Information gap

An information gap activity is an activity where learners are missing the information
they need to complete a task and need to talk to each other to find it.

Example
Learner A has a biography of a famous person with all the place names missing,
whilst Learner B has the same text with all the dates missing. Together they can
complete the text by asking each other questions.

In the classroom
Information gap activities are useful for various reasons. They provide an opportunity
for extended speaking practice, they represent real communication, motivation can
be high, and they require sub-skills such as clarifying meaning and re-phrasing.
Typical types of information gap activities you might find include; describe and draw,
spot the difference, jigsaw readings and listenings and split dictations.

Informal assessment
Informal assessment involves observing the learners as they learn and evaluating
them from the data gathered. It can be compared to formal assessment, which
involves evaluating a learner's level of language in a formal way, such as through an
exam or structured continuous assessment.

Example
The teacher has carried out informal assessment of the learners during speaking
activities throughout the course by keeping notes about how well individuals are
doing in speaking and uses the data gathered to evaluate the learners at the end of the
course.

In the classroom
Informal and formal assessments are both useful for making valid and useful
assessments of learners' knowledge and performance. Many teachers combine the
two, for example by evaluating one skill using informal assessment such as observing
group work, and another using formal tools, for example a discrete item grammar
test.

Achievement test
An achievement test evaluates a learner's understanding of a specific course or study
programme. It can be compared with proficiency tests, which measure a learner's
level of language, diagnostic tests, which identify areas learners need to work on, and
a prognostic test, which tries to predict a learner's ability to complete a course or take
an exam.

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Example
The learners have finished units 1 - 4 of a coursebook and the teacher now gives them
an achievement test based on what they have seen in these units. The test is taken
from the teacher's book.

In the classroom
Achievement tests can have many additional functions aside from evaluation.
Learners can for example develop an action plan for further study based on the
results of an achievement test.

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is the random generation of ideas based around a topic. There is no
editing or ordering of these ideas. They may then be used as the basis for another
activity such as writing or discussion. It is often very productive as a whole class
activity.

Example
Learners brainstorm the topic of smoking by writing all the words they associate with
it on the board. This is then followed by a discursive essay-writing lesson on the topic.

In the classroom
Brainstorming can encourage learners to think more freely and creatively than if they
were doing a more controlled planning exercise. It allows learners to remember what
they know, and to teach each other. It is a dynamic and stimulating way to lead
learners into a topic.

Communicative approach
The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully
comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in
real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used,
and this will allow them to learn to use the language.

Example
Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information about
their colleagues is an example of the communicative approach, as it involves
meaningful communication.

In the classroom
Classroom activities guided by the communicative approach are characterised by
trying to produce meaningful and real communication, at all levels. As a result there

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may be more emphasis on skills than systems, lessons are more learner-centred, and
there may be use of authentic materials.

Cognitive theory
A cognitive theory of learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious and
reasoned thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies.
Learning strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance
comprehension, learning or retention of information. This explanation of language
learning contrasts strongly with the behaviourist account of language learning, which
sees language learning as an unconscious, automatic process.

Example
This view leads to a classroom focus on using learning strategies that have been
observed in successful language learners and to a view of the learner as an
'information-processor'; with limitations as to how much new information can be
retained, and who needs strategies to be able to transfer information into memory.

In the classroom
Relevant activities include; review and revision, class vocabulary bags, using a
scaffolding approach with young learners, analysis and discussion of language and
topics, inductive approaches and learner training

Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use in order to
learn more successfully. These include; repetition, organising new language,
summarising meaning, guessing meaning from context, using imagery for
memorisation. All of these strategies involve deliberate manipulation of language to
improve learning. Classifications of learning strategies distinguish between cognitive
strategies and two other types; metacognitive strategies (organising learning), and
social/ affective strategies (which enable interaction).

Example
A learner remembers new words by visualising them represented in a memorable or
ridiculous situation. This makes it easier and faster to recall these words.

In the classroom
Activities which can be described as cognitive strategies include making mind maps,
visualisation, association, mnemonics, using clues in reading comprehension,
underlining key words, scanning and self-testing and monitoring.

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Controlled language
Controlled language is language that the teacher gives the class that is in some way
changed to suit the level or the aims of the lesson. This contrasts with authentic
language, which is not adjusted in any way.

Example
A teacher may prepare a written biography of a famous person that only uses present
simple tense, for an elementary class.

In the classroom
There is debate over the use of controlled and authentic language. Many teachers
favour an 'in at the deep end' approach, where the target language is within a text that
is not changed.

Controlled practice
Controlled practice is a stage in a lesson where learners practise new language in a
limited form. It can be compared to free practice, which involves learners producing
language using the target content freely.

Example
The teacher has shown the learners the form and use of the past passive form. They
now practice using the structure by completing sentences using cues, e.g.
My car (stolen) _________ last week.

In the classroom
Controlled practice can still be meaningful despite its limitations. For example, we
could ask the learners to complete the following based on their experiences:
(What?) was stolen (when?).
This is even more controlled in terms of the target language but allows the learners to
personalise the activity.

Correction codes
Correction codes are symbols the teacher uses when correcting written work. The
code tells the learner what type of error they have made, and learners can then
attempt to correct their errors themselves, using the symbols to guide them.

Example
The following is an example of correction using a code:
I felt very comfortable in my new house SP (spelling)

In the classroom
Typical codes include; WO (word order); WW (wrong word); T (tense); and P

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(punctuation). Teachers use correction codes to develop the learners' ability to
correct and edit their own work, as well as making learning from errors more
memorable. However, some learners are either resistant to self-correction or find it
difficult.

Classroom management
Classroom management refers to the decisions a teacher makes regarding the
physical environment and resources available to them, including furniture, resources,
learners and themselves. These decisions are made to support the aims of the class.

Example
The decision to put individual tables together into one big circle for an open class
discussion supports the aim of involving all learners in the activity.

In the classroom:
Different classroom activities require very different management and an essential
part of planning is to make decisions about areas such as learner groupings, teacher
involvement, positioning of furniture where possible, instruction giving and timing.

Diagnostic test
A diagnostic test is a test that helps the teacher and learners identify problems that
they have with the language.

Example
At the start of the course, the teacher gives the learners a diagnostic test to see what
areas of language need to be in the syllabus.

In the classroom
Progress tests given during the course can also act as diagnostic tests as they help the
teacher and learners identify what areas will be looked at next on the course.

Diphthong
A diphthong is a one-syllable sound that is made up of two vowels. In Received
Pronunciation English there are eight diphthong sounds.

Example
The sound /ei/ in play and made is a diphthong made up of two vowel sounds, /e/
and /i/.

In the classroom
Learners often have problems discriminating between diphthong sounds (and also
certain vowel sounds which are similar) and exercises that raise awareness and

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practise recognition are useful. Examples include sounds bingo, minimal pairs, odd
one out and sorting.

Direct method
The direct method of teaching was developed as a response to the Grammar-
Translation method. It sought to immerse the learner in the same way as when a first
language is learnt. All teaching is done in the target language, grammar is taught
inductively, there is a focus on speaking and listening, and only useful ‘everyday'
language is taught. The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a
second language can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact the
conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different.

Example
The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.

In the classroom
Aspects of the Direct Method are still evident in many ELT classrooms, such as the
emphasis on listening and speaking, the use of the target language for all class
instructions, and the use of visuals and realia to illustrate meaning.

Drill
A drill is a classroom technique used to practice new language. It involves the teacher
modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. There are different
kinds of drilling, such as choral drill, which involves the whole class, and substitution
drill, where the teacher changes the cue words after each repetition.

Example
The following sequence is an example of a substitution drill
Teacher: I like cheese
Learners: I like it
Teacher: I like apples
Learners: I like them
Teacher: I like Sue etc

In the classroom
Drilling is a classroom technique which some teachers reject due to a possible lack of
communicative quality and its highly controlled, teacher-centred nature. However,
there are advantages to it also, such as offering learners an opportunity to practise
pronunciation in a non-threatening dynamic.

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Elicitation
Elicitation is a technique by which the teacher gets the learners to give information
rather than giving it to them.

Example
A teacher elicits the rules for the structure of the first conditional by asking learners
to look at some examples, then writing 'We make the first conditional in English
with…?' on the board.

In the classroom
Elicitation is an important technique for various reasons. It helps develop a learner-
centred dynamic, it makes learning memorable as learners can link new and old
information, and it can help produce a dynamic and stimulating environment.

Feedback
Feedback is information a teacher or another speaker, including another learner,
gives to learners on how well they are doing, either to help the learner improve
specific points, or to help plan their learning. Feedback can be immediate, during an
activity, or delayed, at the end of an activity or part of a learning programme and can
take various forms.

Example
A teacher agrees with learners that they will not be corrected during a conversation
activity but that the teacher will take notes and give feedback afterwards.

In the classroom
In correction, it is typical to use feedback in a way that shows the learner has made a
mistake, but allows the learner to attempt to correct it themselves. Facial expression,
body language, gesture and intonation can all be used to give this type of feedback to
speaking. Correction codes are used in writing to achieve this; if learners have made a
word order mistake, the teacher marks 'WO' at that point, allowing the learner to go
back and correct it themselves.

Formal assessment
Formal assessment uses formal tests or structured continuous assessment to evaluate
a learner's level of language. It can be compared to informal assessment, which
involves observing the learners' performance as they learn and evaluating them from
the data gathered.

Example
At the end of the course, the learners have a final exam to see if they pass to the next

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course or not. Alternatively, the results of a structured continuous assessment
process are used to make the same decision.

In the classroom
Informal and formal assessments are both useful for making valid and useful
assessments of learners knowledge and performance. Many teachers combine the
two, for example by evaluating one skill using informal assessment such as observing
group work, and another using formal tools, for example a discrete item grammar
test.

Formative assessment
Formative assessment is the use of assessment to give the learner and the teacher
information about how well something has been learnt so that they can decide what
to do next. It normally occurs during a course. Formative assessment can be
compared with summative assessment, which evaluates how well something has been
learnt in order to give a learner a grade.

Example
The learners have just finished a project on animals, which had as a language aim
better understanding of the use of the present simple to describe habits. The learners
now prepare gap-fill exercises for each other based on some of their texts. They
analyse the results and give each other feedback.

In the classroom
One of the advantages of formative feedback is that peers can do it. Learners can test
each other on language they have been learning, with the additional aim of revising
the language themselves.

Free practice
Free practice is a stage in a lesson where learners produce language using the target
content freely. It can be compared with controlled practice, which involves learners
producing the language previously focussed on in a restricted context.

Example
The teacher has shown the learners the form and use of the present passive form.
They have practised using the structure by completing sentences using cues, and now
they practise the form more freely by describing a process they have chosen.

In the classroom
Free practice appears in the production stage of a PPP lesson (Presentation, practice,

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Production), and can also be the first stage in models such as TTT (test-teach-test)
and ARC (Authentic Use-Restricted Use-Clarification and Focus)

Guided writing
Guided writing involves a teacher working with a group of learners on a writing task.
The aims of the task are based on what they have previously been learning about the
writing process. Guided writing aims to support learners in this psychologically and
cognitively difficult activity.

Example
The learners have been looking at how conjunctions are used to contrast and compare
ideas. They are now writing a short discursive essay on the subject of animal
experimentation. The teacher is working with the groups to guide them in the correct
use of the target language.

In the classroom
Guided writing can be fully exploited by providing learners with the language they
need to complete the task together with the teacher. For example, this may include
making suggestions (‘Why don't we start by saying...?'), agreeing and disagreeing
(‘That's a good idea - let's put that'), and asking for help (‘Is it right to say...?').

Humanistic
Humanistic language teaching is an approach based on the principle that the whole
being, emotional and social, needs to be engaged in learning, not just the mind.

Example
A teacher always responds to the content of learners' written work, not just the
quality of the language. They write an extended 'answer' to this work, and also offer
choices for learners who prefer to write on another topic.

In the classroom
Humanistic teaching approaches include the Silent Way, Community Language
Learning, Total Physical Response and Suggestopaedia.

Inductive approach
An inductive approach to teaching language starts with examples and asks learners to
find rules. It can be compared with a deductive approach that starts by giving
learners rules, then examples, then practice.

Example
Learners listen to a conversation that includes examples of the use of the third

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conditional. The teacher checks that the students understand the meaning of its use
through checking learners' comprehension of the listening text, and only after this
focuses on the form, using the examples from the text to elicit rules about the form,
its use and its pronunciation.

In the classroom
Inductive approaches to presenting new language are commonly found in course
books, and form part of a general strategy to engage learners in what they learn.
Some learners may need introduction to inductive approaches since they may be
more familiar, and feel more comfortable with a deductive approach.

Initiation-response-feedback IRF
Initiation-response-feedback, or IRF, is a pattern of discussion between the teacher
and learner. The teacher initiates, the learner responds, the teacher gives feedback.
This approach to the exchange of information in the classroom has been criticized as
being more about the learner saying what the teacher wants to hear than really
communicating.

Example
The teacher asks a learner for rules about use of the present perfect, the learner gives
an answer, and the teacher says whether that is correct or not.

In the classroom
Although this approach has been criticized, it can provide a useful framework for
developing meaningful communication in a controlled form. For example, there is
room for authentic input in an IRF dialogue such as:
- How many brothers have you got?
- Three!
- Oh so you've got three brothers! That's a big family! Etc

Jigsaw
A jigsaw listening or reading activity is an information gap exercise. Learners hear
or read different parts of a text, then exchange information with others in order to
complete a task.

Example
Learners in three groups hear different versions of an encounter with aliens. Together
with other learners, they complete comprehension questions based on all three
descriptions of the encounter.

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In the classroom
Jigsaw tasks are an excellent way to integrate the skills, as learners read or listen to a
text, and speak and listen to others to reconstruct the information in the text. Most
written texts can be made into a jigsaw activity easily. Managing a jigsaw listening
exercise is more challenging as it requires multiple tape recorders, enough space to
listen without disturbing other groups, and time.

Jumble activity
In a jumble activity learners need to put sentences or paragraphs from a text, or
pictures illustrating a text, into the correct order.

Example
The learners put jumbled pictures into a possible order and then read the text to see if
their ideas are right.

In the classroom
Ordering jumbled sentences and paragraphs is an excellent way to raise learners'
awareness to features of discourse

Learning strategies
Learning strategies are tools and techniques that learners develop as they learn.
Learning strategies are an important part of developing autonomy.

Example
A learner keeps a small notebook in their pocket and records interesting new
language when they hear it, then researches it later using online reference material
they have been shown.

In the classroom
There are a wide range of strategies available to learners. A teacher's responsibility is
to expose learners to as many as possible, give them the opportunity to experiment,
and help them identify what works.

Lexical approach
The lexical approach is a way of analysing and teaching language based on the idea
that it is made up of lexical units rather than grammatical structures. The units are
words, chunks formed by collocations, and fixed phrases.

Example
The phrase 'Rescue attempts are being hampered by bad weather' is a chunk of
language, and almost a fixed phrase. It is formed by the collocations 'Rescue' +

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'attempt', 'rescue attempt' + 'hampered', 'hampered' + 'by', 'hampered by' + 'bad
weather'.

In the classroom
A simple activity to incorporate the lexical approach is to encourage learners to
identify and record lexical chunks and fixed phrases in texts they read.

Methodology
Methodology is a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach. It
will be based on beliefs about the nature of language, and how it is learnt (known as
'Approach')

Example
Grammar Translation, the Audiolingual Method and the Direct Method are clear
methodologies, with associated practices and procedures, and are each based on
different interpretations of the nature of language and language learning.

In the classroom
Many teachers base their lessons on a mixture of methods and approaches to meet
the different needs of learners and the different aims of lessons or courses. Factors in
deciding how to teach include the age and experience of learners, lesson and course
objectives, expectations and resources.

Objective test
An objective test is a test that has right or wrong answers and so can be marked
objectively. It can be compared with a subjective test, which is evaluated by giving an
opinion, usually based on agreed criteria. Objective tests are popular because they are
easy to prepare and take, quick to mark, and provide a quantifiable and concrete
result.

For example
True or false questions based on a text can be used in an objective test.

In the classroom
Marking objective tests together in the class is a useful way to exploit them further as
it gives the learners the opportunity to discuss answers, try to justify choices, and
help each other etc.

On-the-spot correction
On-the-spot correction is when a teacher corrects a learner's mistake as soon as they
make it.

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Example
The learner is telling the teacher about a hobby and says, ‘I am going every weekend'.
The teacher immediately elicits or says ‘I go every weekend'.

In the classroom
On-the-spot correction techniques include giving the correct answer, echoing the
learner but correcting the language, and using facial expressions and gestures to
indicate where the problem was in what the learner said, and therefore encourage
learners to correct the mistake themselves.

Peer correction
Peer correction is a classroom technique where learners correct each other, rather
than the teacher doing this.

Example
Using a computer room, each learner quickly writes a short text on someone who has
inspired them. They then move to the next terminal and correct the next learner's
text. This rotation continues until they come back to their work.

In the classroom
Peer correction is a useful technique as learners can feel less intimidated being
helped by others in the class. However, some learners are highly resistant to being
corrected by someone other than the teacher.

PPP
PPP is a paradigm or model used to describe typical stages of a presentation of new
language. It means presentation, production and practice. The practice stage aims to
provide opportunities for learners to use the target structure. Criticism of this
paradigm argues that the freer 'practice' stage may not elicit the target language as
it is designed to do, as in this meaning-based stage, students communicate with any
language they can. It is not clear that forcing students to use certain structures to
communicate in a practice activity will necessarily mean they will use these structures
spontaneously later.

Example
The teacher presents and illustrates the communicative purpose of a new structure 'If
I was you…' for advice. Then learners use prompts to complete sentences with the
correct forms of the verbs. They practise by giving each other advice.

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In the classroom
Despite current doubts about the usefulness of the practice stage in the PPP model, it
is still a common framework to find in classes and in materials.

Pre listening
Pre-listening activities are things learners do before a listening activity in order to
prepare for listening. These activities have various purposes, including pre-teaching
or activating vocabulary, predicting content, generating interest and checking
understanding of task.

Example
The learners are going to listen to a radio programme about sharks. First, they work
in groups to pool their knowledge of sharks and then tell the rest of the class.

In the classroom
Pre-listening tasks include discussion questions, true or false statements, vocabulary
work, prediction tasks and brainstorming the topic.

Pre teaching
Pre-teaching is the teaching of the language learners need before an activity.

Example
The learners are going to hear a short discussion on environmental issues. Before
listening, they match key environment words to definitions.

In the classroom
In order to pre-teach vocabulary effectively, the teacher needs to identify what their
learners already know and what might cause problems. Although course books often
provide this information in pre-teaching stages, many teachers take time when
planning to identify problem areas.

Prediction
Prediction is an activity learners carry out before reading or listening to a text, where
they predict what they are going to hear or read. This gives them a reason to listen or
read, as they confirm or reject their predictions.

Example
Learners are going to listen to a presentation about a journey through Africa. They
predict what vocabulary they might hear, and also what kind of emotions the speaker
might have felt. They listen to confirm their ideas.

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In the classroom
Prediction is a valuable stage in listening and reading activities. It mirrors L1 skills
use, where predictions form an important base for being able to process language in
real time. Both content and language can be predicted

Productive skills
The productive skills are speaking and writing, because learners doing these need to
produce language. They are also known as active skills. They can be compared with
the receptive skills of listening and reading.

Example
Learners have already spent time practising receptive skills with a shape poem, by
listening to it and reading it. They now move on to productive skills by group writing
their own, based on the example.

In the classroom
Certain activities, such as working with literature and project work, seek to integrate
work on both receptive and productive skills.

Proficiency test
A proficiency test measures a learner's level of language. It can be compared with an
achievement test, which evaluates a learner's understanding of specific material, a
diagnostic test, which identify areas to work on, and a prognostic test, which tries to
predict a learner's ability to complete a course or take an exam. Proficiency tests are
uncommon within the classroom but very frequent as the end aim (and motivation)
of language learning.

Example
IELTS and TOEFL are examples of proficiency tests.

In the classroom
Proficiency tests often have a significant backwash effect on the classroom, as
learners' focus narrows to preparing the test items. One way to make practice for
exams more meaningful is by asking learners to prepare their own practice questions
for the group.

Realia
Realia are real things that are brought to the class and used as a resource.

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Example
The learners are learning to describe clothes. In turn, they describe someone in the
class for others to identify.

In the classroom
Realia can include the learners themselves, the classroom, furniture, the school,
published material such as advertisements and menus, the contents of learners'
pockets and bags, and the view outside the window.

Receptive skills
The receptive skills are listening and reading, because learners do not need to
produce language to do these, they receive and understand it. These skills are
sometimes known as passive skills. They can be contrasted with the productive or
active skills of speaking and writing.

Example
Often in the process of learning new language, learners begin with receptive
understanding of the new items, then later move on to productive use.

In the classroom
The relationship between receptive and productive skills is a complex one, with one
set of skills naturally supporting another. For example, building reading skills can
contribute to the development of writing.

Self-assessment
Self-assessment is where learners assess their language proficiency, rather than a
teacher doing it.

Example
Learner portfolios often include a form of self-assessment, such as a checklist that
relates to the completion of the learning aims. For a writing task, this might be a list
of questions such as: Have you included an introduction? Have you got clear
paragraphs? Does each paragraph cover one main idea?

In the classroom
Like all forms of evaluation, self-assessment needs clear criteria in order for it to
work. Learners can be encouraged to participate, by developing assessment criteria
together. This helps them become aware of what they have to work on.

Self-correction

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Self-correction is when learners correct themselves instead of a teacher doing it.
Teachers can involve learners in self-correction to different degrees, by giving
learners more or less guidance as to the location and nature of their errors, and
examples of good use of language to compare their own to.

Example
The learner says ‘I feel relax' and then immediately changes this to ‘I feel relaxed'.

In the classroom
Learners can be helped to self-correct with various degrees of help. Using a correction
rubric for written homework involves a lot of guidance, but using a facial expression
to indicate there is a problem when a learner says something involves less. Giving
learners enough time to self-correct in conversation is an effective technique in itself.

Scanning
Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or
names. It can be contrasted with skimming, which is reading quickly to get a
general idea of meaning.

Example
A learner taking a reading test needs to scan a text on population rates quickly to find
out if a series of statements about the population figures are true or false.

In the classroom
As the above example shows, scanning is a specific reading skill which is often used in
combination with others such as skimming and intensive reading. Learners need to
learn different ways and understand that choosing how to read is an important step
in building reading skills.

Skimming
Skimming is reading a text quickly to get a general idea of meaning. It can be
contrasted with scanning, which is reading in order to find specific information, e.g.
figures or names.

Example
A learner taking a reading exam decides to approach text by looking at the title,
introductions, and any diagrams and sub-headings, then skim reading to get a clear
general idea of what the text is about.

In the classroom
Skimming is a specific reading skill which is common in reading newspapers,
messages and e-mails. It is important that learners understand that there is no need

17
to read every word when skimming, so often teachers set this as a timed task to
encourage speed.

Silent way
The silent way is a methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers
should be as silent as possible during a class but learners should be encouraged to
speak as much as possible. There are three basic principals:
- The learner needs to discover or create
- Learning is made easier by the use of physical objects such as Cuisenaire rods
- Learning is made easier by problem-solving using the target language

Example
The teacher shows the learners a small red Cuisenaire rod and a bigger blue one and
says ‘The blue one is bigger than the red one'. The learners repeat this. The teacher
then substitutes the rods to produce other models, and finally encourages the
learners to produce their own comparisons.

In the classroom
Areas of target language where Cuisenaire rods can be useful include word
boundaries, contracted forms, prepositions, word order and word stress. Learners
can use the rods to first represent and then to manipulate language.

Sub skills
The language skills of speaking, listening, writing and reading are often divided into
sub-skills, which are specific behaviours that language users do in order to be
effective in each of the skills.

Example
Learners developing the skill of listening need to have the sub-skill of being able to
recognise contracted forms in connected speech.

In the classroom
Learners spend time developing a wide range of sub-skills as they build each of the
four skills. Amongst the sub-skills focussed on are scanning and skimming in
reading, organisational and editing skills in writing, recognition of connected
speech and understanding gist in listening, and pronunciation and intonation in
speaking.

Subjective test

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A subjective test is evaluated by giving an opinion. It can be compared with an
objective test, which has right or wrong answers and so can be marked objectively.
Subjective tests are more challenging and expensive to prepare, administer and
evaluate correctly, but they can be more valid.

Example
Tests of writing ability are often subjective because they require an examiner to give
an opinion on the level of the writing.

In the classroom
Learners preparing for a subjective writing test, for example a letter of complaint,
need to think about their target audience, since they are being asked to produce a
whole text. Teachers can help them by emphasizing the importance of analysing the
question and identifying the key points of content, register, and format.

Substitution drill
A substitution drill is a classroom technique used to practise new language. It
involves the teacher first modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it.
The teacher then substitutes one or more key words, or changes the prompt, and the
learners say the new structure.

Example
The following sequence is an example of a substitution drill:
Teacher: I have a new car Learners: Have you? Teacher: I don't like fish Learners:
Don't you? Teacher: I love coffee Learners: Do you?

In the classroom
Despite a move away from drilling as a classroom technique, many teachers still use
them to provide practice. One way to move a drill away from being teacher-centred is
to ask a learner to lead the activity.

Task-based syllabus
A task-based syllabus is based on task-based learning, an approach where learners
carry out tasks such as solving a problem or planning an activity. The language learnt
comes out of the linguistic demands of the activity. A task-based syllabus is
structured around a series of these tasks.

Example
A teacher uses a series of projects on British culture as a syllabus for teenage learners
on a summer course in the UK, and applies the task-based approach to the work the
learners do.

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In the classroom
Various elements of the task-based approach are applicable to activities in other
methodologies. For example, learners can see a model of the activity they are to do
first, prepare a report of how they completed a task, or a project, and the teacher can
record this report and analyse it for further work.

Tbl
Task-based learning is an approach to language learning where learners are given
interactive tasks to complete. In order to do this, they need to communicate. Once the
task is complete, then the teacher discusses the language used.

Example
The learners plan an itinerary for a guest who is coming to stay with their teacher.
They research places to visit and timetables. They prepare a written schedule and a
short guide. Once the task is completed, they discuss some of the language that has
been important with the teacher.

In the classroom
Tasks can provide an organisational structure for a teacher who believes in the
Communicative Approach. Tasks provide meaningful communication and an
opportunity to acquire language through real language use. Task-based learning may
become more appropriate at higher levels.

Teacher centred
A teacher-centred approach is one where activity in the class is centred on the
teacher. It can be compared to a learner-centred approach.

Example
A typical Presentation - Practice - Production (PPP) lesson tends to be teacher-
centred, as the teacher leads the activity and provides necessary information, usually
in an open-class arrangement.

In the classroom
Teacher-centred lessons are generally associated with traditional approaches to
language learning, but teacher-centred activity can be useful in a variety of ways in
teaching. The teacher is an effective model of the target language and an important
source of information on how the learners are doing.

Teacher role

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Teacher role refers to the different functions a teacher can have in a class. The role
usually implies the relationship between the teacher and learner, particularly in
terms of the autonomy the learner has over their learning.

Example
Facilitator, assessor, manager and evaluator are all teacher roles.

In the classroom
Teacher roles can be discussed with learners as part of learner training, along with
other aspects of classes. Learners can think about what roles they prefer for their
teacher, how this preference fits in with other aspects of their learning style, and why
the teacher chooses each role.

Warmer
A warmer is an activity at the start of the class to warm up the learners. They tend to
be short, dynamic activities. Warmers can be compared to coolers, which are short
activities to finish the class.

Example
The learners are going to read a text about computers in the lesson. The teacher asks
them to change their seating and sit down in an order based on how much they use a
computer. This requires them to move around and talk to each other.

In the classroom
Warmers and coolers are not isolated activities but can serve to introduce a topic or
to recycle some previously learnt language in an enjoyable way.

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