Kolej Kemahiran Tinggi MARA

Pasir Mas, Kelantan.

INFORMATION SHEET

PROGRAMME DEP

SESSION JULY – DECEMBER 2017 SEMESTER : 2

CODE & COURSE DEP20023 ELECTRICAL MACHINE SHEET NO :

LECTURER AL-MALEK FAIZAL BIN YUNUS WEEK :

TOPIC UNIT 1: CURRENT GENERATION

1.1 Generating of Single Phase Alternating Current

1.2 Electromagnetic Induction
1.3 Electric Generator (Dynamo)
SUB-TOPIC 1.4 Direct Current Generator
1.5 AC Power and RLC circuit
1.6 Complex Power in AC Circuit, R-L-C
1.7 Power Factor Correction

After completing the topic, You should be able to:

1. Explain the generating of single phase AC current

2. Describe the electromagnetic induction
3. State the concept of electric generator
TOPIC
4. Explain direct current generator
LEARNING
5. Explain AC power
OUTCOME
6. Explain power in resistive circuit
7. Explain power in capacitive circuit
8. Explain power in inductive circuit
9. Calculate power in R-X circuit
10. Calculate power factor correction

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CONTENTS

The definition for all terms are stated as below :

i. Period – The time taken to complete a cycle, T (s)

ii. Peak value – The maximum instantaneous value measured from its zero value,
Vp,Vm (V)
iii. Peak-to-peak value – The maximum variation between the maximum positive
instantaneous value and the maximum negative value, Vp-p (V)
iv. Frequency – The number of cycles that occur in 1 second, f ( Hz)

Note : A correlation between period and frequency is;

1
T , ( s)
f

Example 1.2(a) :

A coil of 160 turns is rotated at 1500 rpm in a magnetic field having a uniform density of
0.15 T, The axis of rotation being at right angles to the direction of the flux. The mean
area per turn is 50 cm2. Calculate
(a) The frequency;
(b) The period;
(c) The maximum value of the induced emf;
(d) The value of the induced emf when the coil has rotated through 30° from the
position of zero emf.

Solution:

(a) Since the emf induced in the coil undergoes one cycle of variation when the coil
rotates one revolution,

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 frequency = no. of cycles per second
= no. of revolutions per second
1500
 25Hz
60

1 1
(b) Period    0.04s
f 25

(c) From the equation 1.8 ;

Ep = 2π B(NA) n
= 2π x 0.15 x 0.005 x 160 x (1500/60) = 18.84 V

1.3 Voltages and Currents as function of time

From the previous topic, the instantaneous value of generated emf has been explained
graphically. This followed by the derivation of formula showing an involvement of sine
function. We can use the equation 1.7 as a general formula but we can convert it to a
function of time rather than angle,θ.

e = 2π B(NA) n sin θ (V) (1.7)

Ep = 2π B(NA) n (V) (1.8)
e = Ep sin θ (V) (1.9)

Since the rotation of coil is related to the angular movement that will cause an existence
of angular velocity, the distance experienced by the coil is replaced by an angle, θ,
proportionally to the time. The angular velocity;


 , rad / s and also   2f , rad / s
t

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Then, equation 1.9 can be written as

e = Ep sin ωt (1.10)

At the end, alternating voltage and current can be formed as

e (t) = Ep sin ωt (V)

i (t) = Ip sin ωt (A)

Figure 1.3(a)

Average and R.M.S. values for sinusoidal voltage and current

Average Value
The average values for the sinusoidal voltage and current are zero since they are
symmetrical as the area above the horizontal axis is equal to the area below the axis.
But
for the half cycle of sine wave we can get the average value by defining the area under
the curve and divide by the length of base.

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Similarly, equation 1.11 and 1.12 can be applied to voltage as

Vave  0.637Vm (full-wave average)

Vave  0.318Vm (Half-wave average)

R.M.S. Value

Even though an ac waveform can be characterized through instantaneous stage where

the term such as period, frequency and peak value can be obtained, a single form of
value that able to run useful work is required for widen ac measurement. In this case the
rms value is also called as effective value.

By definition, an effective value is an equivalent dc value that showing how many volts
or amps of dc that a time-varying is equal to in terms of its ability to produce average
power.

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Let consider the dc and an ac circuit below:

Figure 1.4(b)

From Figure 1.4(b)

Pdc = Pave = P = I²R (1.13)

Figure 1.4(c)

From Figure 1.4(c )

P(t )  i 2 R

 ( I m sin t ) 2 R  I m R sin 2 t
2

1
 I m R[ (1  cost )]
2

2
2 2
Im R Im R
  cos 2t (1.14)
2 2

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To get the average value of P(t), the term cos 2ϖt will be zero, thus equation 1.14
becomes

2
I R
Pave  m (1.15)
2

Then equate equation 1.13 and 1.15 and R can be cancelled

2
I
I  m
2

2
2
Im
I  0.707 I m (1.16)
2

Now , the effective or rms value is defined as

Im
I2   0.707 I m (1.17)
2

Similarly, the effective value for voltage is

Vm
V   0.707Vm (1.18)
2

1.5 Introduction to phasor

A phasor is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase angle information
a sinusoidal function. The reason of using this concept is to reduce any complex
calculation in ac measurement since there will be inductive and/or capacitive elements
involving in the circuit.
Since the rotation of coil will create an angular movement that yields the sinusoidal
waveform, basic illustrative explanation can be observed as in Figure 1.5(a-e).

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Figure 1.5(a)

Figure 1.5(b)

Figure 1.5(c)

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 Figure 1.5(d)

Figure 1.5(e)

1.6 Representation of an alternating quantity by a phasor

It is important to note that when alternating voltages and currents are represented by
phasor as the generated waveforms are assumed sinusoid. The phasor transformation
can be done as follows:

Ep
e(t )  E p sin t e 0  (V )
2

Ip
i(t )  I p sin t i 0  ( A)
2

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Lets consider Figure 1.6(a ) and 1.6(b).

Figure 1.6(a )

Figure 1.6(b)

Note : For usual practice , the phasor form comes with rms value and phase angle
Phase different

Phase different is defined as an angular displacement between different waveforms of

the
same frequency. There are three terms that will be involved to define any redundancy of
two waveforms of the same frequency. There are in phase , lead(s) and lag(s). Lets
consider the illustration below:

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 Figure 1.6 (c )

Figure 1.6(d)

Figure 1.6(e)

However, the term Out of phase can be defined when we find the situation as in Figure
1.6(f). Both of the waveforms are out of phase each other at an angle of 180°

Figure 1.6(f)

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Phasor representation of quantities differing in phase

Many waveforms can be represented in a phasor diagram either they are in phase or
not. s
As for example let us consider how two waveforms can be represented in a phasor
diagram as in Figure 1.6(g) below:

Figure 1.6(g)
Analysis from Figure 1.6(g):

OA and OB represents the maximum value of current and voltage. The angle φ between
OA and OB must be same as in (ii). At point “ 0” in (ii), OA lies along the horizontal
axis, the value of current is zero but not for the voltage where OB can be projected to the
vertical axis.

After the phasors OA and OB have rotated through an angle θ, they become OA1 and
OB1 at new position . If the instantaneous value of the current is represented by

I = Im sin θ

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Then the instantaneous value of the voltage is represented by

V = Vm sin (θ + ∅ )

Where Im = OA and Vm = OB

1.7 Addition and subtraction of sinusoidal alternating quantities

Addition and subtraction of sinusoidal quantities are very important in basic electrical
analysis where kirchoff’s laws are directly involved. Note that two different terms like
voltage and current can not be added or subtracted unless there are identical in unit.

Example 1.7(a)

The instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are represented respectively by

v1=60 sin θ (V) and V2= 40 sin (θ - π/3) (V). Derive an expression for the instantaneous
value of :
(a) the sum;
(b) the difference of these voltage

Solution:
(a) First of all we need to draw the addition of phasors as in Figure 1.7(c).

Figure 1.7(c)

by assuming the corresponding θ= 0, i.e OA is drawn to scale along the x-axis to

represent 60V and OB is drawn π/3 radians or 60°behind OA to represent 40V. The
diagonal OC drawn on OC and OB represents the phasor sum of OA and OB.

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Horizontal component:
For OA = 60 V
OB, OD = 40 cos 60° = 20 V
Resultant horizontal value = OA + OB = 60 + 20 = 80

Vertical component:
For OA, = 0 V
OB, BD = -40 sin 60° = -34.64V
Resultant vertical value = OA + OB = -34.64
Note: The “ – “ sign value indicates that the resultant vertical component below the
horizontal axis and that the resultant voltage must be lag relative to the reference phasor
OA.
Then OC = √ (80)2 + (-36.64)2 = 87.2 V
∅ = tan-1( EC / OE ) = 23.5°

The instantaneous value of resultant voltage is

v = 87 sin (θ - 23.5°) (V)
b) Again First of all we need to draw the subtractions of phasors. Since we are going to
get the phase difference and assuming OA as reference phasor, the phasor OB is
reflected to 180° becomes OB1 to show the VOc = VOc - VOB1

Figure 1.7(d)
Horizontal component:
For OA = 60 V
OB1, OE = - 40 cos 60° = -20 V
Resultant horizontal value = OA + OB = 60 + (-20) = 40

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Vertical component:
For OA = 0 V
OB1, BD = 40 sin 60° = 34.64V

Resultant vertical value = OA + OB = 34.64

Then OC = √ (40)2 + (36.64)2 = 52.9 V
∅ = tan-1( DC / OD ) = 40.9°

The instantaneous value of resultant voltage is

v = 52.9 sin (θ + 40.9°) (V)

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CONTENTS

POWER IN AC CIRCUIT

A basic electric circuit comprises voltage supply, and load that is connected via the
electric wire. As for ac system, the generated voltage supply is purely sinusoidal with
constant frequency and the load can be resistor, inductor or capacitor.

Figure 2.1

Alternating current and voltage in resistive circuit

A resistive circuit is defined when only resistive element is connected to the supply (see
Figure 2.2(a:i) ). The sinusoidal waveforms of current flow and voltage drop at R are said
to be in-phase as shown in 2.2(a:ii).

Figure 2.2(a)

Once a current flows through a resistor as in (i), there will be a voltage drop across the
resistor and hence the relationship between current (i), voltage drop (v) and resistance R
is defined as

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 v
i (2.1)
R

where i in unit (A), v (V) and R (Ω). Since the i is directly proportional to v, both
waveforms are equally looked. The relations for peak values and rms values as below

Vm
Ip  (2.2)
R

Vmrms  0.707V (2.3)

I mrms  0.707 I (2.4)

If an instantaneous voltage drop is given as

v  Vm sin  (2.5)

so the instantaneous current flow is

Vm
i sin  (2.6)
R

Since the voltage and current waveforms are in-phase as in Figure 2.2(a), their phasors
are also in-phase or coincide as in Figure 2.2(b)

Figure 2.2(b)

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Power to a resistive load

Consider Figure 2.10(a), let the circuit having a purely resistive load and using equation
2.46.

Figure 2.10(b)

Alternating current and voltage in inductive circuit

A simple inductive circuit is defined when an inductive element is connected to the

supply (see Figure 2.3(a:i) ). The sinusoidal waveforms of current flow and voltage drop
at L are not in-phase as shown in 2.3(a:ii).

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 Figure 2.3(a)

If a current flows through an inductor as in (i), there will be a voltage drop across the
inductor and hence the relationship between current i, voltage drop vL and inductor L is
defined as

di L
vL  L (2.7)
dt

where i in unit (Amps, A), v (Volt, V) and L (Henries, H). It can be seen that the voltage
drop , L v is a function of time and could have large value if the rate of current flow is
large in a little duration and zero if there is no current flows.

If iL =Im sin ωt , then


vL  L ( I m sin t )
t

 LI m cos t

 Vm cos t

since cos t  sin( t  90 )



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  
v L  Vm Sin t   (2.8)
 2
and Vm  2fLI m (2.9)

 
where i L  I m Sint and v L  Vm Sin t  
 2

this prove that IL lags VL by 90° as seen earlier in Figure 2.3(a:ii) and the phasors are
illustrated in Figure 2.3(b).

Figure 2.3(b)

From equation 2.9 the inductive reactance is expressed in ohms (Ω) as

Vm
 2fL  X L (2.10)
Im
Vm  I m X L (2.11)

Instead of resistance, the inductive reactance, XL represents the opposition that

inductance
presents to current for the sinusoidal ac case. From equation 2.10, XL is proportionally to
the supply frequency while for a given voltage, current produced is inversely proportional
to the frequency. See Figure 2.3(c)

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 Figure 2.3(c)

Consider Figure 2.10(a), let the circuit having a purely resistive load and using equation
2.46.

After trigonometric manipulation , power equation becomes

and can be found as in Figure 2.10(c).

Figure 2.10(c)

The active power or average power for equation 2.48 is zero, thus

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but the reactive power is appeared in the form of magnetic field before it goes back to
the source , defined as

(By convention, the reactive power to inductance is positive)

Alternating current and voltage in a capacitive circuit

A simple capacitive circuit is defined when a capacitive element is connected to the
supply (see Figure 2.4(a:i) ). The sinusoidal waveforms of current flow and voltage
appeared at C are not in-phase as shown in 2.4(a:ii).

Figure 2.4(a)

If current is generated from E, the positive charges will be formed in group at the upper
plate while negative charges at the lower group of capacitor, voltage vc appeared due to
the different between positive and negative charges. The rate of current flow through
capacitor is dependant on the rate of increment of voltage vc as function of time until it
has the equivalent voltage as voltage supply. The relationship can be found as below.

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this prove that iC leads VC by 90° as seen earlier in Figure 2.4(a:ii) and the phasors are
illustrated in Figure 2.4(b).

Figure 2.4(b)

From equation 2.15 the capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms (Ω) as

From equation 2.16, XC is inversely proportional to the supply frequency while for a
given voltage, current produced is proportional to the frequency. See Figure 2.4(c)

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Resistance and inductance in series
Lets we have a circuit as in Figure 2.5(a:i), the phasor diagram to represent the
summation of voltage phasors can be found in Figure 2.5(a:ii). Since the current and
voltage at resistor only are in-phase, the resistive element is set as reference for
summation of voltage phasors.

Figure 2.5(a)

The instantaneous phasor diagram and wave diagram can be found in Figure 2.5(b)

Figure 2.5(b)

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From Figure 2.5(a:ii), the sum of voltage is

The summation of voltage phasors is done as below

there Z is an impedance of the system as

the impedance magnitude

The relationship between impedance and voltage phasors is illustrated as in Figure

2.5(c :ii).

Figure 2.5(c)

The impedance and voltage phasors are having the same phase angle, φ

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Resistance and capacitance in series

Lets we have a circuit as in Figure 2.6(a:i), the phasor diagram to represent the
summation of voltage phasors can be found in Figure 2.6(a:ii). Since the current and
voltage at resistor only are in-phase, the resistive element is set as reference for
summation of voltage phasors.

Figure 2.6(a)

The instantaneous phasor diagram and wave diagram can be found in Figure 2.6(b)

Figure 2.6(b)

From Figure 2.6(a:ii), the sum of voltage is

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The summation of voltage phasors is done as below

Where Z is an impedance of the system as

The impedance magnitude

The relationship between impedance and voltage phasors is illustrated as in Figure

2.2(l).

Figure 2.2(l).

The impedance and voltage phasors are having the same phase angle, φ

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Alternating current and voltage in RLC circuit

As in Figure 2.2(m), all the passive elements which are resistor, inductor and capacitor
are connected in series. To start analyzing the circuit, we have to draw a phasor diagram
which consists of current phasor and potential different phasors.

Figure 2.2(m)

Since we are dealing with series circuit, the common quantity is current flows through
each element. So Figure 2.2(n) is started with current phasor. Then OA is drawn along I
because they are in-phase. By setting I as a reference phasor, OB and OC are drawn

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90°
leading and lagging. Assuming OB is greater than OC,

Figure 2.2(n)

From equation 2.23,

where the impedance of circuit , Z

From the phasor diagram, if φ is the phase different between current and supply voltage,

Example 2(a)

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A circuit having a resistance of 12 Ω and an inductance of 100mH is connected in
series to a sinusoidal supply voltage of 100 V, 50 Hz. Calculate
a) The reactance and the impedance of the coil;
b) The current;
c) The phase different between the current and supplied voltage

Solution:
a) Inductive reactance,

Impedance

b) Current,

c) The phase different between the current and supplied voltage

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 Figure 2(a)

Apparent Power

If the circuit as in Figure 2.10(a) having a load combination of resistance and inductance
or capacitance, the term apparent power is introduced to represent the power being
transferred to the load.

Relationship between P,Q and S

Purely resistive case

Figure 2.10(e)

For Inductive case

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 Figure 2.10(f)

The complex power;

The apparent power magnitude

For Capacitive case

Figure 2.10(g)

The complex power;

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The apparent power magnitude

Example 1

A coil having a resistance of 6Ω and an inductance of 0.03H is connected across a 50V,

60 Hz supply. Calculate
a) the current;
b) the phase angle between the current and the applied voltage;
c) the apparent power;
d) the active power.

Solution:

a) Inductive reactance,

Impedance

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 Current,

b) the phase angle between the current and the applied voltage;

c) the apparent power;

d) the active power.

Example 2

A coil of inductance 159.2mH and resistance 40 W is connected in parallel with a 30 mf

capacitor across a 240V, 50Hz supply. Calculate
(a) the current in the coil and its phase angle,
(b) the current in the capacitor and its phase angle,
(c) the supply current and its phase angle,
(d) the circuit impedence,
(e) the power consumed,

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(f) the apparent power, and
(g) the reactive power.
(Draw the phasor diagram.)

Solution:

a) Reactive inductance,

(b) the current in the capacitor and its phase angle,

(c) the supply current and its phase angle,

(d) the circuit impedence,

(e) the power consumed,

(f) the apparent power, and

(g) the reactive power.

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Power Factor

From the power triangle diagram as in Figure 2.10(f) and 2.10(g), the active and reactive
power can be derived as

The cos φ function is defined as power factor, pf , used to describe how much of its
apparent power is actually real power. It can be categorized into unity, lagging and
leading power factor which is depend on the type of load.

Purely resistive load

So that

Inductive load

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(has a value between 0 and 1, lagging due to the current lags
voltage)

So that

Capacitive load

(has a value between 0 and 1, leading due to the current leads

voltage)

So that

Power Factor Correction

Basically the load being supplied consists of resistance and inductance. This will lead to
the appearance of an active (P) and reactive (Q) power. The term “ cosφ ” will cause the
greater or the lower of Q (var), or the higher the power factor of the load, the greater the
reactive power, Q. Our aim is to have a value of (VA) apparent power, closes to the
active power so that the excessive current drawn by the supply can be reduced. This can
be done by placing a capacitance in parallel to the load so that the positive Q can be
cancelled by the negative Q. The reason to do this correction is to avoid any damage at

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the supply since each supply has it own voltage/current rating.

Example 3

A load (L1) absorbs an average power of 8kW at a lagging power factor of 0.6 from
230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate
a) the value of capacitance (at L2) to bring up the power factor to 0.85 .

Figure 2(h)

Solution:

a) the value of capacitance (at L2) to bring up the power factor to 0.85 .

From the power triangle diagram above (Old subscript);

From the power triangle diagram above (new subscript);

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