Anderson Et Al. 2002 PDF

Estuaries Vol. 25, No. 4b, p.
704–726 August 2002
Harmful Algal Blooms and Eutrophication: Nutrient Sources,

Composition, and Consequences
DONALD M. ANDERSON1*, PATRICIA M. GLIBERT2, and JOANN M. BURKHOLDER3
1 Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543
2 University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Horn Point Laboratory, P. O. Box
775, Cambridge, Maryland 21613
3 Center for Applied Aquatic Ecology, North Carolina State University, 620 Hutton Street, Suite
104, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606

ABSTRACT: Although algal blooms, including those considered toxic or harmful, can be natural phenomena, the nature
of the global problem of harmful algal blooms (HABs) has expanded both in extent and its public perception over the
last several decades. Of concern, especially for resource managers, is the potential relationship between HABs and the
accelerated eutrophication of coastal waters from human activities. We address current insights into the relationships
between HABs and eutrophication, focusing on sources of nutrients, known effects of nutrient loading and reduction,
new understanding of pathways of nutrient acquisition among HAB species, and relationships between nutrients and
toxic algae. Through specific, regional, and global examples of these various relationships, we offer both an assessment
of the state of understanding, and the uncertainties that require future research efforts. The sources of nutrients poten-
tially stimulating algal blooms include sewage, atmospheric deposition, groundwater flow, as well as agricultural and
aquaculture runoff and discharge. On a global basis, strong correlations have been demonstrated between total phos-
phorus inputs and phytoplankton production in freshwaters, and between total nitrogen input and phytoplankton pro-
duction in estuarine and marine waters. There are also numerous examples in geographic regions ranging from the
largest and second largest U.S. mainland estuaries (Chesapeake Bay and the Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine System), to
the Inland Sea of Japan, the Black Sea, and Chinese coastal waters, where increases in nutrient loading have been linked
with the development of large biomass blooms, leading to anoxia and even toxic or harmful impacts on fisheries re-
sources, ecosystems, and human health or recreation. Many of these regions have witnessed reductions in phytoplankton
biomass (as chlorophyll a) or HAB incidence when nutrient controls were put in place. Shifts in species composition
have often been attributed to changes in nutrient supply ratios, primarily N:P or N:Si. Recently this concept has been
extended to include organic forms of nutrients, and an elevation in the ratio of dissolved organic carbon to dissolved
organic nitrogen (DOC:DON) has been observed during several recent blooms. The physiological strategies by which
different groups of species acquire their nutrients have become better understood, and alternate modes of nutrition
such as heterotrophy and mixotrophy are now recognized as common among HAB species. Despite our increased un-
derstanding of the pathways by which nutrients are delivered to ecosystems and the pathways by which they are assimilated
differentially by different groups of species, the relationships between nutrient delivery and the development of blooms
and their potential toxicity or harmfulness remain poorly understood. Many factors such as algal species presence/
abundance, degree of flushing or water exchange, weather conditions, and presence and abundance of grazers contribute
to the success of a given species at a given point in time. Similar nutrient loads do not have the same impact in different
environments or in the same environment at different points in time. Eutrophication is one of several mechanisms by
which harmful algae appear to be increasing in extent and duration in many locations. Although important, it is not the
only explanation for blooms or toxic outbreaks. Nutrient enrichment has been strongly linked to stimulation of some
harmful species, but for others it has not been an apparent contributing factor. The overall effect of nutrient over-
enrichment on harmful algal species is clearly species specific.
Introduction and Robinson 1798 cited in Prakash et al. 1971)

Algal blooms, including toxic events, can be nat- describe discolored water and poisonous shellfish.
ural phenomena. Historically, indigenous tribes Over the last several decades coastal regions
avoided shellfish at certain places or times of year throughout the world have experienced what ap-
(e.g., Lescarbot 1609 cited in Prakash et al. 1971), pears to be an escalation in the incidence of
and the logs of early mariners such as Captains blooms that are toxic or otherwise harmful. Com-
monly called red tides, these events are now
James Cook and George Vancouver (Vancouver
grouped under the descriptor harmful algal
blooms or HABs. Although most of the species in-
* Corresponding author; fax: 508/457-2027; e-mail: danderson@ volved are plant-like, photosynthetic algae, a few
whoi.edu. are actually animal-like protozoans without the
Q 2002 Estuarine Research Federation 704
HABs and Eutrophication 705
ability to photosynthesize on their own. HABs have ent that first limits primary production at the es-
one unique feature in common—they cause harm, tuarine interface between marine and freshwater
either due to their production of toxins or to the habitats. In lower estuaries both N and P can co-
manner in which the cells’ physical structure or limit phytoplankton production (Rudek et al.
accumulated biomass affect co-occurring organ- 1991; Fisher et al. 1992). If improved sewage treat-
isms and alter food web dynamics. Impacts of these ment reduces P loading within freshwater seg-
phenomena include mass mortalities of wild and ments of a given river system, corresponding re-
farmed fish and shellfish; human illness and death ductions in freshwater phytoplankton blooms will
from toxic seafood or from toxin exposure allow more inorganic N to be transported down to
through inhalation or water contact; illness and estuarine segments where it can support larger
death of marine mammals, seabirds, and other an- blooms (Fisher et al. 1992; Mallin et al. 1993).
imals; and alteration of marine habitats and tro- Both N and P are considered here, and these nu-
phic structure. trients should be co-managed in the development
A distinction must be made between two differ- of strategies to minimize HABs. Other nutrients
ent types of HABs—those that involve toxins or such as silicon (Si) and iron (Fe) also can signifi-
harmful metabolites, such as toxins linked to wild- cantly influence the outcome of species domi-
life death or human seafood poisonings, and those nance and the structure and abundance of phyto-
which are nontoxic but cause harm in other ways. plankton communities under cultural eutrophica-
Some algal toxins are extremely potent, and low- tion (Heckey and Kilham 1988; Wilhelm 1995).
density blooms can be dangerous, sometimes caus- For more than 50 years scientists have recog-
ing poisonings at concentrations as low as a few nized that noxious blooms of toxic or otherwise
hundred cells l21. Many HAB species that do not harmful cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), the
produce toxins are able to cause harm through the most common harmful algae in freshwater lakes,
development of high biomass, leading to foams or reservoirs, and slow flowing rivers, are stimulated
scums, the depletion of oxygen as blooms decay, by P enrichment (reviewed in Schindler 1977;
or the destruction of habitat for fish or shellfish by Smith 1983). These organisms can form rotting hy-
shading of submerged vegetation. perscum mats up to ca. 1 m thick, with billions of
Eutrophication is the natural aging process of cells ml21 and chlorophyll a (chl a; index of algal
aquatic ecosystems. The term was formerly used biomass) as high as 3,000 mg l21 (Zohary and Rob-
mostly in reference to the natural aging of lakes erts 1989). Many species produce bioactive com-
wherein a large, deep, nutrient-poor lake eventu- pounds, including potent hepatotoxins and neu-
ally becomes more nutrient-rich, more productive rotoxins that have caused livestock and wildlife
with plant and animal life, and slowly fills in to death in most countries throughout the world
become a pond, then a marsh (Wetzel 1983). More (Skulberg et al. 1993; Codd et al. 1997) and, more
recently, the term has been used to refer to cul- rarely, death of humans as well (Chorus and Bar-
tural or accelerated eutrophication of lakes, rivers, tram 1999). The relationship between cyanobac-
estuaries, and marine waters, wherein the natural teria and P is sufficiently strong that in many lakes
eutrophication process is advanced by hundreds or of moderate depth ($ 10 m) with low abiotic tur-
thousands of years by human activities that add nu- bidity, the spring-season concentration of total P in
trients (Burkholder 2000). Nixon (1995, p. 95) de- lakes (specifically, during lake overturn or total wa-
fined eutrophication as ‘‘the process of increased ter column mixing) has been used with reasonable
organic enrichment of an ecosystem, generally success to predict the late summer maximum in
through increased nutrient inputs.’’ cyanobacterial biomass (as water-column chl a;
Two nutrients in human-derived sources, phos- Wetzel 1983). This relationship has also held in
phorus (P) and nitrogen (N), are of most concern estuarine and brackish coastal waters of Scandina-
in eutrophication. In freshwaters, P is the least via and Australia, where blooms of the toxic cya-
abundant among the nutrients needed in large nobacterium, Nodularia spumigena, have been re-
quantity (macronutrients) by photosynthetic or- lated to excessive P enrichment (Chorus and Bar-
ganisms, so it is the primary nutrient that limits tram 1999).
their growth (Schindler 1977). P can also limit or In freshwater reservoirs and rivers, mixing and
co-limit algal growth in estuarine and marine en- flushing dynamics are more complex, and abiotic
vironments that are sustaining high N inputs (Ru- turbidity from episodic sediment loading is appre-
dek et al. 1991; Fisher et al. 1992). In many tem- ciable. Light can be the primary resource limiting
perate and polar coastal marine waters, N is the algal growth, rather than nutrients. The increased
most important nutrient that limits primary pro- flow and mixing maintains relatively high nutrient
duction of photosynthetic organisms (Dugdale and supplies, and P has not been used successfully to
Goering 1967; Glibert 1988). N is often the nutri- predict the occurrence and extent of late summer
706 D. M. Anderson et al.
cyanobacterial blooms (Canfield and Bachmann Coastal waters are receiving massive and increasing
1981; Thornton et al. 1990). Modest success in un- quantities of industrial, agricultural, and sewage ef-
derstanding nutrient stimulation of harmful algae, fluents through a variety of pathways (Vitousek et
and in being able to reliably predict HABs from al. 1997). In many urbanized coastal regions, these
nutrient inputs, has been achieved to date only for anthropogenic inputs have altered the size and
cyanobacteria in clear-water lakes of moderate composition of the nutrient pool which may, in
depth and dependable mixing regimes. Reliable turn, create a more favorable nutrient environ-
prediction of the growth of HAB species in rivers ment for certain HAB species.
(including run-of-river impoundments), estuaries, From innovative syntheses of available databases
and coastal waters, characterized by highly com- worldwide, Smayda (1989, 1990) made a compel-
plex and stochastic mixing and flushing patterns, ling case for the increase in blooms of some HAB
has remained a challenge (Thornton et al. 1990; species being a result of coastal eutrophication. He
Burkholder 2000). presented a unifying framework that stressed anal-
The nature of the global HAB problem in estu- ogies in phytoplankton community response across
arine and coastal waters has changed considerably geographic regions and encouraged scientists and
over the last several decades, both in extent and its resource managers to consider the previously ne-
public perception (Anderson 1989; Smayda 1990; glected role of accelerated eutrophication in
Hallegraeff 1993). Virtually every coastal country HABs. Now, more than a decade later, the heavy
is now threatened by multiple harmful or toxic al- public and scientific attention given to HABs and
gal species, often in many locations and over broad apparent increasing trends, new outbreaks, or, in
areas. This trend has been referred to as the ap- a few cases, outbreaks that have diminished in size
parent global expansion of HABs because for many or frequency, suggest that it is time to assess sci-
locations, poor historic data are available. It is not entific progress in some of the issues that relate to
clear as to how much of the increase reflects possible human-induced changes in HAB distri-
heightened scientific awareness and scrutiny of bution and dynamics. In particular, emphasis is
coastal waters and seafood quality versus an actual needed on the physiological, ecological, and envi-
increase in the number, severity, or frequency of ronmental mechanisms involved. There is no ques-
outbreaks (Anderson 1989). Many new bloom spe- tion that nutrients are required by HABs, as they
cies are believed to reflect the discovery of hidden are by all algal species. Here we address current
flora populations (Smayda 1989) which had exist- insights into the relationships between HABs and
ed in those waters for many years, but which had eutrophication, focusing on sources of nutrients,
not been detected or recognized as harmful until the known effects of nutrient loading and reduc-
the advent of more sensitive toxin detection meth- tion, new understanding of pathways of nutrient
ods or an increase in the number and training of acquisition among HAB species, and the specific
observers (e.g., Anderson et al. 1994). The num- relationships between nutrients and toxic algae.
ber of known toxic dinoflagellates has increased Through local, regional, and global examples of
from roughly 20 only a decade ago to at least 55 these various relationships, we offer both an as-
today (Burkholder 1998), yet none of these more sessment of the state of understanding, and the
recently known species appear to be mutants or uncertainties that require future research efforts.
species that have suddenly become toxic. Geolog-
ical records or past monitoring data, where avail- Sources of Nutrients and their Relationship
able, indicate that in many locations these species with HABs
were present in the plankton all along, but were Many sources of nutrients can stimulate harmful
not discovered until recently. As underscored by algal blooms, including sewage and animal wastes,
Hallegraeff and Bolch (1992), the accidental intro- atmospheric deposition, and groundwater inflow,
duction of HAB species into an area via ballast wa- as well as agricultural and other fertilizer runoff.
ter discharge can also be a contributing factor to Yet another source is the growing aquaculture in-
the global expansion. dustry in many coastal areas.
Of considerable concern, particularly for coastal Human activities have had a tremendous impact
resource managers, is the potential relationship be- on the global cycling of nutrients in coastal sys-
tween the apparent increase in HABs and the ac- tems. The export of P to the oceans has increased
celerated eutrophication of coastal waters due to 3-fold compared to pre-industrial, pre-agricultural
human activities. Linkages between HABs and eu- levels, and N has increased even more dramatically,
trophication have been noted within the past two especially over the last 4 decades (Caraco 1995;
decades (e.g., Officer and Ryther 1980; Lam and Smil 2001). During that time, the flux of N in-
Ho 1989; Smayda 1989, 1990; Riegman 1995; Rich- creased 4-fold into the Mississippi River and more
ardson and Jorgensen 1996; Richardson 1997). than 10-fold into the rivers entering the North Sea
(National Research Council 2000; Smil 2001). Hu- early 1960s (Constant and Sheldrick 1992; Caraco
man activity is estimated to have increased N in- 1995; Matson et al. 1997; Smil 2001). There is a
puts to the coastal waters of the northeastern Unit- direct relationship between population develop-
ed States generally and to Chesapeake Bay specif- ment, fertilizer applications, and riverine N and P
ically by 6–8-fold (Boynton et al. 1995; Howarth fluxes (Fig. 1a,b; Caraco 1995; Smil 2001). When
1998). these nutrient supplies reach lower rivers, estuar-
Point sources generally are less important nutri- ies, and coastal waters, they are available for phy-
ent contributors than nonpoint sources, when con- toplankton uptake and growth. The nitrate com-
sidered on an annual basis (National Research ponent of fertilizers can travel long distances. For
Council 2000). Point sources can be a major example, Mallin et al. (1993) demonstrated a sig-
source of nutrients for small watersheds within, or nificant relationship between nitrate, carried ca.
adjacent to, major population centers. Wastewater 400 km downstream to the lower Neuse estuary
contributes an estimated 67% of the N inputs to (over a 2-wk period), and increased phytoplankton
Long Island Sound annually, largely due to sewage productivity.
from New York City. Sewage treatment plants de- Nutrient inputs from runoff vary not only in
liver from 40–80% of the N to Kaneohe Bay, Ha- quantity (influenced by rainfall and other environ-
waii, and to Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island (Nix- mental factors), but also in composition (based on
on and Pilson 1983; National Research Council the form of fertilizer in use), and this has impor-
1993). More rarely, point sources can be major tant implications for HAB development. A dramat-
components of nutrient loads to moderately sized ic trend in world fertilizer production is the in-
watersheds. One point source, the world’s largest creased proportion of urea in world N production,
phosphate mine, added 50% of the total P loading especially in third-world countries (Fig. 1c; Con-
to the mostly agricultural Tar-Pamlico watershed of stant and Sheldrick 1992). Urea now comprises
the Albemarle-Pamlico estuarine system in North roughly 40% of all N fertilizers produced (Con-
Carolina for nearly 30 years (ca. 2,800 metric tons stant and Sheldrick 1992). This is significant be-
of free phosphate dust added per day to the Pam- cause data indicate that in some areas, this shift in
lico Estuary; reduced by . 90% in the early 1990s; fertilizer composition has resulted in a shift in the
North Carolina Department of Environment, nutrient composition of runoff, potentially favor-
Health and Natural Resources [NC DEHNR] ing some HAB species.
1994). Ground water has also been identified as an im-
Nonpoint sources of nutrients (from agricultural portant source of nutrients to receiving surface wa-
activities, fossil-fuel combustion, and animal feed- ters. Human population growth and agricultural
ing operations) are often of greater concern than practices have increased nutrient loadings to
point sources because they are larger and more ground water, and this has the potential to affect
difficult to control. Howarth et al. (1996) estimat- algal growth in adjacent rivers, lakes, estuaries, and
ed that sewage contributes only 12% of the flux of coastal zones. In lakes the linkages between
N from the North American continent to the groundwater nutrient inputs and HABs (mostly as
North Atlantic Ocean. Only ca. 25% of the N and cyanobacteria) has been clearly demonstrated;
P inputs to Chesapeake Bay come from wastewater Jones and Bachmann (1975) and Dillon and Rigler
treatment plants and other point sources (Boynton (1975) were able to reliably predict late summer
et al. 1995). Even in relatively large watersheds the phytoplankton biomass in natural lakes by taking
importance of point source contributions increases into account the P supplied from septic effluent
during summer low-flow conditions, when treated leachate. In coastal areas such linkages can be
and untreated wastewater can represent 50% or more complex and more difficult to prove conclu-
more of the river flow (e.g., the Neuse estuary of sively.
the Albemarle-Pamlico estuarine system; NC Some success has been achieved relating
DEHNR 1994). This point becomes especially im- groundwater flow to the growth of the harmful
portant, given the fact that many harmful algal spe- brown tide species Aureococcus anophagefferens in
cies are most active in summer low-flow periods. Long Island, New York. This species has been as-
Fertilizer application on land remains a major sociated with loss of eelgrass meadows and reduc-
contributor to nonpoint nutrient pollution, and tion in reproduction and growth of shellfish (Tra-
this source is still increasing at an alarming rate in cey 1988; Dennison et al. 1989; Gallagher et al.
many geographic regions (Vitousek et al. 1997). 1989). LaRoche et al. (1997) hypothesize that in
Both industrial and developing nations are using specific coastal bays, years with high inputs of
significantly higher loadings of fertilizer in agri- ground water lead to high dissolved inorganic ni-
culture, with global N and P fertilizer usage in- trogen (DIN) concentrations. A. anophagefferens is
creasing 8-fold and 3-fold, respectively, since the not a strong competitor when DIN is high, as
Fig. 2. Example of localized, significant increase in atmo-

spheric ammonium (squares) from concentrated animal oper-
ations (circles; Sampson County, North Carolina, where there
are 48 swine per person [ca. 2 million swine in total]). Approx-
imately 72% of the variability in airborne ammonia during the
past decade can be explained by the expansion of the county’s
swine population, alone. Much of the nitrogen volatilized as
ammonia during spray-application of swine effluent onto fields
is deposited into receiving rivers and streams within a distance
of ca. 100 km radius (modified from Mallin 2000).
shown in nutrient enrichment studies in meso-

cosms, where the cell density of A. anophagefferens
was inversely correlated with DIN concentrations
(Keller and Rice 1989). When groundwater input
is low, decay of the algal biomass created in pre-
vious years from high DIN leads to elevated levels
of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) which A. an-
ophagefferens can use efficiently (Berg et al. 1997).
A groundwater index relationship has been for-
mulated that correctly hindcasts brown tide
blooms in 9 of 11 years on Long Island, but the
relationship has not held for all embayments in
which this species blooms (Gobler 1999; Lomas et
al. 2001; Borkman and Smayda unpublished data).
If the groundwater hypothesis is valid, the LaRoche
et al. (1997) study also suggests that there can be
a significant time lag between human activities that
enrich the ground water (such as heavy fertilizer
usage) and the eventual HAB impact. In Long Is-
land Sound, it is possible that the massive brown
tides which began suddenly in 1985 may reflect
heavy fertilizer usage on land 10 or 20 years earlier.
On local to global scales, one of the most rapidly
increasing sources of nutrients to both freshwaters
and the coastal zone is the atmosphere (Figs. 2 and
3). Phosphate adsorbed onto fine particulates, and
nitrate derived from particulate or oxidized nitric/
nitrous oxides in wet and dry deposition, have long
been recognized as important sources of nutrients
Fig. 1. Nutrient inputs to the world’s oceans. A) The rela- to streams and lakes, and can be major sources
tionship between population density in watersheds and export especially for softwater, nutrient-poor freshwater
of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) in river water, considering systems (Likens et al. 1979; Kilham 1982; Swedish
32 major rivers (from Caraco 1995). B) The relationship be- Ministry of Agriculture 1982). In estuarine and
tween the rate of fertilizer applications and the flux of riverine
nitrogen in many of the world’s coastal ecosystems (from Smil
coastal waters, it has been estimated that 20–40%
2001). C) Trends in the proportion of the contribution of urea of N inputs can be of atmospheric origin, from
to world N fertilizer production from 1960 to 1990 (from Con- industrial, agricultural, and urban sources (Duce
stant and Sheldrick 1992). 1986; Fisher and Oppenheimer 1991; Paerl 1995,
1991; Coale et al. 1996). Interactions between Fe

and N can influence plankton community struc-
ture (e.g., DiTullio et al. 1993), and may be a fac-
tor in the regulation of growth and encystment of
dinoflagellates (Doucette and Harrison 1991) and
possibly in the toxicity of diatoms such as Pseudo-
nitzschia spp. (Rue and Wells unpublished data).
Aquaculture ponds and cage culture systems rep-
resent another source of nutrients, provided as
feed or fertilizer and by the biological transfor-
mations occurring in these high biomass systems.
It has been suggested that these enriched systems
may promote the growth of harmful species not
previously detected in the source water (Anderson
1989; Hallegraeff 1993). The cultured animals re-
tain only a fraction of their food, the rest decom-
poses in the water column or settles to the bottom
Fig. 3. Trends in fertilizer use and the number of red tides and decomposes, and either way, the nutrients re-
reported for Chinese coastal waters (data redrawn from Smil leased from this decomposition can stimulate phy-
2001 and Zhang 1994). While the general pattern is increasing toplankton growth (Cho et al. 1996; Burford 1997;
for both parameters, it is thought that atmospheric deposition Burford and Glibert 1999). The effect can be wors-
may also play an important role in the development of these
blooms.
ened if the aquaculture site is constructed in wet-
lands (e.g., salt marshes or mangrove swamps) that
otherwise would serve as a sink rather than a
1997; Driscoll et al. 2001). In other areas more resource of nutrients to the system.
moved from such sources, this proportion can be Sakamoto (1986) calculated that nutrients re-
lower, such as in the Gulf of Mexico where atmo- leased from fish culture sites affect an area 3–9
spheric inputs (1–2% of the total) are over- times the size of the aquaculture zone. In a qui-
whelmed by contributions from the Mississippi and escent system, this sustained input could affect pro-
Atchafalaya Rivers (Paerl et al. 2000). ductivity in the area, but the extent of the nutrient
Atmospheric inputs are important not only be- impact may diminish with higher rates of flushing
cause of their magnitude, but because the mix of by tides and currents. Recognizing the need for
atmospheric nutrients, like other nutrient sources, dilution, fish farming operations in the northwest-
can stimulate some phytoplankton species dispro- ern U.S. have shifted from easily accessible but
portionately over others. Experimental manipula- poorly flushed bays and coves to areas with much
tions have shown that rainwater can enhance pro- stronger currents resulting in a significant reduc-
ductivity more than the addition of a single N tion in particulate and dissolved nutrient buildup
source (Paerl 1997). The high proportion of DON and reduced planktonic and benthic impacts (Ren-
in rainwater, representing up to 40% of its total N, sel personal communication). Many fish farms in
is thought to be significant in this enhancement developing countries are located in shallow, easily
(Timperley et al. 1985; Paerl 1997). Blooms in the accessible bays where nutrients can accumulate
Yellow Sea of China, which have escalated in fre- and stimulate algal blooms (e.g., Wu et al. 1994).
quency over the past several decades (Fig. 3), have Benthic nutrient regeneration of the accumulated
been related to atmospheric deposition in addition feces and decomposing feed may be a significant
to direct nutrient runoff (Zhang 1994). It is esti- and sustained source of nutrients in such systems.
mated that a typical rain event over the Yellow Sea The situation in these environments was described
may supply sufficient N, P, and Si to account for in harsh terms by Romdhane et al. (1998, p. 82),
50–100% of the primary production of a HAB in referring to fish farms in Tunisian lagoons,
event (Zhang 1994). ‘‘. . . eutrophication following increased human ac-
The atmosphere, through both wet and dry de- tivity in and around these lagoons influences the
position, may also be a source of key trace metals magnitude and frequency of toxic blooms. La-
such as Fe (Church et al. 1991; Duce and Tindale goons may function as traps for toxins or other
1991). Phytoplankton in many estuaries and coast- exudates from algae. We therefore stress that aqua-
al waters (where most HAB species occur) can be culture inside lagoons is a hazardous business.’’
Fe-limited (e.g., Wells 1999), and additions of at- There is no simple generalization about the im-
mospheric Fe could therefore contribute to some pacts of aquaculture operations on plankton com-
bloom events (Martin and Fitzwater 1988; Cullen munities, or specifically, on HABs, although it is
clear that in waters with a high density of aquacul-

ture operations and poor flushing, the cumulative
input of nutrients has impacts on plankton pro-
ductivity. As is the case with the other sources of
nutrients to coastal waters, the increased nutrient
loading will lead to increased phytoplankton pro-
duction, but whether this leads to toxic impacts
depends on whether toxic species are present and
on the relative abundance of the nutrient ele-
ments, the mixing and hydrographic characteris-
tics of the area, and other factors such as grazing
intensity or light availability.
Nutrient Loadings, Nutrient Reductions, and
High-Biomass HABs
On local, watershed, and global scales, strong
Fig. 4. Generalized ecosystem response to nutrient loading.
correlations have been shown between total P in- At low levels of nutrient loading, the organismal response may
put into freshwaters, and between total N input be rapid, but biomass changes would be few. At high rates of
into estuaries and coastal waters and total phyto- nutrient loading, the physiological responses of the organism
plankton production (Schindler 1977; Wetzel would be expected to be at or near saturating rates, and would
show little increase, yet on a longer time scale, biomass would
1983; Nixon 1992; Mallin et al. 1993). HAB species, increase.
like all plant-like organisms require certain major
and minor nutrients for their nutrition, and these
can be supplied either naturally from freshwater
and marine biogeochemical processes or through the minimum response region, impacts are few,
human activities such as pollution. These nutrient difficult to detect, and easy to reverse, while in the
sources include dissolved inorganic and organic maximum response region, impacts are large and
compounds of various types, as well as particulate often easy to detect, but substantially more difficult
nutrients in the form of other organisms or detri- to reduce and control.
tus. Nutrients can stimulate or enhance the impact
In attempting to understand the impacts of nu- of toxic or harmful species in several ways. At the
trient availability and nutrient loading on an aquat- simplest level, harmful phytoplankton may in-
ic ecosystem, it is important to make the distinc- crease in abundance due to nutrient enrichment,
tion between effects on physiological processes or but remain in the same relative fraction of the total
productivity versus biomass accumulation. As ini- phytoplankton biomass. Even though non-HAB
tially developed conceptually by Caperon et al. species are stimulated proportionately, a modest
(1971) and applied more recently to the Chesa- increase in the abundance of a HAB species can
peake Bay (Malone et al. 1996), nutrient loading cause it to become noticeable because of its toxic
responses can be viewed in a manner analogous to or harmful effects.
a saturating response curve (Fig. 4). The effects of A more frequent response to nutrient enrich-
nutrients may fall in the minimal response region, ment occurs when a species or group of species
which is dominated by rapid physiological adjust- begins to dominate under the altered nutrient re-
ment and low biomass accumulation, or alterna- gime. In deeper freshwater, estuarine, and coastal
tively, in the maximum response region, in which marine systems, phytoplankton dominate the algal
physiological processes have become saturated, but flora. Macroalgae and benthic microalgae often
biomass accumulations continue. The minimum dominate many lakes and shallow, poorly flushed
response region of the curve also represents the estuaries, lagoons, and upper embayments, as well
period of bloom initiation, whereas the maximum as coral reefs and rocky intertidal/subtidal habitats
response region represents bloom maintenance. (Harlin 1993). In surface waters across the entire
As the period of bloom initiation is characterized salinity gradient, there are many examples of over-
by minimal increases in biomass, the role of nutri- growth and high biomass blooms by phytoplank-
ents in bloom initiation is far less understood than ton, benthic microalgae (especially epiphytes), and
for the period during which a bloom may have macroalgae. In many cases, the responding domi-
been maintained. Ultimately, the entire response nant species are not toxic and, in fact, are benefi-
may be saturated at exceptionally high loading cial to coastal productivity until they exceed the
rates due to limitation by some other factor. Within assimilative capacity of the system, after which an-
this framework, it is important to recognize that in oxia and other adverse effects occur. When that
threshold is reached, seemingly harmless species all of the nutrient-laden water is exchanged or
can have negative impacts. moved out of the lake, river, or estuary) and water
In this context, much has been written about the depth play a major role in the duration of the pe-
links between freshwater flow, nutrient loading (as riod in which nutrients are available to algal assem-
total P and phosphate), and increased nontoxic (as blages. Lakes and reservoirs with high flushing
well as toxic) cyanobacterial blooms in lakes, and rates and high P loading have significantly less al-
the associated bottom-water anoxia, benthic ani- gal production than similar systems with poor
mal mortalities, and fish kills that can follow these flushing (e.g., Dillon 1975; Canfield and Bach-
outbreaks (Vallentyne 1974). Freshwater flow and mann 1981). The same is true of flushing in estu-
nutrient loading (mostly as nitrate) have been aries and coastal waters, where shallow systems typ-
linked to increased numbers of estuarine algal ically support more algal growth than deeper sys-
blooms (as diatoms and other typically benign mi- tems (Wetzel 1983; Day et al. 1989). Chesapeake
croalgae or as macroalgae), followed by oxygen def- Bay has an estimated mean turnover time of ca. 35
icits and finfish and/or shellfish kills (Harlin 1993; d and a mean depth of ca. 9 m (Magnien et al.
Mallin et al. 1993). 1992). N and P loads are estimated at ca. 80 3 106
Increases in high biomass phytoplankton blooms kg N yr21 and 4 3 106 kg P yr21, of which 55–70%
have been reported from the south China Sea (Qi is delivered during the winter-spring freshet (Mag-
et al. 1993), the Black Sea (Bodeanu and Ruta nien et al. 1992; Boynton et al. 1995). Phytoplank-
1998), Hong Kong (Lam and Ho 1989), and many ton biomass during early spring blooms that are
other locations, typically in parallel with the nutri- supported by these nutrient supplies can exceed
ent enrichment of coastal waters. In Chesapeake 50 mg chl a l21 (Glibert et al. 1995; Malone et al.
Bay, high phytoplankton biomass is typically ob- 1996). The Neuse estuary has a mean water turn-
served in the spring, associated with high riverine over time of ca. 80 d and a mean depth of ca. 3.5–
nutrient inputs (Glibert et al. 1995; Malone et al. 4 m (Glasgow and Burkholder 2000; Glasgow et al.
1996). These large spring blooms eventually settle 2001a). In this smaller, poorly flushed, shallow sys-
to the bottom, where heterotrophic bacteria pro- tem, loadings of ca. 5 3 106 kg N yr21 and 6–8 3
cess a major fraction of the organic material. This 105 kg P yr21 have supported late winter-spring
can result in depletion of oxygen as temperatures blooms of benign (nontoxic) dinoflagellates with
warm (Malone et al. 1986; Shiah and Ducklow biomass as high as 300 mg chl a l21 (Glasgow and
1994), leading to anoxia and benthic mortalities Burkholder 2000; Glasgow et al. 2001a).
(e.g., Boynton et al. 1982; Malone et al. 1983; Fish- Repeated incidence of increased, high-biomass
er et al. 1988, 1992; Glibert et al. 1995). As another blooms provide evidence of a broadly based, stim-
example, spring eutrophication from the N load- ulatory effect on phytoplankton from anthropo-
ing of the Mississippi and Atchafalya Rivers to the genic nutrients. The evidence for this relationship
Gulf of Mexico has resulted in enhanced phyto- is further strengthened by repeated observations
plankton production and the development of an- that HABs tend to decrease when nutrient loading
oxia in the Gulf of Mexico, a so-called dead zone is reduced. Among the most cited early reports of
that has altered benthic food web dynamics sub- partial reversal of cultural eutrophication in fresh-
stantially (Turner and Rabalais 1994; Rabalais et al. water involved removing sewage discharges from
1996). Lake Washington within metropolitan Seattle,
One of the clearest examples of the direct de- Washington (Edmondson 1970). This lake had sus-
velopment of a toxic species in response to in- tained noxious cyanobacteria blooms prior to the
creased nutrient loading is the development of 1920s because of raw sewage inputs. Zero dis-
Pseudo-nitzschia spp. on the Louisiana shelf in the charge of sewage to Lake Washington was imposed
extended plume of the Mississippi River. Blooms in 1968, and the cyanobacterial blooms declined.
of Pseudo-nitzschia spp. develop in high abundances In a much larger system, Great Lake Erie, the
during the spring when nutrient loading is highest green macroalga Cladophora had choked much of
(Dortch et al. 1997; Parsons et al. 1998, 1999; Pan the west basin with massive growth until improved
2001). Both historical data and frustules preserved wastewater treatment and detergent phosphate
in cores (Dortch et al. 1997, 2000; Parsons et al. bans in the early 1980s led to significant reduction
2002) indicate a large increase in Pseudo-nitzschia in the nuisance blooms (Ashworth 1986).
spp. abundance since the 1950s, concomitant with Reduced nutrient loading similarly has promot-
increases in nutrient loading. Studies in meso- ed declines in estuarine and marine coastal HABs.
cosms have also demonstrated a disproportional Sewage discharges to the Mumford Cove, a shallow
increase in Pseudo-nitzschia spp. following nutrient estuary in Connecticut were rerouted to another
pulsing (Dortch et al. 2000). waterway in the late 1980s, and within two years
Flushing rate or turnover time (the rate at which massive nuisance blooms of the macroalga, Ulva
reported in the Inland Sea several decades ago, but

is common now (Fukuyo personal communica-
tion). This emphasizes a common dilemma faced
by coastal managers, namely that effluent controls
may reduce the number of phytoplankton blooms,
but those actions may not result in fewer HAB im-
pacts. This can happen because some species (and
their high biomass blooms) may decrease in fre-
quency or disappear as the waters become cleaner,
but there are other harmful or toxic species that
can fill that niche and have negative impacts. This
reflects the great variation among HAB species in
the levels of nutrients that are optimal for growth.
In some cases, oligotrophic HAB species that are
not good competitors when nutrient loads are high
can thrive as loadings from land diminish. PSP-pro-
ducing Alexandrium spp. have long occurred in
Alaska, northeastern Canada, and northern Japan;
all areas with relatively unpolluted and historically
Fig. 5. Trends in industrial production (circles) and the pristine waters (e.g., Horner et al. 1997). On Long
number of visible red tides (squares) in the Seto Inland Sea of Island, shellfishermen who have been devastated
Japan. The vertical line represents the passage of the Seto In-
land Sea Law in 1973, after which nutrient loadings were re- by recurrent A. anophagefferens brown tides since
duced to one-third of 1974 levels. The triangles denote the 1985 point out that immediately prior to the out-
number of red tides with fisheries impacts (redrawn from Okai- breaks, the affected waters are cleaner with more
chi 1997 with additional data from Fukuyo). transparency compared to the past when brown
tides did not occur (McElroy 1996). Reductions in
nutrients generally will reduce blooms, but may
lactuca, were eliminated (Harlin 1993). In the Seto not necessarily reduce all the potentially harmful
Inland Sea in Japan between 1965 and 1976, the impacts of HABS or all of the HAB species.
number of red tide outbreaks (high biomass Another example of the effect of nutrient re-
blooms) increased 7-fold (Okaichi 1997), in par- duction comes from the freshwater-to-brackish Po-
allel with the increase in industrial production and tomac River, a tributary of the Chesapeake Bay,
chemical oxygen demand (COD) from domestic where phosphate removal from sewage began in
and industrial wastes (Fig. 5). In 1973, Japanese the late 1970s. This region had previously experi-
authorities instituted the Seto Inland Sea Law to enced repeated blooms of Microcystis spp. with
reduce COD loadings to half of the 1974 levels chlorophyll concentrations in surface waters ex-
over a 3-yr period. The number of red tides began ceeding 70 mg l21, but after the nutrient reduc-
to decrease in 1977, eventually falling to less than tions, there were sustained decreases both in total
30% of the peak frequency, which had been in ex- chlorophyll and in the frequency and intensity of
cess of 300 blooms yr21 (Fig. 5). This lower level the Microcystis blooms ( Jaworski 1990). Chloro-
of bloom incidence has been maintained to the phyll levels were generally , 20 mg l21.
present. These data demonstrate a general in- A final example is from the northwestern Black
crease in phytoplankton abundance due to over- Sea, which experienced heavy pollution loading in
enrichment, and a proportional decrease in the 1970s and 1980s due to industrialization, fer-
blooms when that loading was reduced. It is inter- tilizer use, and urbanization in eight countries
esting that toxic blooms (in this instance, those within that watershed, followed by reductions in
that cause fish mortalities or other fisheries dam- these loads in the 1990s. Significant increases in
age) also decreased after the loadings were re- inorganic and organic nutrients were noted over
duced (Fig. 5). that initial 20-yr interval: nitrate was 2.5–8 times
Another important observation from the Seto higher, and phosphate was up to 20-fold higher
Inland Sea is that as the waters became less eutro- (Bodeanu 1993). A consequence of this enrich-
phic and large biomass blooms decreased, there ment was an increase in the frequency and mag-
was a shift in species composition, leading to a nitude of algal blooms, as well as changes in the
greater prevalence of some that are responsible for species composition. In the 1960s, high biomass
shellfish poisonings in humans, such as Alexan- blooms were rare, but during the two decades of
drium tamarense and A. catenella. Paralytic shellfish intense eutrophication pressure, blooms became
poisoning (PSP) caused by these species was not recurrent, with cell densities greatly exceeding past
abundance levels (Bodeanu 1993). During the ulation of non-diatom species following changes in
1980s, when nutrient loadings peaked, 49 major the availability of N or P relative to silicate. Dia-
blooms were reported, of which 15 had . 10 mil- toms, the vast majority of which are harmless, re-
lion cells l21 (Bodeanu and Ruta 1998). Anoxia, quire silica in their cell walls, whereas most other
fish mortalities, and other impacts were frequent. phytoplankton do not. Since silica is not abundant
A characteristic of this interval was the decreased in sewage effluent but N and P are, the N:Si or P:
abundance of diatoms and larger algae, and their Si ratios in some lakes, rivers, estuaries, and coastal
replacement by flagellates and nanoplankton. In a waters have increased over the last several decades
striking reversal, algal blooms began to decrease in (Shelske et al. 1986; Smayda 1989, 1990; Rabalais
1991, both in number and size, and this trend has et al. 1996). In theory, diatom growth will cease
continued to the present. Diatoms became more when silica supplies are depleted, but other phy-
dominant, and nanoplankton and flagellates de- toplankton classes can continue to proliferate us-
creased. From 1991–1996, there were only three ing the excess N and P.
blooms with cell concentrations in excess of 10 mil- Research is ongoing in various geographic re-
lion cells l21. This reduction in blooms coincided gions to further examine this concept, which is
with significantly decreased fertilizer usage as a re- supported by several data sets. From a long-term
sult of the loss of economic subsidies that accom- database in Great Lake Michigan, Schelske et al.
panied the breakup of the former Soviet Union (1986) found evidence of silica depletion that was
(Bodeanu and Ruta 1998). It will be interesting to correlated with increased anthropogenic P loading
see if the positive trend in bloom incidence of re- through the early 1970s. By the 1980s, cyanobac-
cent years is reversed when economic develop- teria and colonial green algae had increased to co-
ment, and thus fertilizer usage, increase in the dominance with diatoms, but at that point P inputs
coming years. began to decline. The phytoplankton community
There are a number of examples where increas- then shifted from ca. 50% cyanobacteria and co-
es and decreases in nutrient loadings due to hu- lonial greens to replacement by flagellates in sum-
man activities have resulted in parallel increases or mer with diatoms dominant in the spring. Similar-
decreases in bloom incidence. Many of these ex- ly, in marine waters of Tolo Harbor in Hong Kong,
amples are of high biomass blooms, that cause there was an 8-fold increase in the number of red
harm through excessive population development tides (mainly dinoflagellates) per year between
and its decay. Other factors need to be considered 1976 and 1989, in parallel with a 6-fold increase in
in understanding phytoplankton compositional human population density and a 2.5-fold increase
changes that lead to development of HAB out- in nutrient loading in that watershed that altered
breaks, but not necessarily to high biomass pro- the nutrient ratios (Lam and Ho 1989). In the mid
duction. to late 1980s, as pollution loadings decreased due
to the diversion of sewage effluent to Victoria Har-
Nutrient Composition and HAB Development bor, there was a resurgence of diatoms and a de-
Many factors affect phytoplankton species com- crease in dinoflagellates and red tides (Yung et al.
position and bloom development, and among 1997).
these is the composition of the nutrient pool—the These blooms in Tolo Harbor show a distinct re-
forms of the nutrients supplied, as well as the rel- lationship with nutrient ratios, but not just N:Si or
ative abundance of the major nutrient elements. P:Si. Hodgkiss and Ho (1997) demonstrated that
Some generalities are beginning to emerge with the numbers of dinoflagellate red tides increased
respect to the preference of many bloom-forming as the annually averaged N:P ratio fell from 20:1
species for specific forms of nutrients, as well as to 11:1 between 1982 and 1989 (Fig. 6). In more
the tendency for some blooms to occur when the detailed analysis of the patterns during a single
ratios of nutrient availability or supply are altered. year, Hodgkiss (2001) showed that whenever the
The latter concept is based largely on the nutrient N:P ratio fell below ;10:1 in Tolo Harbor, dinofla-
ratio hypothesis (Tilman 1977; Smayda 1990, 1997) gellate cell numbers increased. These two inverse
which argues that environmental selection of phy- correlations are consistent with experimental data,
toplankton species is associated with the relative whereby the three major dinoflagellate species in
availability of specific nutrients in coastal waters, Tolo Harbor in the 1980s (Prorocentrum micans, P.
and that human activities have altered these nutri- sigmoides, and P. triestinum) were shown to have op-
ent supply ratios in ways that change the natural timal N:P ratios for growth of 5–10, 4–15, and 8–
phytoplankton community composition and possi- 15:1, respectively, all significantly below Redfield
bly favor harmful or potentially toxic forms. proportions. As the N:P ratio in Tolo Harbor de-
Perhaps the clearest demonstration of the effect creased between 1982 and 1989, these species in-
of altered nutrient supply ratios involves the stim- creased in abundance.
Fig. 7. Change in N:P molar ratio (circles) in Dutch coastal

Fig. 6. Trends in the N:P molar ratio (circles) and the num- waters coincident with increase in Phaeocystis blooms (squares;
ber of reported red tides (squares) in Tolo Harbor, Hong Kong redrawn from Riegman 1995).
from 1980 to 1990 (redrawn from Hodgkiss and Ho 1997).
Hegeman 1986; Smayda 1990). Riegman (1995)

In Tunisian lagoons where Gymnodinium aureo- further showed that in mixed phytoplankton as-
lumi (formerly Gyrodinium aureolum) was found to semblages in the laboratory, P. poucheti became
be the cause of repeated fish kills in aquaculture dominant only when N:P ratios were 7.5 or lower,
systems, blooms occurred when the N:P ratio and at N:P ratios of 1.5, there was almost complete
(which was normally very high) began to decline P. poucheti dominance. These relationships are con-
in the autumn (Romdhane et al. 1998). There is sistent with the trends for summer blooms of P.
evidence to suggest that the ichthyotoxic dinofla- poucheti in Dutch coastal waters, which accompa-
gellate Pfiesteria piscicida may do disproportionately nied a shift from P-limitation to N-limitation in the
well when the ratio of N:P decreases following an area; lower N:P ratios coincided with higher, and
increase in the availability of phosphate (Burk- more variable, P. poucheti abundance (Fig. 7).
holder and Glasgow 1997; Burkholder et al. 2001b; Nutrient ratios may also be affected by other
Glasgow et al. 2001b). types of human development in addition to direct
Another prominent example of the importance nutrient pollution. The building of dams has nu-
of nutrient supply ratios in determining phyto- merous associated environmental problems, in-
plankton species composition is seen with the cluding the potential for altered water quality. Dam
foam-producing prymnesiophyte Phaeocystis pouch- construction, coincident with increased P loading,
eti. A 23-year time series off the German coast doc- has led to diatom blooms, and thus to the seques-
uments the general enrichment of these coastal wa- tration of silica (Turner and Rabalais 1991). In the
ters with N and phosphate and a 4-fold increase in development of the massive Three Gorges Dam in
the N:Si and P:Si ratios (Radach et al. 1990). This the upstream region of the Changjiang (Yangtze
was accompanied by a decrease in the diatom com- River), the potential for eutrophication and other
munity and an increase in the occurrence of Phaeo- massive environmental and cultural damage has
cystis blooms. Mass occurrences of this species be- been greatly debated (Zhang et al. 1999). In this
gan in 1977 in the North Sea (Cadée and Hege- system, it is thought that by the year 2010, silica
man 1986) and increased in cell abundance and will be significantly reduced due to diatom uptake
bloom duration through 1985. The general N and and sediment trapping by the dam, and this com-
P enrichment of that coastal area resulted in winter bined with the trend of increasing N loading will
concentrations an order of magnitude higher than lead to very high N:Si and N:P ratios downstream.
those in adjacent Atlantic waters (Lancelot 1995). As the Changjiang watershed supplies nearly 10%
The abundance of these nutrients is less of an issue of the total world population’s water resources and
than their relative proportions. These blooms were 40% of the Chinese national food production, the
first related to the increase in N:Si ratios, particu- societal benefits from the dam are significant, as is
larly following the spring diatom blooms which de- the potential for negative impacts on the health of
pleted the silica but not the nitrate (Cadée and coastal ecosystems (Zhang et al. 1999).
The nutrient ratio concept has recently been ex-

panded to include the relative abundance of dif-
ferent chemical forms of nutrients, such as organic
versus inorganic N and carbon (C) compounds.
Recent studies in enriched coastal areas have
shown that while productivity may increase quan-
titatively with overall N availability, the DON com-
ponent may contribute disproportionately to the
changes in phytoplankton succession, apparently
favoring the development of some HABs (Paerl
1988; Berg et al. 1997; LaRoche et al. 1997; Lomas
et al. 2001). The DON pool is composed of a wide Fig. 8. Relationship between DOC:DON for numerous
range of compounds from small amino acids and bloom periods and locations. In each case, the dark bars rep-
urea to complex molecules such as proteins and resent either long-term average non-bloom periods for the same
sites or comparable sites outside of the bloom region. The gray
humic acids. Some are available for assimilation by bars represent the periods during the peak of bloom occur-
the phytoplankton, whereas many other com- rence. The non-bloom data from the P. piscicida and P. minimum
pounds are highly refractory and not readily used. blooms represent long-term monitoring results for tributaries of
One component of the DON pool, urea, has been Chesapeake Bay. The P. piscicida bloom occurred in these same
shown to be highly correlated with the outbreak of tributaries in Maryland in 1997, and the P. minimum bloom oc-
curred in the same region in 1998. The A. anophagefferens
harmful dinoflagellates in estuarine fish ponds blooms were sampled either in New York or Maryland coastal
(Glibert and Terlizzi 1999), where elevated levels bays in 1999. The Gymnodinium spp. bloom was sampled during
of urea were associated with significant dinoflagel- a red tide event in Kuwait Bay, 1999 (data were derived and
late outbreaks 73% of the time, but urea concen- redrawn from Glibert et al. 2001; Lomas et al. 2001; and Glibert
trations of , 1.5 mM were not associated with any unpublished data).
dinoflagellate blooms. In several Chesapeake Bay
tributaries, high urea concentrations have also trient supply will not necessarily correlate with the
been found to precede large blooms of the dino- rate of nutrient assimilation by the algae, as the
flagellate Prorocentrum minimum (Glibert et al. latter is controlled by nutritional preferences, up-
2001). The trend toward increasing applications of take capabilities, and physiological or nutritional
urea fertilizer (Constant and Sheldrick 1992) may status. The response by either the total phytoplank-
increase the likelihood of blooms of organisms ton community or individual species within the
that grow well on this nutrient. community also depends on many factors, includ-
Several HABs have been shown to be related to ing interactions with grazers and physical forcings
an elevation in the ratio of dissolved organic car- such as turbulence. Grazers may inhibit the devel-
bon (DOC):DON. Three separate blooms in Ches- opment of phytoplankton biomass through their
apeake Bay occurring over a 3-yr period, including feeding, while at the same time, enhance the re-
P. piscicida, P. minimum, and A. anophagefferens, were generation of nutrients through their release and
all correlated with elevated DOC:DON ratios rela- excretion. This in turn will alter the balance of re-
tive to the long-term mean (Glibert et al. 2001; Fig. duced versus oxidized forms of N (Glibert 1998).
8). The elevation in this ratio for these particular The assimilation of nutrients by phytoplankton
blooms was a reflection of both elevated levels of depends on environmental factors such as light,
DOC as well as a depletion of DON. Lomas et al. temperature, and water column stability with dif-
(2001) have shown this relationship to be robust ferent environmental effects having differential im-
for numerous brown tide blooms in Long Island, pacts on different nutrient substrates. The uptake
New York (Fig. 8). During a bloom of Gymnodinium of ammonium and urea are usually thought to be
spp. in Kuwait Bay, the ratios of DOC:DON for sta- less light dependent than the uptake of nitrate
tions collected within the bloom were approxi- (MacIsaac and Dugdale 1972; Fisher et al. 1982),
mately twice those determined for non-bloom sta- and the temperature dependence of ammonium
tions with a mixed phytoplankton assemblage uptake may also differ from that of nitrate (Lomas
(Heil et al. 2001; Fig. 8). This relationship is de- and Glibert 1999a). Water column stability is an-
serving of additional study in other bloom condi- other critical factor influencing species composi-
tions. Of particular interest in this context is the tion. Blooms of Karenia cf. mikimotoi have been as-
potential change in DOC:DON preceding blooms. sociated with warm, stable conditions, and can per-
sist for extended periods with low light and low
Pathways of Nutrient Acquisition nutrients (Dahl and Tangen 1993). In Norwegian
An understanding of physiological responses is waters, these blooms initiate at the pycnocline in
further complicated by the fact that the rate of nu- the summer or early autumn in offshore waters,
then collect at hydrographic fronts in nearshore néli et al. 1997). Using different methods, Jacob-
waters (Dahl and Tangen 1993). In Tunisian la- son and Anderson (1996) found food vacuoles
goons, where blooms of G. aureolum have caused containing prey fragments (probably ciliates) in Di-
repeated fish kills, a correlation has been found nophysis norvegica and D. acuminata, confirming
between the development of blooms and decreas- these species’ ability to ingest particulate food.
ing day length, consistent with the frequency of Other common HAB species have also been shown
these blooms being greater in late summer or au- to be mixotrophic, including Heterosigma carterae
tumn (Romdhane et al. 1998). Any potential ef- (5 H. akashiwo), A. tamarense (Nygaard and Tobie-
fects of nutrient stimulation on HAB biomass or sen 1993), and Gyrodinium galatheanum (5 Karlo-
productivity must be considered within the physi- dinium micrum; Li et al. 2000, 2001). Given the im-
cal and environmental tolerances of the particular portance of mixotrophy in many species, as well as
species of concern. the development of new methods to measure in-
In recent years, the physiological strategies by gestion and C uptake (Schnepf and Elbrächter
which different groups of species acquire their nu- 1992; Stoecker 1999; Stickney et al. 2000), the
trients have become better understood. Rapidly number of HAB species known to be mixotrophic
growing marine diatoms have been highly corre- will likely increase as more are examined for this
lated with large and/or frequent additions of ni- characteristic (Burkholder and Glasgow 1995,
trate, in part because they have physiological ad- 1997; Burkholder et al. 2001b).
aptations which allow them to exploit nitrate-rich A unique example of mixotrophic nutrition is
conditions (Takahashi et al. 1982; Goldman 1993; the toxic Pfiesteria complex (two species—P. pisci-
Lomas and Glibert 1999a,b, 2000). Microflagella- cida and Pfiesteria shumwayae; Burkholder et al.
tes, including dinoflagellates, are most frequently 2001a,b). These dinoflagellates are heterotrophs,
associated with low nitrate concentrations, higher yet they can be stimulated directly and indirectly
ammonium, urea, or DON supply, and consistent by inorganic as well as organic nutrient enrich-
physiological preference for reduced N forms ment (Burkholder and Glasgow 1997, 2001; Burk-
(e.g., Berg et al. 1997; Carlsson et al. 1998; Lomas holder et al. 1998a, 2001a,b; Glasgow et al. 2001b;
and Glibert 1999b). Most estuarine and coastal ma- Parrow et al. 2001). Like other heterotrophic di-
rine HAB species are microflagellates. Harmful es- noflagellates (Schnepf and Elbrächter 1992), they
tuarine dinoflagellates tend to occur in waters that can take up inorganic and organic nutrients di-
have seasonally high phosphate and nitrate, as well rectly (e.g., dissolved amino acids: Burkholder and
as high DOC and other organic nutrient forms Glasgow 1997; Glasgow et al. 1998; nitrate, am-
(Burkholder and Glasgow 1997; Burkholder et al. monium, and urea: Lewitus et al. 1999a). Pfiesteria
1997, 2001a,b; Magnien et al. 2000; Glasgow et al. spp. are not capable of photosynthesis on their
2001a; Glibert et al. 2001). Indeed, the brown tide own, but zoospores can retain chloroplasts from
species that blooms in Texas, Aureoumbra lagunensis algal prey (Burkholder and Glasgow 1997; Lewitus
is incapable of nitrate uptake, and thus must use et al. 1999a,b; Glasgow et al. 2001c). This phenom-
reduced N forms (DeYoe and Suttle 1994). enon, kleptochloroplastidy, is increasingly recog-
An important physiological adaptation of many nized in dinoflagellates and some protozoan cili-
flagellate species, including some HAB species, is ates (Stoecker 1998; Skovgaard 1998).
the ability to acquire both N and C via particle Kleptochloroplastidy allows Pfiesteria spp. to
ingestion or by the uptake of dissolved organic function as mixotrophs for hours to days (Lewitus
compounds (reviewed in Granéli and Carlsson et al. 1999a). In this mode, cells can take up N
1998). Such mixotrophic or heterotrophic tenden- directly (Lewitus et al. 1999a). Pfiesteria spp. have
cies have been linked with the ability of these cells also been shown to be stimulated indirectly by nu-
to thrive in environments where inorganic nutri- trient enrichment, mediated through the abun-
ents or light may otherwise be insufficient to meet dance of algal prey that they consume when fish
their nutritional or C demands. Toxic Chrysochro- are not present (Burkholder and Glasgow 1995,
mulina polylepis cultures have been shown to con- 1997; Glasgow et al. 1998; Parrow et al. 2001). The
sume more algal food when limited by P compared ability to consume an array of prey ranging from
to nutrient-replete and N-limited conditions bacteria to mammalian tissues, as well as dissolved
(LeGrand et al. 1996). Mixotrophy is now consid- substrates, allows Pfiesteria spp. to thrive where food
ered essential for the survival and growth of many is abundant (Burkholder and Glasgow 1995, 2001;
Dinophysis species, including those responsible for Burkholder et al. 2001b). Toxic Pfiesteria outbreaks
diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP). This is sup- have occurred in shallow, poorly flushed estuaries
ported by uptake of 14C in the dark, either from that have been highly impacted by nutrient over-
direct ingestion of labelled algal prey or dissolved enrichment, including the Neuse, Pamlico, and
organic substances released by those algae (Gra- New River estuaries of North Carolina and the trib-
utaries of Maryland’s eastern shore (Burkholder et Indirect Nutrient Linkages with HABs
al. 1995, 1997; Lewitus et al. 1995; Burkholder and All too frequently, public perception of whether
Glasgow 1997; Glasgow et al. 2001a). In both lab- nutrient over-enrichment has reached undesirable
oratory and field studies, Pfiesteria zoospore pro- levels has been based on acute, obvious or easily
duction has been shown to be stimulated by hu- measured symptoms, such as high biomass algal
man and animal wastes (Burkholder and Glasgow
blooms, massive fish kills, and oxygen deficits. Be-
1997, 2001; Burkholder et al. 1997). Nutrients pro-
cause of this focus, a broad array of indirect,
vide a food-rich habitat for Pfiesteria spp., but other
chronic, often-subtle but serious impacts of nutri-
environmental conditions are required for toxic
ent pollution on aquatic ecosystems remain under-
Pfiesteria activity, especially poor flushing, fish in
emphasized and, in some cases, poorly under-
abundance, and brackish salinities (Burkholder
stood. The available data indicate that these chron-
and Glasgow 1997; Glasgow et al. 2001a). The abil-
ic, indirect impacts can be important in controlling
ity of these heterotrophic dinoflagellates to func-
the growth of HAB species over the long term in
tion photosynthetically, and to switch between
lakes, rivers, estuaries, and marine coastal waters.
modes of nutrition and among an array of prey
As eutrophication progresses, for example, shifts
types as conditions change, represents a significant
survival mechanism. in phytoplankton communities toward declines in
Many phytoplankton have the ability to acquire certain diatom species in favor of less desirable na-
some of their nutrients via extracellular oxidation noplankton and flagellates can lead to subtle but
or hydrolysis. Extracellular amino acid oxidation important changes at higher trophic levels. Some
has been shown to occur in a wide range of fla- freshwater diatom species that grow best in low nu-
gellates and in a range of ecosystems, although this trient regimes produce lipids that are essential for
process appears to be expressed to a greater de- zooplankton sexual reproduction. Under nutrient
gree when ambient inorganic nutrient levels are at over-enrichment, these species are replaced by spe-
or near depletion (Palenik and Morel 1990a,b; cies that produce low or negligible quantities of
Pantoja and Lee 1994; Mulholland et al. 1998). these lipids (Kilham et al. 1997). In estuarine wa-
Proteins and peptides may also be hydrolyzed at ters, spawning of green sea urchins and blue mus-
the cell surface, producing smaller compounds sels appears to be triggered by a heat-stable metab-
that can be taken up by the cells (Hollibaugh and olite that is released in high abundance by certain
Azam 1983; Keil and Kirchman 1992; Pantoja et al. species of phytoplankton that decline with cultural
1997; Pantoja and Lee 1999). While much is still eutrophication (Starr et al. 1990). Replacement
to be learned about the role of this process in the species that thrive under nutrient enrichment pro-
development of HABs, there is some evidence that duce low or negligible quantities of the substance.
certain HAB species possess this ability (Mulhol- At the same time, excessive nutrient loading has
land et al. 2000). led to the decline and, eventually, the disappear-
The uptake of organic compounds may contrib- ance of rooted vegetation that is critically impor-
ute to the C requirements of HAB cells, in addition tant to the survival of animals such as certain zoo-
to their N or P requirements. The suggestion that plankton, finfish, and/or shellfish which graze on
C acquisition may stimulate algal growth rates algae. Overfishing has led to significant declines in
through organic uptake is by no means new some shellfish species, such as oyster populations
(Schell 1974; Wheeler et al. 1974; Lewitus and in Chesapeake Bay (Newell 1988; Rothschild et al.
Kana 1994). Specific examples of the linkage be- 1994). Such factors would interact in depressing
tween DOC uptake and HAB development, how- grazing activity which, in turn, would indirectly en-
ever, are only now beginning to emerge. In 1998, courage growth of phytoplankton, including HAB
a new species of dinoflagellate, Kryptoperidinium species, under nutrient enrichment (Burkholder
carolinium (sp. ined.; formal description ongoing 2000).
by Lewitus unpublished data), was observed in the Nutrient loading seldom occurs alone. Atmo-
waters of coastal South Carolina. Following inten- spheric deposition contains nutrients as well as
sive monitoring of all forms of inorganic and or- acid-imparting contaminants and toxic substances
ganic nutrients, it was concluded that bloom initi- such as pesticides; cropland runoff carries not only
ation followed the pulsed delivery of organic nu- nutrients, but pesticides and suspended sediments
trients (Lewitus et al. 2001). Bloom development (Miller 2000). Nutrients in poorly treated human
was coincident with a greater than 3-fold decrease sewage and animal wastes are added to surface wa-
in both DOC and DON. These findings under- ters along with heavy metals and other toxic sub-
score the need to incorporate organic nutrients stances, suspended solids, estrogens and estrogen-
and heterotrophic potential in both monitoring mimic substances, and a wide array of microbial
and models of HAB population dynamics. pathogens (Burkholder et al. 1997; Mallin 2000;
Miller 2000). Excessive nutrients act in concert phytoplankton have access to nutrient inputs and
with these other, co-associated pollutants to cause to light. Horizontal tidal currents cause significant
physiological stress and disease in sensitive grazing water exchange with the Iroise Sea, and reduce the
fauna which, again, could indirectly help to pro- accumulation of nutrients and plankton in the Bay.
mote the growth of harmful algae through lowered As has been observed in certain other systems, nu-
grazing pressure and facilitated access to weakened trient loading has been beneficial in that it sup-
fish by some harmful algae that consume them as ports increased productivity. Such beneficial effects
prey. should continue as long as those loadings fall with-
Other factors such as suspended sediments or in the assimilative capacity of the system.
grazing pressure may reduce or negate a poten- In some cases, indirect relationships between nu-
tially stimulatory nutrient effect. In turbid lakes trient loading or availability and the development
and reservoirs with high episodic sediment load- of a HAB species may be difficult to establish, due
ing, and systems with relatively rapid flushing rates, to the complexities of the nutrient cycling path-
high P loading may not stimulate phytoplankton ways involved. These may be on short temporal
blooms because of light limitation and short water and spatial scales, or on longer-term scales. One
turnover times (Dillon 1975; Cuker et al. 1990; example of such pathways potentially leading to
Burkholder et al. 1998b). Cyanobacteria can HAB development involves the release of DON fol-
bloom under low light availability by taking advan- lowing N fixation. Blooms of the N-fixing cyano-
tage of periods between episodic sediment loading bacterium Trichodesmium have been found to re-
events when the water clears, or by using mecha- lease a significant fraction of their newly fixed N
nisms for buoyancy regulation to position them- in the form of ammonium and DON (Capone et
selves near the water surface (Burkholder et al. al. 1994; Glibert and Bronk 1994). In dense
1998b; Dortch unpublished data). In lakes with low blooms of this organism, the concentration of re-
to moderate nutrient loading, grazing pressure duced N forms can be enriched several-fold over
from large-bodied zooplankton can significantly re- control sites (Karl et al. 1992; Glibert and O’Neil
duce the populations of most phytoplankton spe- 1999; O’Neil et al. submitted). It has been sug-
cies, balancing the nutrient stimulation effect gested that this production of reduced N fuels red
(Harper 1992). tide blooms of Karenia brevis (5 Gymnodinium breve)
Similar observations have been reported in es- off the coast of Florida (Walsh and Steidinger
tuaries and coastal waters. The Pearl River estuary 2001; Lenes et al. 2001). Likewise, DON release by
supplies a huge pollution load to the waters of the Trichodesmium has been shown to be correlated
south China Sea, including the western waters of with an increase in the development of dinoflagel-
Hong Kong, yet the number of red tides and gen- lates such as Dinophysis off the coast of Australia
eral chlorophyll levels are low compared to the (O’Neil et al. submitted).
conditions in Victoria Harbor and areas to the east. Another example of indirect stimulation of HAB
Tang et al. (2001) hypothesized that this inverse species by nutrients is the ichthyotoxic dinoflagel-
relationship between nutrient loading and algal late, P. piscicida. In toxic strains of this organism,
biomass is due to the high sediment loads that ac- temporarily nontoxic zoospores are the precursors
company the Pearl River discharge. Light limita- of actively toxic zoospores. These nontoxic zoo-
tion would prevent the full utilization of the nutri- spores have been found to increase in response to
ents supplied to the phytoplankton. elevations in chlorophyll (Burkholder and Glasgow
In San Francisco Bay, increased nutrient loads 1997; Glasgow et al. 2001a), and their growth rates
have resulted in increased secondary production have been shown to vary widely depending on the
in the benthos, which in turn modulates the algal form of algal prey (Burkholder and Glasgow 1995;
biomass (Cloern 1982). In an analogous manner, Glasgow et al. 1998; Burkholder et al. 2001a; Par-
primary production in the Bay of Brest, France, is row et al. 2001). Nutrients may select for certain
nutrient limited, even with large nutrient loadings phytoplankton species which may promote Pfiester-
from its tributaries. Nutrient inputs have increased ia growth in temporarily nontoxic mode.
3-fold since 1975, yet chlorophyll levels have not
changed significantly (Le Pape et al. 1996; Le Pape Links between Nutrients and Toxicity
and Ménesguen 1997). Primary productivity has in- The discussion thus far has centered on nutrient
creased slightly, but grazing pressure has as well, pools as they affect the growth and accumulation
particularly in the benthos. In this case, the main of HAB cells. There is evidence that nutrients can
control of eutrophication pressures appears to re- play a major role in the regulation of toxicity in
late to a strong tidal influence and hydrodynamic some HAB species, and this can have significant
exchange. The resulting stirring hinders the for- implications to toxin monitoring programs and
mation of a persistent surface mixed layer where public health decisions. In some cases, toxicity can
increase or decrease dramatically depending on in involved. Due to the nutrient enrichment, HAB
the limiting nutrient. Saxitoxin production by A. cells might be more abundant, but because of the
tamarense can be 5–10-fold higher in P-limited ver- altered nutrient ratios, their cellular toxicity could
sus N-limited cells (Boyer et al. 1987; Anderson et be higher or lower than with non-eutrophic con-
al. 1990). Likewise, domoic acid production by ditions. Depending on the species, the net effect
Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries is inversely correlated could thus be an increase, decrease, or no change
with the ambient Si concentration in batch culture in overall toxicity from a public health, fisheries,
(Pan et al. 1996a). In that study, cells began accu- or ecosystem impact perspective. This is an area of
mulating this toxin only when the division rate de- obvious importance, but further research is need-
clined as a result of partial or total depletion of ed before useful insights about nutrient form and
silica. When cultures were N-limited, no toxin was HABs can be provided to coastal resource manag-
produced. Toxin production was greatly enhanced ers.
under P-deficient conditions in continuous cul-
tures (Pan et al. 1996b). Recent results also suggest HABs with Little Apparent Link to
that Fe limitation can enhance toxicity in Pseudo- Nutrient Enrichment
nitzschia spp. (Rue and Wells unpublished data). A common assumption by the public and the
For other HAB species a similar picture emerges: press is that new or unusual HAB events are some-
toxin production varies significantly with different how linked to pollution, and that all nutrient in-
degrees and types of nutrient limitation. The di- creases will result in algal blooms. The situation is
noflagellate D. acuminata produced elevated levels far from that simple, but in many cases a link be-
of the DSP toxin, okadaic acid, under both N and tween blooms and eutrophication can be identi-
P limitation, but the enhancement was 6-fold larg- fied. It should be emphasized though that there
er with N-limitation ( Johansson et al. 1996). In an are HABs that do not appear to have this linkage.
analogous although opposite manner, Chrysochro- These are blooms for which there may be no nu-
mulina polylepis was 6-fold more toxic under P en- trient relationship, or one that has not yet been
richment than N-limited conditions ( Johansson identified. There may be other factors that exert
and Granéli 1999a). Another pr ymnesiophyte, more control in regulating plankton community
Prymnesium parvum, increased toxicity under N-lim- dynamics. This is true for some new outbreaks and
ited or P-limited conditions ( Johansson and Gra- for expansions of recognized or recurrent blooms.
néli 1999b). PSP toxicity from toxic Alexandrium species is a pre-
The chemical form of the nutrient supplied to sent-day problem in the relatively pristine waters of
the HAB species can also affect toxicity, although the Gulf of Maine, as well as along most of the U.S.
this is an area that has received relatively little west coast including Alaska. The blooms that occur
study. K. brevis has been shown to increase its pro- undoubtedly use some nutrients that derive from
duction of brevetoxin up to 6-fold when exposed human activities, given their proximity to the coast,
to elevated urea levels of 0.5 to 1.0 mM in batch but other factors seem to better explain the recent
culture compared to controls without urea enrich- spreading of these organisms. The PSP problem
ment (Shimizu et al. 1993). The urea levels used has expanded into southern New England and into
in that experiment far exceed those found under Puget Sound on the U.S. west coast over the last
natural conditions, but the implication is that cer- several decades, but these increases are thought to
tain compounds are more readily assimilated and reflect the transport of cyst-forming Alexandrium
incorporated into algal toxins than others. With species into those regions by natural storms and
the addition of urea or glycine, the cells switched currents and with the deposition of cysts that have
from autrotrophic to heterotrophic nutrition, us- allowed the species to colonize the areas (e.g., Ren-
ing the C skeleton only after the N was used. In sel 1993; Anderson et al. 1994). For Alexandrium
this study, toxicity was not influenced by the addi- spp. in the Gulf of Maine, increased nutrient load-
tion of leucine or aspartic acid (Shimizu et al. ing and composition appear to be secondary fac-
1993). tors influencing growth.
The ecological implications of nutrient effects
on toxicity are significant. What is not yet clear is Conclusions and Cautions
how often the conditions that induce these chang- Eutrophication is a global problem, and coastal
es actually occur in natural waters, and how human areas throughout the world have been affected.
activities, and specifically eutrophication, affect There is little question that nutrient loading fuels
overall toxin potential. One can envision several high biomass algal blooms, and increases in chlo-
scenarios for eutrophic waters, depending on the rophyll have been shown to parallel increases in
extent of nutrient enrichment, the resulting nutri- nutrient concentrations. There is clear evidence
ent availability ratios, and the HAB species and tox- for direct stimulation of some HABs by nutrient
over-enrichment. The linkages between other LITERATURE CITED

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Estuaries Vol. 25, No. 4b, p.

704–726 August 2002

Harmful Algal Blooms and Eutrophication: Nutrient Sources,

104, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606

Introduction and Robinson 1798 cited in Prakash et al. 1971)

Fig. 2. Example of localized, significant increase in atmo-

shown in nutrient enrichment studies in meso-

1991; Coale et al. 1996). Interactions between Fe

clear that in waters with a high density of aquacul-

reported in the Inland Sea several decades ago, but

Fig. 7. Change in N:P molar ratio (circles) in Dutch coastal

Hegeman 1986; Smayda 1990). Riegman (1995)

The nutrient ratio concept has recently been ex-

over-enrichment. The linkages between other LITERATURE CITED

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