Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 265–272

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Design of a solar absorption cooling system in a Greek hospital

T. Tsoutsos a,*, E. Aloumpi a, Z. Gkouskos a, M. Karagiorgas b
a
Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece
b
Department of Pedagogical Mechanical Engineers, ASPETE, Ktima Makrykosta, N. Iraklio, Greece

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Air conditioning of buildings is responsible for a large percentage of the greenhouse and ozone depletion
Received 2 April 2009 effect, as refrigerant harmful gases are released into the atmosphere from conventional cooling systems.
Received in revised form 3 September 2009 The need to implement advanced new concepts in building air conditioning systems is more crucial than
Accepted 4 September 2009
ever today.
Solar cooling systems (SCS) have the advantage of using absolutely harmless working fluids such as
Keywords: water, or solutions of certain salts. They are energy efficient and environmentally safe. They can be used,
Solar energy
either as stand-alone systems or with conventional AC, to improve the indoor air quality of all types of
Solar cooling
buildings. The main goal is to utilize ‘‘zero emissions’’ technologies to reduce energy consumption and
Solar collectors
Chillers reduce CO2 emissions.
Amongst cooling technologies, absorption cooling seems to have a promising market potential.
In this paper, the performance and economic evaluation of a solar heating and cooling system of a
hospital in Crete, is studied using the transient simulation program (TRNSYS). The meteorological year
file exploited the hourly weather data where produced by 30-year statistical process. The required data
were obtained by Hellenic National Meteorological Service.
The objective of this study is to simulate a complete system comprised of a solar collector, a storage
tank, a backup heat source, a water cooling tower and a LiBr-H2O absorption chiller. The exploitation of
the results of the simulation provided the optimum sizing of the system.
ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction water, or salt solution being energy efficient and environmentally

safe. They can be used either as stand-alone systems or with
During the last years a spectacular increase of the number of the conventional air conditioning (AC), to improve the indoor air
installed air conditioning systems in buildings is observed. The quality of all types of buildings. The main goal is to utilize ‘‘zero
dominant practice is that air conditioning applications rely emissions’’ technologies in order to reduce energy consumption as
exclusively on electrical energy while the exploitation of solar well as the CO2 emissions [4].
energy is mainly for domestic hot water, with few applications on Several thermally driven AC technologies are market available
space heating and very limited on space cooling [1]. by today, which enable the use of solar thermal energy for this
Greek electricity utility often faces blackout situations on hot application. Based on current technologies, i.e., market available
summer days, due to overloaded distribution networks. Such thermally driven cooling devices and market available solar
peaks, occurring only for a few weeks a year, cannot be covered at a collectors, solar assisted air conditioning can lead to remarkable
reasonable cost, if one tries to apply a rational tariff system, as the primary energy savings, if the systems are properly designed [5,6].
investments needed in infrastructure are unjustified. Thus, in order Till 2007 there were 81 installed large scale SCS, including
to face the summer load peaks, without affecting the demand side, systems which are currently not in operation. 73 installations are
new power generation plants should be built, close to the located in Europe, 7 in Asia, China in particular and 1 in America
consumption location [2]. (Mexico). 60% of these installations are dedicated to office
The use of solar energy is an attractive concept that can be used buildings, 10% to factories, 15% to laboratories and education
to drive cooling cycles for space conditioning of most buildings. centers, 6% to hotels and the left percentage to buildings with
Passive [3] and active solar cooling systems (SCS) have the different final use (hospitals, canteen, sport center, etc.). The
advantage of using absolutely harmless working fluids such as overall cooling capacity of the solar thermally driven chillers
amounts to 9 MW; 31% of it is installed in Spain, 18% in Germany
and 12% in Greece [7].
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 2821037825; fax: +30 2821037846. The Greek islands in general, constitute a special case due to
E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Tsoutsos). both increased temperatures as well as their isolated power grids.

0378-7788/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.09.002
266 T. Tsoutsos et al. / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 265–272

Therefore, sustainable energy solutions should be adopted in wide  size and geometrical characteristics of the building
scale.  orientation
The solar absorption cooling is using the process of attracting  construction materials
and holding moisture by desiccants.  activity
As the hot and humid process air passes through the desiccant  internal sources of heating
wheel, the moisture is removed by the desiccant, and its  ventilation
temperature increases. The temperature of this process air, which  infiltration
is now hotter and drier, is reduced to the desired comfort  lighting
conditions; the warm and humid return air from the conditioned  desired values of indoor temperature and humidity, during
space is further heated up to the required regeneration tempera- summer and winter
ture of the desiccant and this regeneration stream of air is passed  meteorological conditions
through the desiccant wheel to remove the moisture from the (iii) Selection of the solar cooling technology to be applied.
desiccant [8]. The procedure adopted to select the optimum SAC
Wide-ranging studies of different aspects of absorption system, technology depends on several building parameters (e.g.
such as performance simulations and experimental test results, construction materials, geometry, orientation). The selected
have been reported. Amongst the various types of continuous technology is also chosen taken into account the type of the
absorption SCS, LiBr–H2O and H2O–NH3 are the major working AC installation (decentralized or not) and the climate
pairs employed in these systems. It is reported that LiBr–H2O has a conditions (moderate or extreme) [14].
higher coefficient of performance (COP) than that of the other (iv) Sizing study of the solar assisted air conditioning
working fluids [9]. The results of TRNSYS are inserted in SACE and the process
For various reasons, LiBr–H2O system is considered to be better of the output shows the feasibility or not of the system
suited for most solar absorption air conditioning applications, and application in a specific building.
it will be the only combination examined here [10]. (v) Carry out studies on optimized solutions for the solar fraction by
The objective of this work is to simulate a complete system varying the technical characteristics that mainly concern the:
comprised of a solar collector, a storage tank, a backup heat source,  solar collector surface
a water cooling tower and a LiBr–H2O absorption chiller. This  absorption chiller power
system aims to cover a fraction of the total cooling and heating  boiler power
energy demands of a hospital in Crete, throughout the year. During  water tank volume
the process specialized software was used.  cooling tower type and power
The optimization parameters were: collector plate area, (vi) Economical evaluation of optimized solutions
collector plate slope angle, volume of hot water storage tank,
Solar processes are generally characterized by high
nominal power of absorption chiller, cooling tower and backup
investment and low operating cost. Thus the basic economic
heat source; the criteria to optimize is the solar fraction for cooling,
problem is one of comparing an initial known investment
for heating as well as the overall solar fraction.
with estimated future operating savings. The cost of any
2. Methodology energy delivery process includes all the items of hardware and
labour that are involved in the installation of the equipment,
2.1. Software description plus the operating expenses. It is vital to determine the
primary energy savings and relevant costs for different SCS.
Transient System Simulation Program (TRNSYS) v.15 was used Several economic criteria have been proposed for evaluating
to simulate the building, in order to calculate its demands in terms and optimizing SE systems, and there is no universal
of cooling and heating energy required in combination with two agreement on which should be used [15].
smaller programs: SimCad and Prebid. The installation of equipment involves costs for labour,
Solar Air Conditioning in Europe (SACE) program was used for foundations, supports, construction expenses and other
the feasibility study of the solar assisted air conditioning system factors directly related to the erection of purchased equip-
[11]. Both of these programs require the weather values of a typical ment [16].
meteorological year (TMY), obtained through the ‘‘Meteonorm’’ To be considered effective, a solar system must be able
software. under sustained conditions to match the cooling output of a
conventional system, while using less electricity or fossil fuel.
2.2. Steps of the applied methodology This saving can be estimated only if a basis for comparison is
defined. The appropriate basis is the conventional vapour
The methodology is composed of the following steps [12,13]: compression chiller. Energy saving is the cost of the
conventional energy minus the costs of SE.
(i) Collection of the required meteorological data of the (vii) Optimization of the system and final remarks
examined area. As a final proposal is chosen the optimized solution which
These data concern the solar radiation, the relative optimizes both environmental and economic benefits.
humidity and both the strength and the direction of wind.
Average monthly weather values of a TMY, were obtained 3. Application – results
through the ‘‘Meteonorm’’ program.
(ii) Study of the maximum, minimum and average heating and 3.1. Meteorological data
cooling energy demands of the building, for determining the
technical characteristics of the system. The National Meteorological Service of Greece provided the
In order to maintain stable humidity and temperature meteorological data, for the city of Sitia covering a time span of at
conditions within the building, the heating and cooling loads least 30 years. After their processing, the average monthly values
should be calculated. These depend on a great number of were calculated as well as the maximum–minimum values, where
parameters, such as: it was considered necessary. From these averages, maximum and
 T. Tsoutsos et al. / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 265–272 267

Fig. 1. Variability of ambient mean monthly temperature and mean monthly relative humidity (Sitia, Crete).

minimum values, assisted by the ‘‘Meteonorm’’ program, three B has an overall surface of 1.250 m2 and consists of three areas. It
TMY were created respectively. accommodates the maternity clinic on the ground floor, the
In Fig. 1 the variability of ambient temperature and relative cardiology and the pathology clinic on the first floor and the
humidity and in Fig. 2 the monthly solar radiation on horizontal pediatric clinic on the second floor. This building was selected due
surface are demonstrated. to the priority of the management of the General Hospital, to the
problems in the existing conventional AC system, and to its
3.2. Building’s profile operation as clinic.
Knowledge of the materials of the building is necessary to
The building studied is part of the facilities of the General conduct the simulation of the thermal behavior of the building and
Hospital of Sitia. The Hospital consists of eight buildings connected is used as inputs in Prebid software. The construction materials are
to each other. Building B is the one studied shown in Fig. 3. Building shown in Table 1 and simulation is presented in Fig. 4. The

Table 1
Construction materials of the building.

Type Construction materials Total

thickness
(cm)

Ground floor Concrete (20 cm), polyethylene (1 cm) 21

1st floor Concrete (20 cm), polyethylene (1 cm) 21
2nd floor Concrete (20 cm), polyethylene (1 cm) 21
Roof Tar, bitumen cloth, lightweight concrete 60
(0.50 cm), bitumen, stones
External walls Brick (10 cm), roof mator, brick (10 cm), 30
plaster
Internal walls Brick (10 cm), plaster 11

Fig. 2. Monthly solar radiation on horizontal surface in situ (Sitia, Crete).

Fig. 3. General Hospital of Sitia. Fig. 4. Profile of the building was created in SimCad.
268 T. Tsoutsos et al. / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 265–272

Fig. 5. Heating and cooling loads (kW) on hourly base.

information needed for every thermal zone of the ground floor, the each room of the building, certain categories of Prebid
1st and 2nd floor of the building concern the volume and the software were selected. These categories refer to people
surface of the rooms. who are seated at rest (patients) and those who are seated
while doing very light work (nurses and doctors in offices).
3.3. Determining parameters of simulation The computers that are installed in the building have a
power of 230 W and are equipped with colored monitors.
(i) Absorption of solar radiation by the walls On the first floor of the building there is monitor of 2.5 kW
The color of the external walls of the building is brown and and an ultrasound device of 1.5 kW.
the radiation absorption factor is 0.82. (v) Hours of operation
(ii) Ventilation The building operates 24 h a day, all year.
The ventilation per individual has been determined (vi) Humidity and temperature
according to a Technical Directive of the Technical Chamber The operational values of humidity and temperature during
of Greece [16]. The values of ventilation of every thermal zone the summer and the winter were determined according to
were chosen to be the mean values of the suggested range. values provided from the Technical Chamber of Greece. The
(iii) Infiltration thermal energy simulation of the building was carried out in
The infiltration of the air was calculated by TRNSYS TRNSYS software.
according to the orientation of the building, the open surfaces
and the meteorological data of the area (especially the 3.4. Required load for cooling and heating
direction and the intensity of wind).
(iv) Internal sources of heat The required energy for cooling and heating was calculated
The lighting of the building includes fluorescent lamps of according to the outputs of TRNSYS. Solar collectors will be
32 W and common lamps of 75 W. Depending on the use of installed in an area next to the building. Therefore, the required

Fig. 6. Heating and cooling energy on monthly base.

 T. Tsoutsos et al. / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 265–272 269

energy for cooling and heating was calculated without having to

take into account an installation on the roof of the building.
Fig. 5 depicts the total cooling loads (blue) and the total heating
loads (red). Axis y is power (kW) and axis x is time (h).
Fig. 6 depicts the energy demands of cooling and heating as
these were calculated in TRNSYS. It is obvious that the annual
required energy of heating is 34.205 kWh and the annual required
energy of cooling is 123.911 kWh.

3.5. Required power of cooling and heating system

In order to define the power of the chiller and the backup boiler,
the assumption that the percentage of 1% of the maximum cooling
and heating loads cannot be covered by them, was made.
This means that the power of the chiller and the backup boiler is
the 31st value of the first highest hourly cooling and heating loads
respectively (since the total values are 3.100). In the first case the Fig. 7. Effect of specific collector area on solar fraction cooling and net collector
hourly cooling loads have been calculated in TRNSYS using the efficiency.
TMY file which includes the mean maximum cooling loads (period
of summer). The power of the cooling system is calculated to be
121 kW. In the case of the backup boiler the TMY file includes the
mean minimum heating loads (period of winter). The power of the
heating system is calculated to be 87 kW.
The accepted value of the summer cooling period is represented as
1%. This means that the power of the cooling system will be the 31st
value of the first highest hourly cooling loads which were calculated
in TRNSYS. In order to calculate the power of the cooling system, a
second simulation of the building was conducted. The difference
from the first is that in this case the TMY file which includes the
maximum cooling and heating loads (period of summer) was used.
The power of the cooling system is calculated to be 121 kW.
In order to calculate the power of the heating system, a third
simulation of the building was conducted. In this case the TMY file
which includes the minimum cooling and heating loads (period of
winter) was used. The power of the heating system is calculated to Fig. 8. Defining the optimum collector area.
be 87 kW.

3.6. Technology of the solar air conditioning system  The absorption chiller in combination with the working fluid of
LiBr–H2O has a higher COP than that of the working fluid of H2O–
The used SCS is a closed system and includes an absorption chiller NH3 [17].
with a working fluid of LiBr–H2O. This system was chosen as:  The LiBr–H2O has a lower cost and better performance than the
H2O–NH3. For these reasons, the LiBr–H2O system is considered
 There are no duct networks in the building and as a result an to be better suited for most solar absorption air conditioning
open system cannot be used. applications [18].

Table 2
Alternative scenarios.

Conventional Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4

Collector area (m2) 0 200 200 500 500

Solar fraction cooling (%) 0 34.05 34.05 74.73 74.73
Electricity for cooling (%) 100 0 65.95 0 25.27
Fossil fuel for cooling (%) 0 65.95 0 25.27 0
Solar fraction heating (%) 0 36.58 36.58 70.78 70.78
Electricity for heating (%) 0 0 0 0 0
Fossil fuel for heating (%) 100 63.42 63.42 29.22 29.22

Table 3
Characteristics of the solar air conditioning system of the four scenarios.

Equipment Type Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4

Chiller Compression – 50 kW – 50 kW
Absor. LiBr–H2O 121 kW 70 kW 121 kW 70 kW

Solar collector Selective 200 m2 200 m2 500 m2 500 m2

Storage tank Hot water 5 m3 5 m3 15 m3 15 m3
Cooling tower Open 280 kW 170 kW 280 kW 170 kW
Auxill. system Pre-heater 175 kW (ad. power: 88 kW) 87 kW 175 kW (ad. power: 88 kW) 87 kW
270 T. Tsoutsos et al. / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 265–272

3.7. Equipment and operation parameters Table 4

Financial data.

In order to select the appropriate solar collector type, four Cost

different types were examined. A flat selective collector was Equipment
selected due to its lower cost per kW. The optimum slope angle was Absorption chiller LiBr–H2O (COP = 0.7) 400 s/kW (2004)
calculated to be 10–158 with South orientation, since it was given Compression chiller (COP = 2.5) 310 s/kW (2004)
Selective solar collector 180 s/m2 (2008)
priority for the maximum performance during summertime.The
Pre-heater (n = 85%) 50 s/kW (2008)
absorption chiller that was used is a WFC chiller produced by Cooling tower 50 s/kW (2004)
YAZAKI. Storage tank 600 s/m3 (2004)
The optimum operational temperature of the system is the one
Cost of energy
which optimizes the efficiency of the absorption chiller and the Electricity 0.25 s/kWh (2008)
efficiency of the solar collectors simultaneously (90 8C). Oil 1.200 s/t (2008)
Solar collectors will be installed in an area next to the building
as the roof of the building is covered by stones for insulation but
also because some solar collectors, used to provide hot water, are 3.9. Alternative scenarios
already installed next to the Hospital.
Four alternative scenarios have been studied, in which there are
3.8. Feasibility study different solar heating and cooling fractions. The first scenario has
been conducted according to Fig. 7. The collector area is the one
The estimation of the optimal surface of solar collectors as that corresponds to the section of the two lines of the diagram (the
well as the solar cooling fraction was performed through SACE solar fraction cooling line and the net collector line) and is 200 m2.
software. This scenario functions with a low solar fraction in comparison
In Fig. 7 the solar cooling fraction as well as the net efficiency of to the second scenario that functions with the highest solar
the collector depending on the specific collector area appears. fraction.

Table 5
Results of annual energy balance for system design.

Annual energy requirements Conventional Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4

Annual total electricity consumption (kWh) 49.564 1.700 33.687 2.200 14.025
Annual electricity consumption of the compression chiller (kWh) 49.564 – 32.687 – 12.525
Annual required heat for cooling (kWh) – 177.016 60.274 177.016 132.284
Annual required heat for heating (kWh) 34.205 34.205 34.205 34.205 34.205

Total annual heat (kWh) 34.205 211.221 94.479 211.221 166.489

Annual heat from 2nd heat source (fossil fuel) (kWh) 34.205 138.435 21.693 54.727 9.995
Annual amount of fossil heat source (primary energy) (kWh) 40.241 162.865 25.521 64.385 11.759
Annual radiation on collector (kWh) – 385.800 385.800 964.500 964.500
Annual heat produced by solar collector (kWh) – 127.584 127.584 318.960 318.960
Annual overall cooling production (kWh) 123.911 123.911 123.911 123.911 123.911
Annual cooling production by compression (kWh) 123.911 – 81.719 – 31.312

Table 6
Investment, operation cost and payback time.

Conventional Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4

Investment cost (s)

Absorption chiller – 48.400 28.000 48.400 28.000
Compression chiller 31.000 – 15.500 – 15.500
Solar collectors – 36.000 36.000 90.000 90.000
Storage tank – 3.000 9.000 3.000 9.000
Pre-heater 4.350 8.750 4.350 8.750 4.350
Cooling tower – 14.000 8.500 14.000 8.500

Total equipment cost 35.350 110.150 101.350 164.150 155.350

Installation cost 4.242 13.218 12.162 19.698 18.642

Total investment cost without funding subsidies 39.592 123.368 113.512 183.848 173.992
Funding (%) – 40 40 40 40
Total investment cost wit funding subsidies – 74.021 68.107 110.309 104.395

Annual operational cost

Cost of maintenance 1.500 1.234 1.135 1.838 1.740
Annual electricity cost 12.391 425 8.422 550 3.506
Annual heat cost (fossil fuel) 4.200 16.995 2.663 6.718 1.227

Total annual cost 18.091 18.654 12.220 9.106 6.473

Total annual savings – 563 5.871 8.985 11.618

Payback time (year)

Payback time without funding subsidies – <0 12.6 16.0 11.5
Payback time with funding subsidies – <0 7.6 9.6 6.9
 T. Tsoutsos et al. / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 265–272 271

Table 7
Environmental benefits.

Environmental benefits Conventional Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4

Saved electricity (kWh) – 47.864 15.877 47.364 35.539

CO2 savings due to electricity savings (kg) – 50.855 16.869 50.324 37.760
Saved fossil fuel energy for heat (kWh) – 122.624 14.720 24.144 28.482
CO2 savings due to heat (fossil fuel) savings (kg) – 33.476 4.018 6.591 7.775
Overall primary energy savings (kWh) – 7.713 49.912 90.267 113.581
Total CO2 savings (kg) – 17.379 12.851 43.733 45.535
Working fluid in the solar air conditioning system – LiBr–H2O LiBr–H2O LiBr–H2O LiBr–H2O
Working fluid in the conventional AC system R-407c R-407c R-407c

Table 8
Comparative table for the hospital situated in three different locations and climates.

Equipment Type Sitia Athens Thessaloniki Basel

Chiller Compression 50 kW 50 kW 45 kW 35 kW
Absor. LiBr–H2O 70 kW 80 kW 70 kW 50 kW

Solar collector Selective 500 m2 600 m2 600 m2 700 m2

Storage tank Hot water 15 m3 25 m3 25 m3 30 m3
Auxill. system Pre-heater 87 kW 91 kW 140 kW 166 kW
Solar fraction cooling (%) – 74.73 31.70 27.17 17.89
Solar fraction heating (%) – 70.78 16.57 8.71 5.33
Solar fraction total (%) – 74.27 28.10 20.53 11.78

In order to find the appropriate collector area in which the conditioning system that is used is a closed system and includes an
highest solar fraction is achieved, it is necessary to use Fig. 8 which absorption chiller of 70 kW with a working fluid of LiBr–H2O. In the
depicts the solar fraction cooling versus the collector area. It is case that the absorption chiller cannot provide the required energy
observed that the appropriate collector area is 500 m2. for cooling, a compression chiller of 50 kW is used in addition. The
In Table 2 the four alternative scenarios and the conventional system includes an auxiliary pre-heater (fossil fuel) of 87 kW.
scenario are presented. The characteristics of the solar air A great advantage of this scenario is that it offers the highest
conditioning system of all scenarios are presented in the Table 3. environmental benefits. The investment cost without funding
The four scenarios are not only compared to each other but also subsidies is 173.992 s with a payback time of 11.5 years. In the
to the conventional system, in order to evaluate their function and case that there is a funding of 40%, the investment cost decreases in
choose the one that optimizes the financial and environmental 104.395 s with a payback time of 6.9 years.
benefits. It is observed that the investment cost is quite high. However,
The basic assumptions made during the economic evaluation this is compensated by the highest environmental benefits, the
are: lower payback time and the highest total annual savings.
The efficiency of an SCS is higher in Crete (the most south
 Maintenance costs: conventional 2%, of solar: 1% of investment amongst the locations examined), but there are environmental
costs [11]. gains (in CO2 emissions) even in N. Europe. However, the payback
 Operating costs associated with a solar process include the cost period for such installations in N. Europe can still be considered
of electricity for operation of pumps, interest charges on funds high.
borrowed to purchase the equipment and others. The operation The application of the solar air conditioning system has several
cost is connected to the specific characteristics of the system. advantages compared to the conventional air conditioning system.
 Installation costs: 12% of the equipment cost [15]. The major benefit is that this technology is environmentally
 The energy inflation is taken to be 2% [18]. friendly and contributes to a significant decrease of the CO2
emissions which cause the green house effect. Also, the total
In Table 4, some necessary financial data are presented. annual savings of the operation of the system are quite
In Tables 5–7 there is a description of the financial study and a considerable. Another benefit is that there are great electricity
study of the environmental benefits of each scenario. and fossil fuel savings. This is important as the reservoirs of fossil
Several simulations, following the previous procedure, were fuels are decreasing resulting to their very high prices. Taking that
performed for the same building situated in three different into account, the application of such systems should dominate the
locations and climates: Athens (central Greece), Thessaloniki future market. This could result in the widespread application of
(North Greece), and Basel (Switzerland). The specifications of these these systems provided that experts who study and apply these
SCS are presented in the Table 8. An optimization of the solar systems gain more experience and specialization in their installa-
collector size and other system parameters was also performed. tion.

4. Conclusions Acknowledgments

The fourth scenario is the one which optimizes the financial and This study has been supported by the IEE Programme of the
environmental benefits. This scenario functions with the highest European Commission, Directorate General TREN, through the
solar fraction and has a solar fraction cooling of 74.23% and the project Removal of non-technological barriers to Solar Cooling
solar fraction heating is 70.78%. The number of solar collectors technology across Southern European Islands (SOLCO, contract no:
necessary to cover the surface of 500 m2 is 179. The solar air EIE/06/116)
272 T. Tsoutsos et al. / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 265–272

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