 351– 352 complications, 405 –406
transperitoneal approach, 352– 353 delayed, 406
upper urinary tract, 351– 353 intraoperative, 405
Retroperitoneal approach postoperative, 406
nephrectomy, 353– 354 endoscopic anatomy, 395 – 396
renal access, 351– 352 results, 400 – 402
Retroperitoneal lower pole partial thoracoscopic, history, 394 –395
nephrectomy, 356 VATS vs. thoracotomy, 402 – 404
Retroperitoneal technique, partial VATS-assisted anterior instrumented
nephrectomy, 356 spinal fusion, 404 – 405
Retroperitoneoscopy Spleen detection, laparoscopic
access failure, 116 splenectomy, 141 – 142
bleeding/vascular injury, 117 Splenic abscess, drainages, 440
gas embolism, 116 Staging laparoscopy, liver, 132 –133
hypercapnia, 116 Stenting, biliary interventions, 444
peritoneal perforation, 117 Stents, pediatric interventional
surgical complications, 115– 117 radiology, 427
surgical emphysema, 116 Surgery
tension pneumothorax, 116 anesthetic considerations, 18 –19
varicocele, operative technique, 287 complications, access, 104 – 105
Robotic surgery systems considerations, 16 – 21
applications, 486– 490 fluid management, 21
classification, 482– 483 minimal access, 10– 12
teleoperators, 483 pain management, 19 – 21
Robotic techniques, fetal cardiac patient positioning, 17 – 18
surgery, 415– 417 patient selection, 16 – 17
Robotic video-assisted cardiac technology evolution, 7 – 10
surgery, 413– 415 Surgical approaches
limitations, 480– 481 biliary system, 126 – 130
movement, 480 childhood hepatobiliary disorder, 125 – 133
visual, 481 liver, 132 – 133
Robotic video-assisted, minimal access minimal access, 125 –133
surgery, 479– 492 pancreas, 130 –132
Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, 320 pancreatic disorders, 125 – 133
Index 503
Surgical complications surgical procedure, 397

bladder injuries, 107 VATS-assisted anterior spinal
bowel injuries, 106– 107 instrumentation, 399
cardiopulmonary, 109– 112 Thoracoscopic surgery
Clavien classification, 144 patient positioning, 33
energy sources, 114– 115 technical aspects, 33 – 37
laparoscopy, 105– 106 working space, 33– 34
other, 112– 114 Thoracoscopy
pneumoperitoneum, 107– 109 diaphragm, 313 – 316
positioning, 113 esophagus, 313 – 316
reducing of, 117– 118 lobectomy, 299 – 300
retroperitoneoscopy, 115– 117 lung biopsies (TLB), 298 – 299
surgeon risk, 113– 114 mediastium, 313 – 316
thoracoscopy, 115 minimal access surgery, 23 – 26
vascular injuries, 106 pneumothorax, 300 – 301
wound, 112– 113 single-lung ventilation
techniques, 24 – 26
Telemanipulation, robotic, cardiac surgical complications, 115
surgery, 415 thoracic trauma, 85 –86
Teleoperators Thoracoscopy lung biopsies
da Vinci system, 485–486 (TLB), 298
Zeus system, 483– 484 Thoracotomy
Tension hydrothorax, fetal surgery, empyema, 309
63 – 65 vs. VATS, spinal surgery, 402 – 404
Tension pneumothorax, video-assisted thoracoscopic
retroperitoneoscopy, 116 debridement, 309
Third ventriculostomy, Tracheal occlusion, congenital
hydrocephalus, 370 diaphragmatic hernia, 46 – 47
Thoracic trauma, thoracoscopy, 85– 86 Tracheal stenting, chest interventions,
Thoracoscopic debridement, 441 – 442
empyema, 306 Transanal pullthrough, Hirschsprung
Thoracoscopic intervention, neonatal disease, 236 – 237
surgery, 31– 32 Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic
Thoracoscopic lung biopsy, pediatric shunt, 444 – 445
cancer, 91– 92 Transperitoneal approach, renal
Thoracoscopic mediastinal biopsies, access, 352 – 353
pediatric cancer, 92– 93 Trauma, minimal access
Thoracoscopic procedure, complications surgery, 81 – 87
malignancy, 94– 95 Trauma laparoscopy, 84 – 85
port site recurrence, 94 Trocar placement, laparoscopically
repeat thoracoscopy, 94– 95 assisted anorectal pull
Thoracoscopic spinal surgery through, 248 – 249
allograft fibular rings, 399– 400 Twin reversed arterial perfusion
contraindications, 396– 397 (TRAP), 52 – 54
history, 394– 395 Twin –twin transfusion syndrome
indications, 396 (TTTS), 50 – 52
preoperative planning, 397 fetal surgery, 50 –52
prone positioning, 400 twin reversed arterial perfusion, 52
technique, 397– 400
anesthesia, 397 Ultrasound, imaging modalities, 424
endoscopic instruments, 397 Umbilical venous catheter placement,
positioning, 397 hepatic abscess, 440
postoperative care, 399 Univent tubes, single lung ventilation
room-set, 397 techniques, 26
504 Index
Upper urinary tract Vesicomniotic shunting, long-term

nephrectomy, 353– 355 outcomes, 58
partial nephrectomy, 355– 356 Vesicoureteral reflux treatment
pediatric urology, 350 endoscopic intravesical
pyeloplasty, 357– 358 reimplantation, 359
renal access, pediatric urology, endoscopic subereteral injection,
351– 353 359 – 360
laparoscopic extravesical
Varicocele, 285– 289 reimplantation, 359
anatomy, 286 lower urinary tract, 358 – 360
diagnosis, 286 Video-assisted cardiac surgery, 412
laparoscopy, 287 Video-assisted fetal endoscopy
operative set-up, 286– 287 (FETENDO), 45
operative technique, 287 Video-assisted thoracic surgery
retroperitoneoscopy, 287 (VATS), 85
success rate, 288 assisted anterior instrumented spinal
surgical complications, 287– 288 fusion, 404 – 405
Vascular access assisted anterior spinal
central venous line, 431– 432 instrumentation, 399
line fragment retrieval, 432 vs. thoracotomy, spinal surgery,
pediatric interventional radiology, 402 – 404
430– 432 Video-assisted thoracoscopic (VAT)
peripherally inserted central surgery, 394
catheter, 430– 431 Video-assisted thoracoscopic
port insertion, 432 debridement (VATD), 306
Vascular injuries, surgical effectiveness, 306 – 309
complications, 106 empyema, 309
Vascular interventions, 446– 447 Volvulus vs. non-volvulus, intestinal
Vascular malformations rotation abnormalities, 278 – 281
arterioportal fistula (APF), 447
hepatic arteriovenous malformations Wound, surgical complications, 112 – 113
(AVMs), 446
treatment, 446– 447 Zeus system, teleoperators, 483 – 484

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© 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8247-5447-6 (Hardcover)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

1. Introduction: An Evidence-Based Approach to Pediatric

2. History of Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3. Anesthesia for Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4. Minimal Access Neonatal Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5. Clinical Outcomes in Minimal Access Fetal Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6. The Role of Minimal Access Surgery in Pediatric Trauma .............. 81

7. Minimal Access Surgery for Pediatric Cancer ....................... 89

8. Complications of Pediatric Minimal Access Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Specific Disease and Procedures in Pediatric General Surgery

10. Laparoscopic Splenectomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

11. Laparoscopic Adrenalectomy in Children: An Outcomes Analysis . . . . . . . . . 151

12. Outcomes Following Laparoscopic Pyloromyotomy for Infantile

13. Laparoscopic Fundoplication in Infants and Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

14. Gastrostomy, Jejunostomy, and Cecostomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

15. Achalasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

16. Laparoscopic Appendectomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

17. Meckel Diverticulum, Duplications, Small Bowel Obstruction,

18. Laparoscopic-Assisted Total Colectomy with Pouch Reconstruction . . . . . . . 225

19. Minimal Access Surgery for Hirschsprung Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

20. Minimal Access Treatment of Anorectal Malformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

21. Laparoscopy for Ovarian Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

22. Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

23. Varicocele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

24. Nonpalpable Undescended Testis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

25. Lung Biopsy, Lung Resection, and Pneumothorax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

26. Minimal Access Surgery in the Management of Empyema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

27. Mediastinum, Esophagus, and Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

28. Bariatric Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

29. A Miniature Access Approach to Pectus Excavatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Minimal Access Surgery in Other Pediatric Surgical Specialities

31. Minimally Invasive Pediatric Neurosurgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

32. Minimal Access for Surgery in Pediatric Spinal Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

33. Minimally Invasive Surgery in Pediatric Cardiac Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

34. The Interventional Radiologist’s Role in Pediatric Minimally

37. Robotically Assisted Pediatric Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

Craig T. Albanese, MD Department of Surgery, Pediatrics, Obstetrics and

Ciro Esposito, MD, PhD Department of Pediatric Surgery, “Magna Graecia”

Mark V. Mazziotti, MD Houston Pediatric Surgeons, Houston, Texas, USA

Table 1.1 Levels of Evidence

I Evidence from at least one properly designed RCT

3. EVIDENCE-BASED PEDIATRIC MINIMAL ACCESS SURGERY

Joselito G. Tantoco and Philip L. Glick

Figure 2.2 Desormeaux kerosene lamp. (Courtesy of National Library of Medicine.)

Figure 2.3 Hans Kalk, MD.

2. APPLICATION OF MAS TO SURGICAL PRACTICE

Figure 2.4 Video laparoscopy.

procedures, such as cholecystectomy in children, have not been as quick to convert

3. APPLICATION TO PEDIATRIC SURGERY

Figure 2.5 MAS suite.

Advances in equipment and instrumentation have expanded the application of MAS to