MET 33800 Manufacturing Processes

Chapter 15
Fundamentals of Metal 
Forming
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Materials Processing
Chapters 11-13

Chapters 20-27

Chapters 15-17

Chapters 30-33

Chapter 15 - 2

Deformation Processes
 Designed to exploit a remarkable
property in metals – plasticity – the
ability of a metal to flow as a solid
without deteriorating their properties
 Everything is done in the solid state
so we don’t have to worry about
handling molten metal or the
solidification process

Chapter 15 - 3

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Advantages/Disadvantages
 Metal in these processes is simply moved around
rather than removed by chips (machining) so waste is
reduced or eliminated.
 However, because the
strength of metals is so
high, the forces required
to deform the materials
is also very high and
requires heavy, expensive
equipment.

Chapter 15 - 4

Uses
 Nearly all metals go through deformation processing at
some stage in their manufacture.
 Example processes include:
 Rolling
 Forging
 Extrusion
 Sheet metal forming
 Bending

Chapter 15 - 5

Types of Deformation
 The deformation that is done can be classified in
several different ways
 Bulk deformation – flow in three dimensions
 Shearing – compressive cutting type of operation
 Bending – deformation about an axis
 Combinations of the above

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Stresses Produced
 Along with these operations, several types of stresses
will be introduced into the parts
 Tension
 Compression
 Shear
 Bending
 Torsion
 One or more planes/axes (simple/complex)

Chapter 15 - 7

Stresses Produced

Chapter 15 - 8

Stresses Produced

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Independent Variables
 Independent variables are those that we have direct
control over their input values during the process.
 Forming processes are complex and consist of several
variables – independent, dependent, and interrelations
between the two.

Chapter 15 - 10

Independent Variables
 In forming processes, independent variables are the
following:
 Starting material
 Starting geometry
 Tool and/or die geometry
 Lubrication
 Starting temperature
 Speed of operation
 Amount of deformation

Chapter 15 - 11

Dependent Variables
 Dependent variables are those that we do not directly
have control over – they result from the process and the
independent variables that we do control.
 Most of the time, though, the important features of the
final product (those that our customers demand for
quality etc) are the dependent variables of the process.

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Dependent Variables
 In forming operations, dependent variables are the
following:
1. Force or power requirements
2. Material properties of the product
3. Surface finish and precision
4. Nature of the material flow
5. Exit or final temperature
 Items 2-4 are obviously important variables that the
customer specifies. But these are not controlled inputs –
so how do we predict their output???

Chapter 15 - 13

Relationship between Variables

 The problem is that we can control only independent
variables, but we need to know what our output or
dependent variables of the process will be.
 We really want to have a handle on the dependent
variables so we have to know how changing the
independent variables affects the output of the process.
 Hence → inter-relationships.

Chapter 15 - 14

How do we figure this out?

 Three ways to get the inter-relationships or the
interdependence between variables

 Experience

 Experiment

 Process modeling

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Experience
 This is the guy who’s been doing his job for 20-30 years
and knows exactly what’s going to happen if you
change this variable.
 Problem comes when he retires and no one gets the
benefit of all his years of wisdom.

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Experiment
 Not sure – test it out.
 This will eliminate all doubt
because you performed
testing, but…
 Testing takes a long time
and is also very costly

Chapter 15 - 17

Process Modeling
 Recent advances in mathematical modeling of
processes has resulted in programs that can “predict”
what will happen if variables are changed.
 Based on “theory” of processes. Offers a first glance at
what might happen.
 Doesn’t take the time involved with
experience and doesn’t require the
cost associated with experiment.
 Major disadvantage – the output
is only as good as the input and
the model.
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General Parameters
Some knowledge is specific to an operation, but there are
certain common features in all metal forming processes:
 What is the material being deformed?
 Know and understand everything you can about
your material.
 What is the speed of the deformation?
 How will this affect your material?

 What are the friction, lubrication, and temperature of

my processes?

Chapter 15 - 19

Friction and Lubrication

 High forces or pressures are being applied through
tools to induce deformation – so friction is a big
consideration.
 Some processes require more than 50% of input energy
to overcome friction.
 Changes in lubrication can affect the following:
 Alter the mode of material flow
 Create or eliminate defects
 Alter the surface finish and dimensional precision
 Modify properties of the material

Chapter 15 - 20

Controlling Friction
 The ability to determine and control friction between the
tool and the work piece will affect:
 Production rates
 Tool design
 Tool wear
 Process optimization

 In most cases we want to reduce the effects of

friction…however, some processes can only work with
sufficient friction (i.e. rolling).

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 Different Type of Friction
 Friction involved in the deformation processes is
different from friction in mechanical devices.
 In mechanical devices, two materials of similar
hardness's and strengths are interacting to create
friction effects.
 In these processes, the tool is designed to be a very
hard, very strong material that causes deformation to a
softer working material.

Chapter 15 - 22

Friction Friction independent

of pressure for high
loads – function of
strength of weaker
material.

Friction proportional
to pressure for light,
elastic loads.

Figure 15-2. The effect of contact pressure on

the frictional resistance between two surfaces. Chapter 15 - 23

Surface Deterioration or Wear

 Another phenomenon related to friction
 Since the work piece only interacts with the tooling,
work piece wear in not objectionable
 Wear on the tooling, however,
is another story.
 Tooling is expensive and we
want it to last as long as possible

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Tooling Wear
 Tool wear means that the dimensions of the tool are
changing and they no longer reflect the initial geometry.
 Effects of this can means:
 Tolerance control is lost
 Increased frictional resistance
 Poor surface finish
 Loss of production due to tool changes

Chapter 15 - 25

Lubrication is Key
 Lubrication is critical in metal forming operations.
 They are generally selected to reduce friction. But, other
important features include:
 Action as a thermal barrier
 Ability to retard corrosion
 Ability to act as a coolant

Chapter 15 - 26

Temperature Concerns
 Work piece temperature is one of the most important
process variables.
 As a material is heated, generally its strength is
decreased and ductility is increased
 Forming processes are therefore classified in the
following way:
 Hot working
 Cold working
 Warm working

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Hot Working
 Recrystallization can be defined as the process in which
grains of a crystal structure are come in new structure
or new crystal shape.
 Hot working is defined as deformation of a metal at
temperatures above the recrystallization temperature.
 Temperature > 0.6 melting temperature (K or R).
 Recrystallization eliminates the strain hardening effects
of plastic deformation by producing a new grain
structure, and returning the material to its original soft,
strain free state.
Chapter 15 - 28

Recrystallization
 Recrystallization temperatures depend on the melting
point of the metal being worked and the amount of
plastic deformation involved.
 Recrystallization temperatures:
 Steel  2000 F
 Tungsten  4000 F
 Tin  room temperature

Chapter 15 - 29

Hot Working
 Cast ingots or slabs tend to form with:
 Some chemical separation.
 Inconsistent grain size.
 Undesirable grain shape.
 Gas cavities and porosity.

 Recrystallization results in:

 Growth of fine grain structures. Figure 15-3. Cast copper bar
with as-cast grain structure.
 Orientation of grain.
 Elimination and/or reorientation of impurities.

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Hot Working Grain flow for a machined thread.

Note how grain flow is parallel

to all critical surfaces.

Figure 15-4. Flow structure of a

hot-forged gear blank.

Grain flow for a rolled thread.

Chapter 15 - 31

Conclusions about Hot working

 In most cases, hot working processes indicate higher
temperatures – but the major factor that determines hot
working is the presence of recrystallization.
 No recrystallization – no hot working.

Chapter 15 - 32

Advantages of Hot Working

 Since at temperatures above recrystallization, the metal
is softer and more ductile, it takes less force to obtain
the desired amount of deformation
 No strengthening effect is exhibited by the material

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 Disadvantages of Hot Working
 Higher fuel cost to heat metals.
 Poor surface finish – scale is typically produced.
 Lower tolerance control.

Chapter 15 - 34

Cold Working
 Cold working is plastic deformation that is not
accompanied by recrystallization.
 Temperature < 0.3 melting temperature (K or R).
 Mostly performed at room temperatures, but heat due to
friction can raise temperatures and some heat can be
added to the process as long as no recrystallization
occurs

Chapter 15 - 35

Cold Working
Range of plastic Metal
deformation Ruptures

Elastic Limit

Elastic
Springback

Figure 15-6. Use of true stress-true strain diagrams to

assess the suitability of two metals for cold working.
Chapter 15 - 36

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Advantages of Cold Working
 No heating is required.
 Better surface finish.
 Excellent dimensional control.
 Strength, fatigue, and wear properties are enhanced by
strain hardening.
 Contamination problems are minimized.
 Directional properties can be imparted.

Chapter 15 - 37

Disadvantages of Cold Working

 Higher forces are required to produce desired
deformation
 Heavier, more expensive equipment is needed
 The limit on the amount of deformation obtainable in
one pass is significantly less than in hot working
 Metals must be clean and scale free
 Intermediate anneals may be required to obtain final
dimensions
 Directional properties may not be desirable
 Residual stresses imparted may not be desirable
Chapter 15 - 38

Cold Working

Intermediate
anneal at this
point to restore
ductility.

Figure 15-8. Mechanical properties of pure

copper as a function of the amount of cold work. Chapter 15 - 39

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Springback
 Springback is a phenomenon related to cold working.
 Take a paper clip, bend it slightly and let go. What
happens?
 The clip springs back to its original shape
 This time, bend it until it is deformed and let go. What
happens?
 The clip doesn’t go back to its original shape, but it
does still spring back – why?

Chapter 15 - 40

Springback
 Energy stored during elastic deformation gets returned
regardless of whether elastic or plastic deformation has
occurred.

Chapter 15 - 41

Warm Forming
 Warm forming is somewhere in between cold and hot
working temperatures.
 The temperature is not high enough for recrystallization,
but is high enough that some effect on the materials
strength and ductility can be seen.
 Offers an intermediate step to help overcome some of
the disadvantages of the other processes (hot and
cold).

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Advantages of Warm Forming
 Higher temps expand the range of materials that can be
deformed.
 Less scale and decarburization compared to hot
working.
 Better dimensional control and surface finish than hot
working.
 Requires less heat energy than hot working and lower
forces than cold working.
 Tools last longer – even though they must exert 25 –
60% higher forces than in hot working.
Chapter 15 - 43

Isothermal Forming
 Isothermal (constant-temperature) forming can be used
to deform temperature-sensitive materials.
 Tooling must be heated to same temperature as
workpiece – sacrifices tool life.
 Forming speed must be slowed to allow heat generated
by deformation process to be removed.
 Generally results in close tolerances, low residual
stresses and uniform metal flow.

Chapter 15 - 44

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