BEF 43303

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

Chapter 1: Introduction to
Protection
 Introduction
d
• System Protection: the equipment use
to detect and isolate the faultyy section
from the system automatically.
 Introduction
d
• Short circuit occur when equipment
insulation fails due to system overvoltages
caused by:
– Lightning or switching surges
• Flashover line-line (caused by wind)
• Flashover to tree
– Insulation contamination by dirt/salt
– Mechanical failure
• Cable insulation failure
– Natural causes
• Tower/pole or conductor falls
• Objects fall on conductors
 Introduction
d
• Short circuit currents can be several orders
of magnitude larger than normal operating
currents
• If it is allowed to persist, may cause:
– Damage to the equipment due to heavy currents,
currents
unbalanced current, or low voltage produces by
the short circuit
– Fire and explosion effect equipment/people
– Disruption of service in the entire power system
area
 Introduction
d
• Careful design, operation and
maintenance of system
y p
protection can
minimize the occurrence of short
circuit but cannot eliminate them.
Fault
l Currents and
d Voltages
l
Function off System Protection
• Why do we need system protection:
– Detect fault
– Isolate faulted component
– Restore faulted component
• Aims:
– Continued supply for rest of system
– Protect faulted part from damage
 Types off Protection
A – Fuses
• For LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and
Transformers VT’s,
Transformers, VT’s Auxiliary Supplies

B - Over current and earth fault

• Widely used in All Power Systems
– Non-Directional
– Directional
 Types off Protection
C - Differential
• For Distribution Feeders, Busbars,
Transformers Generators etc
Transformers,
 Types off Protection
D - Distance
• For Transmission and Sub-transmission Lines
and Distribution Feeders,
Feeders
• Also used as back-up protection for
transformers and ggenerators without
signaling/with signaling to provide unit
protection e.g.:
– Time-stepped
Time stepped distance protection
– Phase comparison for transmission lines
– Directional comparison for transmission lines
 Types off Protection
E - Miscellaneous:
• Under and over voltage
• Under and over frequency
• A special relay for generators
generators, transformers
transformers,
motors etc.
• Control relays: auto
auto-reclose,
reclose, tap change
control, etc.
pp g and auxiliaryy relays
• Tripping y
Design Criteria/Characteristics

Economy

Simplicity
Speed

Reliability

Sensitivity
Selectivity
 Design Criteria/Characteristics
• Reliability
– Operate dependably and in healthy operating
condition when fault conditions occur, even after
remaining idle for months or years.
• Selectivity
– Clearly discriminate between normal and
abnormal system condition to avoid unnecessary,
false trips.
• Sensitivity
– Ability to distinguish the fault condition,
although the different between fault and normal
condition is small.
small
 Design Criteria/Characteristics
• Speed
– Fault at any point in the system must be
detected and isolated rapidly to minimize fault
duration and equipment damage. Any intentional
time delays should be precise.
• Economy
– Provide maximum protection at minimum cost
• Simplicity
– Minimize protection equipment and circuitry
 Economic Factor
• Total cost should take account of :
– Relays, schemes and associated panels and panel wiring
– Setting studies
– Commissioning
– CTs and VTs
– Maintenance and repairs to relays
– Damage repair if protection fails to operate
– Lost revenue if protection operates unnecessarily
 Economic Factor
• The cost of protection is equivalent to an insurance
policy against damage to plant, and loss of supply
and customer goodwill.
• Acceptable
p cost is based on a balance of economics
and technical factors. Cost of protection should be
balanced against
g the cost of p
potential hazards.
• There is an economic limit on what can be spent.
• MINIMUM COST :Must ensure that all faulty
equipment is isolated by protection.
 System Protection Components
• Transducer / Instrument Transformer
• Relay
R l
• Circuit Breaker
 System Protection Components
Function:
• Transducers/Instrument Transformers (PT/VT & CT)
– Provide low current and voltage, standardized levels
y operation.
suitable for the relays p
• Relays
– Discriminate between normal operating and fault
conditions.
– When current exceed a specified value, relay will be
operated and cause the trip coil of CB to be
energized/open their contact.
• Circuit Breakers
– Open the line, isolate the fault portion from the rest of the
y
system
System Protection Components
System Protection Components
 System Protection Flow
l
voltage or current rise from normal condition

voltage/current is reduced to match with relay rating

activate
ti t circuit
i it bbreaker
k

circuit isolation

Fault Circuit Fault

Transducer Relay
Occur Breaker Clear
 I’ exceeds
d a specified
ifi d value
l

I’I’
Operating
O i coil
il causes the
h NO
contacts to close

Trip coil of CB is energized (by

relay operation @ manually)

CB open
 Zones off Protection
• For fault anyway within the zone, the
protection system
p y responsible
p to
isolate everything within the zone from
y
the rest of the system.
• Isolation done by CB
• Must isolate only the faulty equipment
or section
 Zones off Protection
• Zones are defined for:
– Generators
– Transformers
– Buses
– Transmission and distribution lines
– Motors
Zones off Protection
 Zones off Protection
• 3 main characteristics:
– Zones are overlapped.
– Circuit breakers are located in the overlap
regions.
g
– For a fault anywhere in a zone, all circuit
breakers in that zone open to isolate the
fault.
 Overlapped
l d off Protection
• No blind spot:
– Neighboring zones are overlapped to avoid
the possibility of unprotected areas
• Use overlapping CBs:
– Isolation done by CB. Thus, it must be
inserted
se ted in eac
each ove
overlap
lap region
eg o to identify
de t y
the boundary of protective zones.
Primary & Back-up
k Protection
• Primary protection is the protection
provided byy each zone to its elements.
p
• However, some component of a zone
protection scheme fail to operate.
operate
• Back-up protection is provided which
take over only in the event of primary
protection failure.
 Example
l
a) Consider the power system shown below, with the
generating source beyond buses 1, 3 and 4. What
are the zones of protection in which the system
should be divided? Which circuit breakers will open
for faults at P1 and P2?
1 3

A P1 2 C P2

B
4
Fault at P1 = A, B, C
Fault at P2 = A,, B,, C,D,
, ,E
 Example
l
a) If three circuits breakers are added at the tap
point 2, how would the zones of protection be
modified? Which circuit breakers will operate for
fault at P1 and P2 under these conditions?
1 3

A P1 2 C P2

B
4
Fault at P1 = A, F
Fault at P2 = C,D,E,G
 Example
l

Fault Primary Back-up

K C,, D,, E A,, B,, F
 Example
l

Fault Primary Back-up

Line E F C D,
C, D E
E, F
F, G
G, H A B
A, B, II, J
 Zone Discrimination

• A system as shown with relays and breakers marked.

A single fault
fa lt has resulted
res lted in the operation of
breakers B1, B2, B3 and B4.Identify the location of
the fault
• Answer:
– Fault in the overlap zone at breaker B2 as shown
 Discrimination
• A protection
t ti system
t mustt b
be able
bl tto
discriminate between healthy and
f lt equipment
faulty i t or circuits.
i it
• Discrimination can be achieved by
1. Current (Magnitude)
2. Time
3. Comparison
 Transducers
d
• Also known as Instrument Transformer
• Use to reduce abnormal current & voltage
l
levels
l andd transmit
i iinput signals
i l to the
h
relays of a protection system.
• Why do we need transducer:
– The lower level input to the relays ensures that
the physical hardware used to construct the
relays
l will
ill b
be small
ll & cheap
h
– The personnel who work with the relays will be
workingg in a safe environment.
 Transducers
d
• Current and Voltage Transformers
– Correct connection of CTs and VTs to the
protection is important directional,
distance, phase comparison and
differential protections.
– Earth CT and VT circuits at one point only;
VT and
d CT Schematic
h
 Voltage
l Transformers
f
• VT is considered to be sufficiently
accurate.
• It is generally modeled as an ideal
transformer.
transformer
• VT secondary connected to voltage-
sensing device with infinite
impedance.
 Voltage
l Transformers
f
• Types of VTs
– Electromagnetic VT
– Capacitive VT
• Busbar VTs
– SSpecial
i l consideration
id i needed
d d when
h used
d ffor li
line
protection
• LV application(12 kV or lower)
– Industry standard – transformer with a primary
winding g at a system
y voltage
g and secondaryy winding
g at
67 V(line-to-neutral) and 116 V(line-to-line).
Voltage
l Transformers
f
 Voltage
l Transformers
f

Voltage/Potential
Transformer
(
(VT/PT))
Voltage
l Transformers
f
Voltage
l Transformers
f
 Voltage
l Transformers
f
HV and EHV
• Capacitor-coupled
p p VT ((CVT))
– C1 & C2 are adjusted, so that a few kVs of
voltage
g is obtains across C2
– Then, stepped down by T
• VTs must be fused or protected by MCB.
Voltage
l Transformers
f
 Voltage
l Transformers
f
• VT ratios:
– ratio of the high voltage/secondary
voltage
1:1 2:1 2.5:1 4:1
5:1 20:1 40:1 60:1
80:1 100:1 200:1 300:1
400:1 600:1 800:1 1000:1
2000:1 3000:1 4500:1
 Current Transformers
f
• CT is an instrument transformer that is used
to supply a reduced value of current to
meters, protective relays, and other
instruments.
• The
Th primary
i winding
i di consist
i off a single
i l turn
which is the power conductor itself.
• CT secondary
d iis connected
t d tto a current-
t
sensing device with zero impedance.
 Function
 Isolate
Isolate the high primary voltage of the system (main 
the high primary voltage of the system (main
system) from the protection and measuring 
equipment
 Transform the high primary current of the circuit to a 
small secondary current in the 1 – 5 Amp range
Example of CT ratio: 100/1, 200/1 100/5, 200/5, etc
 If the primary current changes the secondary 
current output will change accordingly For
current output will change accordingly. For 
example, if 150 amps flow through the 300 amp 
rated primary (300:5), the secondary current 
p y( ), y
output will be 2.5 amps.
Advantages:

 Safety
 provide electrical isolation from power system so that
personnel working with relays will work in a safer
environment
 currents of 10 to 20 times (or greater) normal rating
often occur in CT windings for a few cycles during short
circuit

 Economy
 lower input for relays ( smaller, simpler and less
expensive)
• Accuracy
– reading from measurement will be more
accurate since the range has been scaled
down.
– Because of their high degree of accuracy,
these
h CTs
CT are typically
i ll usedd b by utility
ili
companies for measuring usage for billing
purposes
 Two main types
 Protection CT
 Monitor operation of power grid
 not as accurate as Measuring CTs
 for supplying current to protective relays.
 The wider range of current allows the protective relay
to operate at different fault levels.

 Measuring
M i CT ((metering)
t i )
 are used where a high degree of accuracy is required
from low-load values up to full-load of a system.
 An example
e ample : utilized
tili ed b
by utility
tilit companies for large
capacity revenue billing.
 Current Transformers
f
• CTs ratio(secondary current rating is 5A)
50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5
250:5 300:5 400:5 450:5
500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5
1000:5 1200:5
• CTs also available with the secondary rating
of 1A
 Current transformers used in metering equipment for 3 phase 400 ampere electricity supply

 Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the

end user or switchgear manufacturer. Typical
examples of low voltage single ratio metering
current transformers are either ring type or
plastic moulded case. High-voltage current
transformers are mounted on porcelain
bushings to insulate them from ground.
A CT for operation on a 110 kV grid
Current Transformers
f
Current Transformers
f
4 Important Parameters on CT
• R
Rated primary current.
d i
• Rated secondary current (usually in the 1 – 5 Amp range)
• Burden (in VA)
(in VA)
– max load can be connected to the secondary of the CT.
– Expressed in VA or impedance
p p
– CT is unloaded if the secondary winding is short‐circuited 
(burden = 0 because voltage = 0)
• Accuracy class 
– the error limits of the CT specified in the standard 
specification (on the label or the nameplate of the CT)
specification (on the label or the nameplate of the CT)
– Eg: Protection CT – class 5P, 10P
Types of CT
1. Protection CT
 divided into Class 5P or 10P
 CT marked “5P20” indicates the composite error of 5%
which is applicable for current up to 20 times rated
current.
p
 Special p
purpose
p of CT are designed
g as Class X
 Examples of Protection CT:
 Instantaneous over current relays & trip coils : 2.5VA class 10P5
 Thermal inverse
in erse time relays
rela s :7 5VA Class 10P10
:7.5VA
 Low consumption Relay : 2.5VA class 10P10
 (IDMT) Over current : 15VA Class 10P10/15
 IDMT earth
th ffault
lt relays
l with
ith ffault
lt stability
t bilit or accurate
t ti
time grading
di :
15VA 5P10
 2 Measuring CT
2.
 Divided into accuracy classes 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0
 Measuring CT with a specification 800/5 A A, 15 VA
VA, Class
0.5 means the rated primary current is 800 A, the
rated secondary current is 5A, the burden is 15 VA and
th currentt ratio
the ti error off 0
0.5%
5% att th
the rated
t d currentt
 Accuracy Class Requirements:
 0.1
0 1 or 0.2
0 2 for precision measurements
 0.5 for high grade kilowatt hour meters.
 1.0 for commercial g grade kilowatt hour meters
 1 or 3 for general industrial measurements.
 3 or 5 for approximate measurements
Example:
l
• Protection CT Class 5P
– Protection CT with a composite error of 5% for
current up to rated current
– A CT marked “5P20’ indicates that this is a
protection CT with a composite error of 5% for
currents up to 20 times the rated current.

• Measuring CT Class 0.1

– Measuringg CT has current ratio error of 0.1% for
currents between 100% to 120% of the rated
current.
 CT Performance
 A measuring CT has to be accurate from 
above 10% to 120% of their rated current
above 10% to 120% of their rated current.

 On
On the other hand, a protection CT has to be 
the other hand a protection CT has to be
accurate for currents well in excess of the 
rated current i.e. at least 10 times the rated 
current.

 To
To provide the required accuracy, the CT
provide the required accuracy the CT’ss 
have to operate in the linear portion of the 
magnetizing curve as shown in figure below;
 CT Errors
•This
hi error is
i due
d to burden
b d whichhi h is
i parallel
ll l with
i h excitation
i i
impedance.
•A small value of input
p current is used to excite the core,, thus,,
current flows to the burden is reduced.

Ip’ = Io’ + Is  Ip = Io + Is’
Ip’ = Primary current referred secondary                      Ip = primary current
Io’ = excitation current referred to secondary            
Io excitation current referred to secondary Io = excitation current
Io  excitation current
Is  = secondary current Is’ = secondary current referred to primary.
 Current ratio error ((refer to sec))

Is  I p
  100% Where,

Ip Kn – rated transformer ratio
Ip Ip ‐ actual primary current
Is 
Kn Is   ‐ actual secondary current 
 100%
Ip when Ip is flowing
Kn

 Current ratio error (refer to primary)


Is  I p
 100%
Ip
Kn Is  I p
 100%
Ip
 Example
p
In a 300/5A CT, the measured secondary current of a
primary current of 300 is 4.9 A. Calc the CT ratio error.
Solution
300
Kn   60
5

Refer to sec Refer to

Ip
primary
Is 
Kn
Current ratio error  100% Kn Is  I p
Ip or Current ratio error   100%
Kn Ip
4.9  300 60(4.9)  300
60 100%  2%  100%  2%
 300
300
60
 Example
p 2
Evaluate the performance & calculate the CT
error of a 100/5A CT for the following secondary
output currents & burdens :
• Is = 5A , = 0.5Ω
• Is = 8A , = 0.8Ω
• Is = 15A , = 1.5Ω
Use excitation curve & secondary resistance for
multiratio CT
 (a ) I S  5 A, Z B  0.5

Solution ZTotal  Z eq '  Z B

 0.082
0 082  00.5
5
 0.582
ES  I S  ZTotal
 5  0.582
 2.91V
From the curve, I o '  0.25 A
I P '  I o ' I s
 0.25  5
• FFrom the table, 100/5A CT 
th t bl 100/5A CT  5.25
5 25A
A
has secondary resistance of  100
I P  5.25 
0.082Ω. Thus Zeqq’= 0.082Ω 5
 105 A
Is  IP '
 current ratio error  100%
IP '
5  5.25
  100%
5.25
 4.8%
 Z ’
Zeq’

2.91 V

0 25 A
0.25 A
(b) I S  8 A, Z B  0.8
ZTotal  0.082  0.8
 0.882
0 882
ES  I S  ZTotal
 8  0.882
 7.06V
From the curve, I o '  0.4 A
I P '  0.4  8
 8.4 A
100
I P  8.4 
5
 168A
Is  IP '
 current ratio error  100%
IP '
8  8.4
84
 100%
8.4
 4.8%
C) IS = 15A , ZS = 1.5Ω 
ZTOTAL = 0.082 + 1.5
0 082 + 1 5
= 1.582Ω
ES = IS X ZTOTAL
=15 X 1.582
15 X 1 582
= 23.73V
From the curve, IO’=20A
Conclusion:
IP’ = 20 + 15 = 35A
High CT saturation causes a
IP = 35 X 100/5 
large CT error as in case( C ).
= 700A
700A
S d d practice
Standard i isi to select
l a
•Current ratio error = 
CT ratio to give a little less
15  35 than 5A secondaryy current
100%  57.1%
35 (IS< 5A) at max normal load.
However, case (a) is still
suitable for a max primary load
current of about 100A
 Example
p
• An over current relay set to operate at 8A is 
connected to a 100/5A CT with Is = 8A. Will 
the relay detect a 200A primary fault 
current if the burden ZB
(a) 0.8 Ω 
(b) 3.0 Ω
• Use excitation current curve and secondary 
Use excitation current curve and secondary
resistance table for multi‐ratio CT
 Solution

• IS = 8A (overcurrent relay setting)
8A ( t l tti )
• IP = 200A (fault current), 100/5A CT , ZEQ’ = 0.082
Is  8A
Z total  Z eq ' Z b  0 . 082  0 . 8  0 . 882 
E s  I s  Z total  8  0 . 882  7 . 06 V
from the curve , I o '  0 . 4 A
I p '  I s  I o '  8  0 .4  8 .4 A
100 IP = 168A produces IS = 8A
I p  I p ' K n  8 . 4   168 A
5 – relayy will operate
p
So, if IP = 200A (>168A)
– relay will operate
 Reclosers
l and
d Fuses
• Automatic reclosers are commonly used for
distribution circuit protection.
• Recloser: self-controlled device for automatically
interrupting and reclosing an AC circuit with preset
sequence of openings and reclosures
• Have
Ha e bbuilt-in
ilt in control to clear temporary
temporar fa
faults
lts and
restores service with momentary outages.
• Disadvantages:
– increase hazard when circuit is physically contacted by
people.
– Recloser should be locked out during live-line maintenance.
 Reclosers
l and
d Fuses
1. An upstream fuse/relay
has detected a fault
2. Downstream system
isolated by fuse or
b k
breaker
3. Automatic re-closing
after
ft ddelay
l successfulf l if
fault not permanent
 Relays
l
• Discriminate between normal operating
and fault conditions.
• Type of Relays
– Magnitude Relay
– Directional Relay
– Distance/Ratio Relay
– Differential Relay
– Pilot Relay
 Magnitude
d Relays
l
• Also called as Overcurrent Relay
• Response to the magnitude of input
quantities ie.ie current
current.
• Energize CB trip coil when the fault current
magnitude exceeds a predetermined value or
trips
i when h a current rises
i above
b a set point
i
(pick-up current).
• If it is less than the set point value, the relay
remains open, blocking the trip coil.
• Time-delay Overcurrent Relay also have the
same operating method but with an
intentional time-delay.
 Directionall Relays
l
• R
Respondsd to
t ffault
lt only
l iin one di
direction,
ti
either to the left or to the right of its
location
• Operation depends upon the direction (lead
or lag) of the fault current with respect to a
reference voltage.
• The directional element of these relays
checks the phase angle between the current
and voltage of one phase, and allows the
overcurrent unit to operate
p if this p
phase
angle indicates current in the reverse
direction.
 Ratio Relays
l
• Operate for
f certain relations
l between
b the
h
magnitudes of voltage, current and the
phase angle between them.
them
• Measures the distance between the relay
location and the point of fault,
fault in term of
impedance, reactance and admittance.
• Respond to the ratio of two phasor
quantities as example Voltage and Current (Z
= V/R))
• Also called impedance or distance relay
 Differential
ff l Relays
l
• Respond to the vector difference between two
currents within the zone protection determined by
the location of CTs.
CTs
• Not suitable for transmission-line protection
because the terminals of a line are separated
p byy too
great a distance to interconnect the CT secondaries.
• For the protection of generators, transformers,
buses,
buses
• Most differential-relay applications are of the
‘current-differential’ type.
yp
 Differential
ff l Relays
l
Relay

• Fault occur at X
• Suppose that current flows through the primary
circuit either to a load or to a short circuit located
at X.
• If the two current transformers have the same ratio,
and are properly connected, their secondary
currents will merely circulate between the two CTs
as sho
shown
nb by the arro
arrows,
s and no ccurrent
rrent will
ill flo
flow
through the differential relay.
 Differential
ff l Relays
l
R l
Relay

• A flow on one side only, or even some current

flowing out of one side while a larger current
enters
t the
th other
th side,
id willill cause a diff
differential
ti l
current.
• In other words, the differential-relayy current
will be proportional to the vector difference
between the currents entering and leaving the
protected circuit; and, if the differential
current exceeds
d the
h relay’s
l ’ pickup
i k value,
l the
h
relay
 Differential
ff l Relays
l
Relay

• When a short circuit develop anywhere between

th ttwo CT
the CTs.
• If current flows to the short circuit from both
sides as shown, the sum of the CT secondary
currents will flow through the differential relay.
• It is not necessary that short-circuit current
flow to the fault from both sides to cause
secondary current to flow through the
differential relay.
 Pilot
l Relays
l
• The term ‘pilot’ means that between
the ends of the transmission line there
is an interconnecting channel of some
sort over which information can be
conveyed.
• Use communicated information from
remote sites as input signals.
 Pilot
l Relays
l
• Transmitting fault signals from a
remote zone boundary to relays at the
terminals of a long TL
• Pilot relaying provides primary
protection only; back-up protection
must be provided by supplementary
relaying.
• Type : wire pilot, carrier
carrier-current
current pilot
and microwave pilot.
 Pilot
l Relays
l

ZA
ZB

• Station 1 consist of meter for reading

voltage,
lt currentt and
d power ffactor.
t
• Distance relay, tell the different between
fault at A (middle) and B (end) by knowing
the impedance characteristic per unit length
of the line.
line
 Pilot
l Relays
l

• Could not possibly distinguish between fault

B and C because impedance would be so
small- Mistake in tripping CB for fault B or C
• Solution- indication from station B,, when the
phase angle of the current at S-B(with
respect to current A) is different by
approximately 180o from it value for fault in
the line section AB.
 Pilot
l Relays
l
1 2
A B C

(with respect to current A) is

different by approximately 180o
from it value for fault in the line
section

(with respect to current A) is

not different in degree from it
value for fault in the line
section