Bharathidasan University Tiruchirappalli - 620 024 Centre For Distance Education

BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 024
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION
TEACHING OF ENGLISH
B.Ed. I YEAR
(Copyright reserved) For Private Circulation only
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Chairman
Dr.V.M.Muthukumar
Vice-Chancellor
Bharathidasan University
Tiruchirapplli-620 024
Vice-Chairman
Dr.C.Thiruchelvam
Registrar
Course Director
Dr. R. Babu Rajendran
Director i/c
Centre for Distance Education
Course Material Co-ordinator
Dr.K.Anandan
Professor & Head, Dept .of Education, CDE

Author
Dr.S.Parthiban
Principal i/c
Govt.College of Education
Vellore- 632006
The Syllabus adopted from 2015-16 onwards
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UNIT – I
STRUCTURE
1.1. OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON
1.2. ROLE OF ENGLISH IN THE PRESENT-DAY INDIA
1.2.1. English as a National Link Language.
1.2.2. English as an International Link Language.
1.2.3. English as a Library Language.
1.3. RATIONALE FOR LEARNING ENGLISH
1.4. POSITIONS OF ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM
1.4.1. Aims of Teaching English at the Primary Level.
1.4.2. Aims of Teaching English at the Secondary Level.
1.4.3. Aims of Teaching English at the Higher Secondary Level.
1.5. OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
1.6. TEACHING THE COMMUNICATION SKILLS
1.6.1. Teaching Listening.
1.6.2. Teaching Speaking.
1.6.3. Teaching Reading.
1.6.4. Teaching Writing.
1.7. LET US SUM UP
1.8. KEY WORDS
1.9. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
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1.1. OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON
English, in India, is mainly taught as a second language. Hence, the aim of this unit is to
familiarise the students with the importance of learning English as a second language. Also, this
unit focuses on establishing English as a world, official, link and library language. Psychology
and linguistics play a major role in language acquisition. As this is so, this unit enables the
learners to realise the contribution of Psychology and Linguistics in language learning and
exposes the interference of Mother Tongue in learning English as a second language.
1.2. ROLE OF ENGLISH IN THE PRESENT-DAY INDIA
Language is an essential element in the culture of any society. We live in a community and
our living in a community is made meaningful mainly by the language. In the words of Leonard
Bloomfield,
“Community is formed by the activity of language, and speech utterances give us the most
direct insight into its working”.
Language is a tool to understand and appreciate the culture of a human society and we
must learn its language to understand it clearly. When English people started ruling India, it is
not clear whether they tried to realize the importance of Indian languages as media to learn and
appreciate the Indian culture but they were very categorical that Indians learn their language for
other purpose. They had to spend a lot of money on clerical work as they had to recruit clerks
from Britain. So, Lord Macaulay thought to teach English to Indian people mainly to produce
cheap clerks. This is a kind of outsourcing that English people applied even more than three
hundred years ago. Now, English has become a part and parcel of people of India. It has become
an indispensable language. India is a developing country. No progressive country can ill afford to
lose the utility of this world language.
English played a very major role in our fight for freedom. As India is a land of many
languages, the unification of freedom fighters for national cause, seemed to be remote. But again
English only played the role of unifying the freedom fighters from Kashmir to Kanyakumari.
When we weigh the benefit between what English got from India and what India got from
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English, and it is strongly felt that India is benefited more from English. And it is not an
exaggeration to say India is found bondage to English.
English is a language of the court in India. Not only in the Supreme Court, but also in the
High Courts and District Courts, the only suitable language is English. In Tamil Nadu, the law
practitioners are fighting to make Tamil as the language of court. As we say „bad translation of a
good book is a crime‟, attempt to translate the judicial phrases into Tamil will be an uphill task
and sometimes it will render ridiculousness. However, some changes have been done very
recently regarding the language of the court.
In India English is used for international trade and industry. Most of the international
business activities are done through American dollar. This itself forces Indian traders to use
English for their business communications. However, with the falling value of American dollar
against the Indian rupee there is a shift of business dealing from American dollar to European
Euro. But, Brexit (Britain Exit) from European Union rendered volatile to both in business and
also to the English language. The remaining 27 countries in the European Union declared that
they would not use English as the language for communication in their official and business
situations. In pre-Brexit period English had its telling effect in the European union, either the
business is done through American dollar or European Euro, English did not lose its coveted
place in the international trade and industry. Now, it has a paramount importance in the context
of European union managing the official and business works without using English. If the
European union is able to manage their transaction without English, then the coveted place that
English enjoys will definitely be shaken. We have to wait and see if it will be detrimental to the
European union without English. If European union is able to withstand in their businesses
without English, then, the words of Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru will be disproved as he did not
want to replace English by any Indian language for the possible detrimental effect.
English plays a very major role in our educational system. It is taught as a compulsory
subject in almost all the states in the country. Many students find it difficult in getting pass mark
in English. Still English is persistently made a compulsory subject in India. It is the medium of
instruction in technical, medical and law colleges. All PG courses are done through English only.
The Kothari Commission (1966) said, “Mother tongue has a pre-eminent claim as the medium
of instruction at the school and college stages. Moreover, the medium of instruction at the
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school and higher education should generally be the same. The regional language should,
therefore, be adopted as the medium of instruction at the higher stage”. Though, there have
been many voices to give importance to promote regional languages in place of English, the
importance of English in India is not getting reduced. Considering the importance of English,
many Regional Institutes of English have been started to train English teachers.
English is the most important language in the country‟s national life and educational
system. The contribution of English in the growth of knowledge in Medicine, Science and
Technology is so great that we are able to live up to the international standards in these fields.
English has brought home to us the different developments in the international scene and helped
us in properly understanding the world situations. The importance of English in India is felt
stronger today than it was during the ruling of the British.
1.2.1. English as a National Link Language.
English came to India with the British rulers. It was hoped that English also would leave
Indian shores with the British leaving India after giving India its independence. But, it didn‟t
happen. It continues to enjoy a language of more importance now than never before. There are
many reasons for this coveted place for English in India. English is one of the richest languages
of the world and reached far and wide. It is the language of science and technology, commerce,
trade and more importantly it is used for international negotiations. Around 60% of the world‟s
advanced research is done in English and the rest is immediately translated into English.
India, being a land of many languages, requires a common language for communication
between people of different states. India, a democratic country, should have a congenial
relationship between the centre and the states for the development of the country. Though Hindi
is our national language, we are not able to declare Hindi as the only official language of the
country for inter-state or centre-state relationship. It is mainly because, there are many states in
India where Hindi is neither spoken nor understood. There is no other Indian Language that can
solve this problem. So, we need English to fill this gap. Even some states have made their efforts
to introduce their languages as official language but they could not succeed in their attempt. And
we have been following English as Official Language in our country for more than 150 years.
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It is a great concern whether it is good to have more languages and we are disseminated
with the language identity. Regional identification in most cases becomes quite detrimental to
people living in other language area. We see the worst situation gets erupted in Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu whenever there is a dispute over the release of Cauvery water. Plausible solutions
can be arrived only through political and official negotiations. What we cannot achieve by force
can be achieve by words. That way, English has been playing an effective negotiating language
role and that ensures any good relationship that prevails between the two states. It is to cite just
an example and the same disturbing situation is prevailing between the neighbouring states
across India, if not for water problem but for any other reason. So, for any amicable solution to
any type of inter-state problem, English continues to be official language and needs to be
continued as an official language till no time limit is seen on the horizon.
English has been serving as a link language both in international level and national
level. In international level English is a tool for our contact with the outside world. The
importance of English in international level Prof. Ish Kumar says, “As a link with the West,
English is bound to retain an important place. We cannot afford to be isolated even if it were
possible. No country can live an isolated life these days. We need political, economic and
cultural link with the rest of the world. We have had strong debt to the English language and
have taught it for more than a century and half now. We shall, therefore, have to depend on
English for international business and politics and mainly on English for contact with Western
thought and cultures”.
In National level, India has different states with different regional languages spoken.
One may startle to know that more than 1500 languages are spoken in India. However many
languages may not have their own scripts. Different states are ruled by different Chief Ministers.
There are some inter-state problems exist in India. To carry out the discussion for an amicable
solution the representatives of these states should have a common language. And English acts as
a common language.
The imposition of Hindi as the only official language was vehemently opposed by the
southern states. Especially, it was opposed tooth and nail in Tamil Nadu. Many demonstrations
had prompted the Parliament to enact in 1963, the Official Languages Act, 1963, providing
English to be used for an indefinite period.
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English is an Associate Official Language for inter-state communication and
communication between the States and the Centre. So, the first Prime Minister, Nehru assured
the people of southern states that English would continue to be the Associate Official Language,
until the time the southern states accept Hindi as the only official language.
It is worth quoting Jawaharlal Nehru here: “If you push out English, does Hindi fully take
its place? I hope it will. I am sure it will. But I wish to avoid the danger of one unifying factor
being pushed out without another unifying factor fully taking its place. In that event there will be
a gap, a hiatus. The creation of any such gap or hiatus must be avoided at all costs. It is very
vital to do so in the interest of the unity of the country. It is that leads me to the conclusion that
English is likely to have an important place in the foreseeable future.”
1.2.2. English as an International Link Language.
English has become a world language with its spread, defeating all geographical
boundaries. Almost all known countries adopted English as one of the major languages for
instructions in schools and colleges. It is the first language of the United Kingdom, the United
States of America, Canada and Australia. In many European countries and African countries
English is used as a second language. Pakistan, Ceylon and Bangladesh also adopt English as a
second language in their national life and educational system.
Even China and Japan which were reluctant in accepting English into their countries now
started showing regard for English. Thanks to the advent of computers. Bharathidasan University
estimated to admit 1000 students from China by the end of the year 2008, the then Vice-
chancellor Dr. Pannavaiko informed. These students deem India as a favoured destination for
higher education valuing the opportunities for developing their English communication skills. It
is the right testimony for the popularity that English enjoys as a world language.
News items all around the world are printed in English. 50% of the world‟s newspapers,
over 50% of the world‟s scientific and technical periodicals and more than 60% of the world‟s
radio stations use English as medium of communication. This alone can prove that English is a
world language. There is no language that can come closer to the popularity that English enjoys.
English plays a vital role in international relations. More than 50% of the people of the world
prefer to speak in English. Even in India people of Nagaland accepted English as their mother
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tongue. English helps in establishing international relations. And it is the source of better
understanding among different nations of the world.
F.G.French says, “ by accidents of history and by rapid spread of industrial

development, science, technology, international trade and by something like an explosion in the
speed and ease of travel and by all the factors which have broken down frontiers and forced
nations into closer interdependence; English has become a world language”. The Sahitya
Academy of India recognizes English as one of the Indian languages; and Jawaharlal Nehru even
wanted to include it in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, thus giving it statutory
recognition as an Indian language. Because of this great popularity and worldwide distribution,
English has the pre-eminent claim to be the medium of international communication. In fact,
English has ceased to be the language of its native speakers alone as it has already attained the
stature of a world language. So, there is no doubt about the importance of English in world
affairs and it will be to our own advantage if we continue to learn English as a second language.
1.2.3. English as a Library Language.
Kothari Commission (1964-66) had recommended English to be used as Library

Language. It said, “While the goal is to adopt the regional languages as media on education, we
should like to stress again that this does not involve elimination of English. In fact, English, as
an important „library language‟ would play a vital role in higher education. No student should be
considered as qualified for a degree, in particular, a Master‟s degree, unless he has acquired a
reasonable proficiency in English (or in some other library language). The implications of this
are two-fold: all teachers in higher education should be essentially bilingual in the regional
language and in English, and all students (and, particularly postgraduate students) should be able
to follow lectures and use reading materials in the regional language, as well as in English”.
Higher Education in India is possible only through English, as all worthy reference books
are in English. Books on Science and Technology are also available in English. Other countries
may afford to translate these books into their vernacular or national language, but India cannot,
with numerous languages present.
When we consider English as a library language, we expect the learners just to

understand the subject matter contained in library books. India, being a progressive country,
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should eye on its progress in Science and Technology. So, the young generation of India should
keep themselves abreast of the latest developments in the field of science and technology, and for
this, our students will have to acquire a reasonable amount of proficiency in English.
Moreover, English is a language which is rich in literature. If we are not able to access to
this language, then we will be cut off from the entire world. So, we should not allow any
sentimental feeling to prevail against the use of English. Our students, who are comfortable in
English, are bound to lead a comfortable life, as English will open up new vistas of knowledge
and that will give them all prosperity.
English is a rich store house of knowledge. Any important incident or findings are
translated into English. Hence, it is rightly said, “Whatever the future of English may be in
India, one thing is certain. In India, as in other countries, English will maintain-quite probably
increase-its immense usefulness as a library language.
Check you progress

Notes: a) write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Why is English called a library language?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Establish briefly: 'India is found bondage to India'
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3. What is our Associated Official Language? Why should we need it at all?
_________________________________________________________________
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4. Why is English called a world language?
_________________________________________________________________
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5. What do you mean by „Brexit‟?
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1.3. RATIONALE FOR LEARNING ENGLISH
The entire world has become a village with the advent of computer and internet. People
go from one place to other place, frequently, for many purposes. This facilitates to know about
the cultures of other countries. All the people are not privileged to enjoy this facility. A second
language is necessary for this purpose. English is the tool through which we can learn many
things that are existing in the world.
There are many reasons for which the learners learn English as a second language. The
various rationales for learning English are listed below.
 Learn the culture of different countries by direct experience.

 The nuances of other cultures that include festivals and family functions
 Learning the fashion and the life style from the films of other countries
 Knowledge about the working of the language.
 Communicating with family members
 Communicating with friends
 Participating in exchanging cultural and sports events
 Learning English facilitates to travel and study in other countries
 Making it easier to communicate with other countries‟ people
 Developing the skills of working with different cultures
 New ideas and knowledge are got
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 The skills in our mother tongue is developed by contribution from English
So, learning English as a second language can bring a great amount of benefit socially
and personally. It paves way to enjoy different opportunities that can contribute individually and
to the country. While learning English opens up opportunities for work and travel and it also
ensures the personal finding of oneself. Learning the other cultures help us understand and
appreciate our own culture. By all means, the rationale for learning English as a second
language is to understand social, cultural, economic and environmental well-being of our country
better.
1.4. POSITIONS OF ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM
The objectives of teaching English has two main aspects, namely, language aspects like
words, sentences, pronunciation, spelling and grammar and the other aspect being literature
aspect which include words, sentences, expressing ideas, feelings and experiences. In India,
English is taught as a second language. There is a slight difference between English as a foreign
language and English as a second language. A foreign language is learnt, mainly to know the
culture and the living style of people of another nation, whereas, a second language is learnt,
mainly to use the target language in the society. That way, English has to be taught in India, as a
second language. To put it simply, the teachers of English should prepare their students to use
English globally. It means, they have to provide a proper platform for their students to use
English language in any day- to- day situation.
English has become inevitable in the school curriculum. It enjoys all positions like I
language, II language and III language. English is the medium of instruction in all the English
medium schools. Thus, English is the first language in these schools. In other schools English is
taught as a second language. In non-Hindi north Indian states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, West
Bengal, Odiya, their regional language is the first language, Hindi is the second language and
English is the third language. As English enjoys all the three positions in the academic field,
there will not be anybody who completes his studies in India not acquainted with English.
According to Prof. Gatenby there are two general aims: (1) learning the language,
(2) doing something with the language when it is learnt which means understanding the language
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when spoken or written, and expressing one‟s thoughts, feelings and ideas in speech as well as in
writing. The aims of teaching English is to make a student
a) understand English when spoken

b) speak comprehensible English
c) read English and comprehend the content
d )write English with logical cohesion
e) can translate from English to vernacular language and vice versa
1.4.1. Aims of Teaching English at the Primary Level.
English is spreading its wings far and wide of the globe. It is not an exaggeration to say
that there cannot be any place on the earth which is not influenced by English. Increasing
number of users of English is a testimony to its importance. It goes deep into different societies
by its range of societies. Considering the benefits that we get from English, it is mandatory for
the people of India, especially, right from the primary level, to learn English. Besides, learning
English help us to face the global challenges. There is no field in the world which is not
penetrated by the use of computer. Relying on the use of computer stipulates the learning of
English.
In Indian system of school education primary students are expected to take at least five
subjects.
Aims of teaching English at primary level
 To learn English alphabet

 Understand simple statements when spoken.
 To acquire knowledge to read English, at least simple words.
 To gain required vocabulary.
 To produce simple statements.
 To understand simple questions and to answer.
 To identify the objects by their names.
 To read and understand small stories and incidents.
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 To write English legibly and practice the four styles of writing.
1.4.2. Aims of Teaching English at Secondary Level
 To understand spoken English with ease and to understand English from

broadcasting.
 To speak simple English correctly and fluently.
 To read English comprehension at a reasonable speed.
 To pronounce the words correctly so as to decode by others
 To produce simple and meaningful sentences.
 To be engaged in conversation in English
 To write neatly and correctly at a reasonable speed.
 To read and comprehend stories and incidents in social set up and to understand the
content from English new papers.
1.4.3. Aims of Teaching English at the Higher Secondary Level.
 To understand English with ease when spoken at normal conversational speed.

 To read Standard English newspapers regularly.
 To gain ability to understand English from the native speakers and to respond
reciprocally.
 To have the ability to note-making and note-taking.
 To be able to convey one‟s thought and feeling to be understood by others.
 To acquire the vocabulary to tune of all the situations that one encounters.
 To be able to use reference materials like dictionary and thesaurus.
 To develop and enjoy the literary items.
 To develop aesthetic sense through poems in English
 To understand advertisement and apply for higher studies and for job.
 To learn the functional aspects of grammar.
 To be familiarized in the stress and intonation patterns of English
 To be able to answer any open-ended questions in examinations and express all the
thoughts and feeling in English.
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1.5. OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
English has been taught as a second language in India. English came to India with the
British. It came to India from a foreign country. The question arises whether English should be
taught as a foreign language or as a second language. Firstly, we should understand the
difference between learning a foreign language and learning a second language. We learn any
language of other countries as a foreign language. A foreign language is learnt mainly to know
about the life of the people of that country. On learning a foreign language, learner will not have
the chance to use the language in his life situation. Say, if anyone from Trichy wants to know
about the people of France, he may learn French on his own interest, but he will not be able use
the language in the social situation in Trichy. So, he learns French as a foreign language. If
anyone from Puducherry learns French, then, he learns it as a second language, because he has
the opportunities to use French in Puducherry. So, on learning a second language, the learners
should be able to use the language in all his life situations. As English is understood in all parts
of India, it should be taught as a second language. The very basic objectives of teaching English
are to prepare the students to use English globally, in other words, to use English in all situations
that we encounter. Teachers and the learners should keep one thing in their mind is that the
proficiency required in a second language is almost equal to the proficiency in the first language.
Official Language Commission recommended that English should primarily be taught as

a ‘language of comprehension’. In the first six years of study the learners from all sources have
to develop reading comprehension in English, as we learn it mainly for academic purposes. This
should lead to concentrate on other language skills. Even to acquire proficiency in one skill, the
other skills reinforce. That way, all the four language skills reinforce each other. Next, English
should be learnt as a Library Language. As all the reference books are in English and if we
want to develop in Science and Technology and other branches of emerging importance, learning
English has become a paramount objective.
Aesthetic sense plays a major role in leading a meaningful and enjoyable life. Literature
is the main source that can satisfy our aesthetic demands. English has a rich literature. So,
English literature should be learnt, as it is the ultimate objective of learning any language.
Literature can not be appreciated without the language proficiency. L.A. Hill said, “A student
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cannot appreciate the distinctive qualities of the poetical style of a foreign language unless he has
a thorough grounding in the everyday language.
Other main objective of teaching English is to make the learners to have to ability to
translate from mother tongue to English, vice versa as a special skill. Translation would come
in handy in classroom situations, such as, in giving the meaning of words which have exact
translation equivalent in both the languages. Appreciating the poem is another objective.
Poetry will develop a favourable attitude towards the language. Besides, reading aloud and
memorizing of such poetry will improve pupils‟ pronunciation and enable them to recall an
idiomatic phrase or a sentence when needed.
1.6. TEACHING THE COMMUNICATION SKILLS
There have been many methods and approaches to teach English as a second language.
Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method and Situational Approach also could not
sufficiently promote learning English as a second language. Then there was a shift in approach
to teaching of English which emphasized developing communication skills in English. It was the
criticism that was leveled against structural linguistic theory by American linguist Noam
Chomsky that paved way to focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather
than on mere mastery of structures. The very purpose of language learning is to communicate.
Teaching communication skills attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very
beginning. Linguistic system in the target language is learned best through the process of
struggling to communicate. But, by all means, communicative competence is the desired goal.
The very aim of teachers in developing communication skills in students is to help them in any
way to work that motivates them to work with the languages. Fluency and acceptable language
is the main goal and accuracy is judged contextually. Students are expected to communicate
with their peer group in English. And, for this, it is mandatory to acquire proficiency in use of
all language skills viz. Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing.
1.6.1. Teaching Listening.
Listening is the very basic and important skill of all language skills. We say, LSRW
skills when we refer language skills. The order in the LSRW is not randomly fixed, but
scientifically proved. Any language that is learnt in this order, that language is learnt properly.
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We are good in our mother tongue, because we start learning our mother tongue the scientific
order of learning. In the case of learning English as a second language most of our even degree
holders miserably fail, because our approach to learning English is not the one that is tried and
tested, that is LSRW. In lower classes our teachers introduce English straightaway from writing.
Thus, following reverse method of learning a language. So, it is necessary for the learners to
start learning English primarily through listening. Teachers of English should formulate
activities that can develop the learners‟ listening skills.
Three main kinds of listening materials that can be used for teaching listening
 authentic listening materials
 recorded listening materials
 live-listening materials
Authentic Materials for Listening Class

Authentic listening materials are recorded live. The language that is used, not rehearsed.
It is not aimed at any specified level of the learners. So, it is difficult for the beginners. Examples
for authentic listening materials are, cricket commentary, announcement at the railway station,
etc.
Recorded Listening Materials
Unlike Authentic Listening Materials, Recorded Listening Materials have been prepared
with specific aim and for specific set of learners. These listening materials are supported by
worksheets. The students have to solve the worksheets on listening script. For example, in CBSE
- course A Interactive in English is supported by two audio cassettes. These types of cassettes or
CDs are called Recorded Listening Materials.
Live Listening Materials
Here, the teacher himself may be speaking the piece. As the teacher himself asking the
piece, he can approach to the listening activity with keeping the level of the students in his mind.
So, the students may not have any difficulty over the content and the style of the speaker. The
teacher has to possess pronouncing skills with right kind of voice modulation and proper
intonation. If he is not blessed with good pronunciation and other pre-requisites, it is better for
him and his students, not to take up Live Listening Material on his own. It would be an improper
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boldness on the part of the teacher which he should avoid. Moreover, it would lead the students
to acquire wrong pronunciation. No learning is better than wrong learning.
Selective Listening
Auditory approach is the best approach to learn a foreign language. But the process is not
as easy as it seems. The beginners will be in utter confusion on what aspect of the language to be
concentrated upon. Our ears are not properly educated to listen and understand a foreign
language. We are very comfortable with the textbooks only. Relying totally on the textbook to
the acquisition of a foreign language generally adults in imperfect command of the language.
Approach to language learning should be shifted from 'eye' to 'ear' as language is essentially a
motor-auditory phenomenon. Selective Listening' is one of the techniques that will promote
auditory sensitiveness and assimilative capacity.
General Principles of Selective Listening:
Selective listening recommends listening to certain features at a time. The general principles
of selective listening are:
1. It should start from the very moment one first hears a language.
2. Listen for only one feature at a time.
3. Listen successively to all the features of a language.
4. Preference of listening should be in a logical order.
5. Concentrate on the difficult part of the language.
We can consider the language under three main features, namely, 1) phonetic features,
2) vocabulary, and 3) grammar, the order of preference also can be the order mentioned above.
Phonetic Features
Phonetic features of a language should be listened to right from the beginning. It should
be the intonation that should first attract one's attention. After intonation one should listen for
particularly striking consonants. When the listener is able to distinguish a few set of striking
consonants, then he can shift his attention on vowels. Vowels are less contrastive and hence
more difficult to distinguish. After learning to distinguish various individual sounds, he has to
listen for types of sounds, e.g., aspirated consonants, voiced vs voiceless and long vowels vs
short ones.
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LISTENING ACTIVITIES
1. Listening and Following a Route
In this exercise, a root map is given to the students. The teacher, after completing the pre-
listening session, plays the tape on. The tape script has the description of a place and the route to
reach the place. The students should follow the route to locate a specified place.
2. Writing Message of a Telephone Call

Now-a-days telephone has become necessary. So, it is mandatory on the part of the
teacher to train the ear of the students to listen and understand a telephone conversation. It will
facilitate him to have a better communication over phone. Students should listen to a telephone
conversation and write the message of it.
3. Listening to a recipe and complete the write up

A chef may give tips to prepare a food item. An incomplete write up is also given to the
students. They have to listen to the tape script and complete the write up.
4. Listening to a tape script and identifies the kidnapper

A girl was kidnapped. A boy had seen one of the kidnappers. The tape script contains the
interview of a police inspector with the boy who had seen one of the kidnappers. The teacher
gives some photographs to the students. One of them is one of the kidnappers. As they listen to
the tape script they will have to identify the kidnapper among the photographs given to them.
The teachers of English should prepare the students to recognise the characteristics of
English speech sounds, in isolation as well as in combination. The learners should be able to
distinguish such sounds from similar sounds in his mother tongue. They also should understand
the lexical meanings of words in context and grammatical meanings of structures.
Understanding the meaning convey by stress and intonation patterns and grasp the mood of the
speaker and the theme of the discourse also play major roles in listening comprehension. The
learners also should anticipate words and structures from the context for understanding speech at
normal conversational speed and guess the meaning of an unfamiliar word from the context. If
the learners are adept in these points, then, their listening skills will pave way to acquiring other
language skills in English.
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1.6.2. Teaching Speaking.
Language is primarily speech. There are many languages which do not have language
script of their own. But no language exists without speech. So, speech is the most important skill
that should be nourished to communicate our thoughts and ideas to others. Learning through
speech is the natural way of learning a language.
The sub-skills of Speaking
1. Producing English speech sounds and sound patterns, both in isolation and in
combination.
2. Ability to use appropriate stress and intonation patterns.
3. Use apt words and structures to express the intended meaning.
4. Retrieve or recall words and structures quickly.
5. Organise one‟s thoughts and ideas in logical sequence.
6. Ability to adjust one‟s speech according to his audience, situation and subject-matter.
ACTIVITIES TO DEVELOP SPEAKING SKILL
Role Play: Students should be chosen to play some role, may be between two or three. Familiar
roles should be chosen to practice oral skill. It is because while concentrating on developing the
language skill, they should not hunt for ideas. The roles may be, a police and a thief, a passenger
and a conductor, a doctor and a patient, etc. The teacher should necessarily give the situation on
which they will have to play their roles. For example, if the students have to play the role of a
doctor and a patient, then the teacher has to give the problem of the patient. Suppose, the patient
is, scared of undergoing a surgery, then the role play should focus on this aspect where the
doctor has to advice the patient with the zero risk involved in a. surgery with much sophisticated
machines used for surgery
Debate: Debate is one of the exercises that involves all the students in the class and it is the main
means of developing oral skill. Now, let us see how to conduct a debate for a class of 39
students. First, a suitable topic should be chosen. Date for conducting the debate has to be fixed.
Then, the appointment of office bearers for conducting the debate also should be finalised. A
debate chairman, a debate secretary and a time keeper to be appointed from among the students.
Remaining 36 students should be divided into six balanced groups. Three groups are assigned
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'for the topic' and other three groups 'against the topic'. And in each group, a leader should be
chosen, who will initiate the discussion in his group. A secretary for the group also be chosen,
who is entrusted with the work of drafting the points discussed in the group. A speaker for the
group also be chosen, who will present their group's discussion to the entire class. An artist of
group will draw some picture in support of their point of argument. And thus,
Total No. of Students : 39

No. of office-bearers : 03
No. of Groups : 06
No. of Students in a Group : 06
On the fixed date of the debate the Chairman invites some judges (teachers who free at
that particular period) and initiates the debate. The Debate Secretary gives 4e rules and
regulations' of the debate. Speakers are called to present their group's point of view. At the end,
the result will be declared.
Seminar: Seminar is the other means through which oral proficiency can be attained. The topic
of the Seminar may be the choice of the presenter. If teacher gives, the topic should be given in
line with the level of the students. A creative teacher does not encourage his students to just read
out a write up. Seminars should be interesting. The presenter should carry out this activity in
interactive mode.
Group Discussion: Participating in a group discussion is the need of the hour for the job
seekers. This necessity of the students can be effectively exploited as a motivator to develop oral
skill. Group Discussion requires a quick perception on the topic. The other pre-requisites of
group discussion are language fluency and rationally unyielding to the arguments of others.
Cooperative Learning is getting momentum now-a-days. Group Discussion may be a tool for
cooperative learning.
Pair Work: Pair work is another technique that develops oral skill. The students‟ will be set in
pairs. A task is given to them. They have to discuss and complete the task in pairs. The English
teacher can even request the class teacher to make seating arrange that will facilitate pair work.
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Narrating Stories: Students may be asked to tell some stories to develop oral skill. Story telling
is an interesting enterprise for the students. Without much conscious effort, the students will
develop their oral skill.
Language Games: Language Games motivate the learners to learn English. Games can be used
to develop all the four skills, the main being speech skill. The teachers should have exposure to
conduct games to improve the language of his students. They have to create a right kind of
atmosphere to carry out the language games activities.
Narrating Incidents: Students can be asked to narrate some incidents that they witnessed. As
the incident is very much alive in their memory, while narrating incidents they enhance their
ability in speech skill in English. The teacher has to supply the word if the student requires any.
Moreover, the teacher has to correct the student if he uses any wrong word or expression. But he
has to ensure that he does not interrupt quite often which will make the student to lose interest
and may pay a disheveled approach towards narrating incidents.
Interpreting Data: Data on the growth of import of wheat or any other item can be given for a
certain period. Students have to analyze and interpret the rise and fall of the import of the chosen
item.
Describing and Interpreting Features: Students are given some pictures. They have to
describe the picture quite vividly. The teacher can ask even sonic comprehension questions from
the pictures.
Interviews: Students can be trained to acquaint with the aspects of interviewing. The teacher can
appoint one student as a celebrity, like Sachin Tendulkar and another student for interviewing
him. This would be quite interesting and the students can develop their speech skill very easily.
Extempore Speeches: Extempore speeches are the speeches that are made on the spot without
any predetermination. Students are expected to have at least a little knowledge on familiar topics.
The teacher should not prefer to give the topic that his students are not familiar with.
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1.6.3. Teaching Reading
Reading is a complex skill involving a number of simultaneous operations. In India,

English is taught as a second language mainly on academic grounds. Moreover, it is a 'library
language'. As a library language, it helps a student in India to get an access into the modern
scientific and technological world. The skill of reading is of unique importance in the life of a
Check your progress

Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space provided
(b) Compare your answers with the answers given at the end of the unit.
6.What is the difference between Second language and Foreign language?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the language skills of illiterate? Why are they called so?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Why is English called a skill subject?
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
9. What is the interference in learning a second language?
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person. In his book 'Teaching English', A.W, Frisby says, "Reading, for those who have
been guided to appreciate it, is one of the most important activities of life to bring to us not only
a pleasant way for spending the time, but a way of entering into the life of the world and helping
us to contemplate spiritual matters. Many of those who do not approach reading in this have
probably not received in their youth the right encouragement".
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R.S. Trivedi and D.A. Ghanchi say, "In fact, the education of a child is imperfect, unless
he is equipped with ability to read, to decipher, to interpret and to understand the contents of a
reading material: The intellectual advancement of a child is strictly limited, if he is unable to
read."
Sub-Skills of Reading
A learner who can read should possess the following sub-skills:
 recognize and understand the meaning of the words, phrases and sentences
 read aloud with correct pronunciation and proper intonation
 guess the meaning of unfamiliar words contextually
 desirable silent reading habit
 should be able to distinguish between lexical meaning and contextual meaning
 should be able to make summary of the passage read
 should be able to deduce the meaning with different punctuation marks.
Mechanics of Reading
When a person reads anything his eyes do not go smoothly along with the printed or
written symbols. They move by jumps and between jumps it takes rest for a fraction of a second.
The short pauses of the eyes between jumps are called Fixation and the length of print covered
between two fixations is called the Eye-Span.
The quality of one's reading capacity depends on the length of his eye-spans. A good reader
has longer eye-span and a poor reader has a shorter eye-span. And, of course, the efficiency of
one's reading is not determined by the ability to see longer bits of language at once, but it is
determined by the ability to comprehend the matter read. After all, reading is comprehension.
Gestalt says, 'a fast reader understands better'. In some way it is correct. As you read fast,
you may not lose the link between the words in the sentences you read. So, you can understand
better. But, that doesn't mean that the comprehending ability increases proportionately with the
speed of reading.
The Process of Reading
The process of reading has three stages. The first stage is called ‘recognition stage’
where the learners simply recognise a spoken word in its written form. Spelling and
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pronunciation will be difficult if the script of the mother and English. Definitely, Indians at the
initial stage will have to face a lot of difficulties as the script in English and Indian languages
vary quite largely. Moreover, English being a non-phonetic language, we find it difficult in
learning English spelling and pronunciation.
The second stage is called ‘structuring stage’. At this stage the learners is able to
identify the grammatical relationships of the items and thereby understands the structural
meaning of the grammatical units.
The third stage is called the ‘interpretation stage’. At this stage the learners are able to
distinguish between a „statement of fact‟ and a „statement of opinion‟. He is able to understand
the mood of the characters and the purpose of the author. As the learners are able to analyse and
the content beyond the lexical meaning, it is called „interpretation stage‟.
INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE READING

Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is aimed at mastering the structures and vocabulary apart from
reading for comprehension. The pupils have more opportunities to learn the aspects of the
language through intensive reading. If properly carried out, even non-native speakers of English
may develop themselves better users of English than the native speakers of English in writing.
Intensive reading can also be done in the absence of the teachers. So, by spending more time on
intensive reading, one may get language skills in English. And, the only practicable means of
learning a foreign language as a second language is through intensive reading. The intensive
reading has some prerequisites like, the readers should be able identify the words and sentences
spoken orally and acquire sufficient speed in reading.
Extensive Reading
In intensive reading, the pupils pay attention to almost all aspects of language. And
further the efforts of learning the language is supplemented by extensive reading. Extensive
readers should be interesting stories. Magazines, newspapers and variety of story books will
form the material for extensive reader. The two main themes of extensive reading are reading for
pleasure and reading for information.
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Extensive readers facilitate passive vocabulary in the learners. And it also consolidates
active vocabulary. So, the teachers should regularly give some assignment and thus forcing the
students to library. Sending the students to library can be done as a means of assertive
punishment also. As the students read more and more books, their power of phonic analysis
improves and makes the learner to pronounce any word that he sees for the first time. Group
discussion also can be done on extensive reader.
The Process of Teaching Reading

Step I: The teacher should introduce the vocabulary and the structure that are used in the
lesson. He takes up this work as an oral lesson in functional grammar. This is
done before opening the textbook. He has to ensure that he teaches the words and
structures with interesting illustrations contextually.
Step II: This is called pre-reading session. The teacher gives all necessary information that
will facilitate to understand the text while reading. He revises the structure taught
in step l. If the passage to be taught is the continuation of the previous class, then
the teacher has to make the students to recall what they learnt in their previous
class.
Step III: Model reading by the teacher. He reads out the passage with correct
pronunciation, stress, intonation and pause. Pupils listen to the model reading of
the teacher carefully.
Step IV: Pupils read the passage silently. They are encouraged to consult the dictionary for
word-meaning and usage.
Step V: When the pupils complete silent reading, detailed study of the passage is taken up.
The teacher discusses the language aspects of the passage.
Step VI: The teacher recapitulates in order to check the understanding of the pupils on the
passages taught. If any further explanation is required, is given at this point.
Step VII: Post-reading session. Pupils work out some more exercises on vocabulary and
grammar.
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Step VIII: Loud Reading by the pupils. Some teachers follow this loud reading after his
model reading. It is a wrong method, because, pupils should not be allowed to
read aloud anything which they do not understand.
Skimming
Reading over the surface of a piece of writing or glancing rapidly though a text to find
out its general content, central ideas or gist is called skimming. Skimming is a reading skill that
helps on deciding whether the book would be useful for the purpose of his study.
In skimming, you allow your eyes to travel vertically or in zigzag manner to pick up
some important points. The reader has conscious efforts while skimming through leaving quite
meticulously the unwanted ones and concentrating on the main ideas in the text. Skimming is
like a bird flying and still catching its prey, the reader fly over the passage and still catches the
main ideas. Skimming depends on speed and comprehension. If you compromise speed for
comprehension and comprehension for speed, then what you read cannot be called skimming.
Scanning
Scanning means reading through the passage in order to search for a specific item or
piece of information. This skill therefore also involves the ability to reject or pass over irrelevant
information. Scanning also requires a conscious speed. While you skim through a material you
try to get the general idea of the material, but you scan a material to get specific information.
When you scan you are conscious of avoiding all the other words however important they are,
and your main purpose is to locate the specific information you require. Searching for a word in
a dictionary, finding a phone number from a telephone directory, searching for the confirmation
from the chart of authorized travellers in a train are some of the examples.
SQ3R Technique
Teaching of English aims at making the learner to be an independent reader. An efficient
reader should be able to read and comprehend the content that he reads. To become an efficient
reader he has to possess some study techniques. Reading enables the reader to know what
information the author' wants to pass on to him. A skilled reader is not a passive recipient of
what the writer wants to say. But he will comprehend more than what the writer intended to
convey to the readers. For example, take Robert Frost, an American poet. His poems don't have
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any difficult word in them. We get a treasure of meaning from his poems. One cannot assure
whether Robert Frost himself thought these many ideas while writing the poem. The more you
the poem, the more interest you have on it. Only a skilled reader can enjoy this privilege.
A complete reading involves reading, understanding, reacting and integrating. When the
reader fails to react what he reads then the reading will be meaningless and incomplete. So, the
teacher has to prepare his students as active readers. Only by applying better study techniques we
can encash the benefits from reading. Such a study technique is SQ3R technique. Franchies P.
Robinson has developed this technique. It is an excellent example of a systematic approach to
reading.
What does SQ3R stand for?

S - Survey
Q- Question
3R- Read, Recite and Review
Survey: Survey means, the rapid glancing over the book that the reader intends to read, for
assessing the book. It is like the trial run done on the rails before the original train is run.
Surveying as a technique is applied in reading also. The reader turns the pages randomly, verifies
whether the subheadings are in line with his expectations, sees whether the text is supported by
proper illustrations, and other aspects that would encourage the reader to take up reading. This
enables the reader to have a prior understanding of the text before starting up reading. This is an
extension and authentic work of pre-reading.
Question: The next step is questioning. Questions are asked on the headings and subheadings in
order to reaffirm the need for reading the text. The more questions that are asked on the headings
and subheadings the better insight that the reader gets on the text. Questions should be made on
the basis of the need of the reader. This stage is also before taking up reading.
Read: They would have understood something of the text from the survey he conducted on the
book and the questioning that he made on the headings and subheadings. The next stage is while-
reading stage. While going through the text he will now understand the main points and
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concentrate on the illustration that will supplement his understanding better. With proper
surveying and questioning, now, he will even be able to anticipate what may come next.
Recite: The reader tells whatever he learnt to others. It may to his classmates. It is also called
peer teaching. Reciting facilitates better recalling and a powerful means for retention. Recalling
and retention are the two main study skills others being perception and comprehension. That way
reciting is very useful to present the point in sequential order and an aid for retention.
Review: Review is the last step in SQ3R technique of reading. Review means periodical revision
of the things that are learnt. Anything that is neglected is bound to be away from the mind of the
people. So, the reader has to review the items that are read. It also functions as post-reading.
Post-reading facilitates understanding the text critically.
NOTE TAKING AND NOTE MAKING

Note-taking: In real life, it is not possible to note down everything that we listen. Higher
education mostly depends on taking the running notes. In some cases the running notes are
equivalent to referring 10 stands books. Note-taking is a study skill which can be nourished
among the students encouraging them to take notes from the lectures in schools and colleges and
speeches of eminent personalities. Students should be encouraged to take running notes even
from their teachers' teaching. If this habit is groomed it will benefit the students from last hour
tension for examination. He can just browse what he had written in class notebook. And that can
give a lot of information.
Note-making: Note-making is a study skill where the students will prepare their own notes from
reference books. Finally, they will prepare a brief summary of the notes have taken. Students
have to be trained to prepare notes from long hooks or news items. They should also be trained
to describe a bigger event in a nutshell. Note-making involves reading, comprehension and
analysis. Note-making will sharpen their concentration.
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1.6.4. Teaching Writing
The Purpose of Writing

Writing is one of the productive skills of language, the other one being, speaking. To
record the speaking of anybody, we require at least a tape-recorder, which is not always possible.
To put it precisely, to some extent the speakers have license to make mistakes in using the
language as their mistakes cannot be authentically proved to others in all cases. But, if the same
mistakes are done in writing, it will definitely expose the writer, of his mistakes. So, the
language users, while using the writing skills, have to be doubly cautious. This is because, we
rely on writing, only when the receiver is not physically present. So, whatever is written, should
be written very clearly. Through our writing, everything like, the intention of the writer, the
mood, and other aspects of the language should be clearly conveyed. Intelligibility in oral
communication can distinguish the good pronunciation from bad pronunciation. But, in writing,
it is done by legibility. In oral communication, with intonation, gesticulation and facial
expression, the targeted meaning can be conveyed properly. But in written communication,
meaning can be properly conveyed through punctuation.
In our educational system, writing plays a prominent role mainly in examinations.
Students with good handwriting are bound to win the favour of the examiner, which in turn will
indirectly be benefited with good marks. Considering this fact, teachers should take all measures
in developing good handwriting.
MECHANICS OF WRITING
a) Writing pattern:
The teacher, first, has to train the students to hold the pen properly. Only when they hold
the pen properly, they will be able to make a good Writing. Almost all English alphabet are made
with strokes and curves. English alphabet are produced with anticlockwise movements, whereas
it is clockwise in Tamil.
b) Print Script:
At first, it is better to introduce print script to the students. Any other type will have
different form and this will confuse the students. Till they are familiarized they should not be
introduced to any other form. And in print Script also, it is advised to use only capital letters,
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first. When the students learn to write all the alphabet in English, then, two letter words or three
letter words can be given to them to practise.
c) Cursive Script:
While teaching Cursive Script the teacher has to keep in his mind types of joiners,
namely, bottom joiners, do not joiners and top joiners. The priority of teaching Cursive Script
should be bottom joiners, do not joiners and top joiners.
Bottom Joiners
a c d e h i k l m n u
eg. Hide, men
Do not joiners
b g j p q r s x y
eg. Box, razor
Top Joiners
f o v w
eg. fox, wolf
COMPOSITION
Guided Composition:
In Guided or Controlled Composition, students are provided with the required vocabulary
and structures with the thoughts and ideas to be expressed. At this level, students seek the help of
teachers. Teacher, with specific aims at his mind controls this type of exercise. Teacher relies on
this composition till he is satisfied with the performance of his students. Students take much time
to choose to think on the matter, ideas and apt vocabulary for the appropriate place. If this
inhibition period is over, then the students have confidence on them to attempt to any
composition work. The teacher should go to the class fully prepared to elicit answer from the
students. The teacher should prefer to write the spelling on tile blackboard of difficult words.
The oral preparation will facilitate the written work, so the teacher should very meticulously plan
their oral activity which will help in written composition.
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Example for Guided Composition.
Topic: My School
Targeted Structure: It is….Noun
Question Answer
1. Is your school in town, or in village? 1. It is in village.
2. How old is your school? 2. It is …..Years old.
3. Does it have a boundary wall? 3. It has a boundary wall.
4. What is the name of your school? 4. The name of my school is …….
5. How many teachers are there in your school? 5. There are…teachers in my school.
Free Composition:
Teacher's intervention in totality is not expected in Free Composition. Students are to
attempt the composition on their own. This, unlike, in Guided Composition, the students are not
provided with vocabulary, structure and ideas. Students can choose their own vocabulary and put
their ideas in their composition. In many cases most of the Free composition may not be up to
the expectations. This can be very easily overcome by teacher by conducting pre-composition
session very effectively. He can outwardly discuss the aim of writing that particular composition.
He doesn't need to discuss everything that are required for the composition, but, at least, he can
channelize the energy of his students in the production of a proper composition. Students require
a good command of English to attempt to write a Free Composition, But students may not be
much comfortable early classes. So, the teacher can, at least, to some extent, control even the
free composition. Any writing should have grammatical and logical sequences. This particular
aspects of writing may not be well maintained independently by the students. So, the intervention
of the teacher even in carrying out Free Composition exercises is mandatory. Otherwise, the
students may be beating about the bush, which would be a wastage of time and energy on the
part of the students and the teachers.The teacher who carries out a Free Composition exercises
should have thorough knowledge on the subject matter of the writing. The situation to him is
open-ended. That means, the students may ask any unexpected question related to topic. The
teacher can overcome this eventuality mainly through his instinct and his proper pre-meditation
on the topic. Otherwise, the teacher will happen to reveal his ignorance to his own students.
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CORRECTION PROCEDURE
Self-Assessment: Self-realization is best served for one's improvement rather than any outer-
impulses, That way, students may be encouraged to evaluate their own writing. Students can be
advised to write something daily on any familiar situations. While writing as a task to improve
their language skills, they should not be expected to search for ideas. If they spend more time on
searching for ideas, their aspiration for language learning will go down. At one time only one
task should be given. Even their writing need not be corrected by others. If they see their own
writing after a few days, they will be able to find some mistakes in them. So, they have enough
opportunity to produce some writing on their own and correct them by themselves. That way,
very silently, they will be improving their language skill in writing.
Peer group Assessment: Mostly students are quite comfortable with their peer group. This can
be utilized for assessment of writing. The entire class should be divided into meaningful groups.
The teacher has to ensure that at least one English knowing student is present in each group.
These leaders of each group will correct the write up of the students in their groups. Students
also may not hesitate to get their clarified by their peer mates.
Devising a Marking Code: Teachers can devise a marking code, so as to maintain uniformity in
correction. Some of the symbols are suggested:
Sp = wrong spelling
T = wrong tense
P = wrong punctuation
() = rearrange ideas, reword and rewrite this part.
IR = irrelevant
NR = not required
Ww = wrong word
DICTATION
Dictation is not only a testing device to judge the spelling, but also it a is teaching
technique. As a teaching technique, it gives a lot of benefits to the learners to have command of
the language. For example, (1) It trains the ear of pupils and they are able to associate the sound
with spelling, (2) Pupils are able to learn punctuation marks through dictation. (3) Grammatical
structures are reinforced in the minds of the pupils. (4) It gives practice in writing the letters of
the alphabet.
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A resourceful teacher can make this dictation for real practice apart from used it for
writing works. The teacher can keep a topic in his mind. He can dictate the words that may be
useful to write a paragraph on the topic that he kept in his mind. After completing dictation, the
teacher can ask the students to write a paragraph with the words dictated. The the teacher asks
the students to tell a story with the words dictated, it will be an oral exercise.
1.7. LET US SUM UP

English has become part and parcel of people of India. The following are the functional
capacities of English in India
- It is a national link language
- It is an associate official language.
- It is a library language
- It is an international language.
1.8. KEYWORDS
foreign language : a foreign language is studied mainly to know the life of
another nation
second language : a second language is a language other than the mother
tongue and the learner learns the language to use it in the
society
associate official language : enjoys equal capacity as an official language
opposed tooth and nail : opposed with all your energy
Brexit : Britain Exit from the European Union.
register : the technical terms used in any particular field is the
register of that field
SQ3R method : Survey, Questioning, Read, Recite and Review
Aural-oral skills : aural skill is pertaining to hearing, oral is to speaking
Graphic-motor skill : using visual and psychomotor organs
Psycho-linguistics : study of the mental faculties involved in language
acquisition
Bilingualism : using two languages
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1. One cannot buy all the books that he requires for his higher education. He has to
depend on the library books. Most of the reference books are in English. So English
is called a Library Language.
2. India is benefited more from English than what English language is benefited from
India. So, it is right to say that India is found bondage to India.
3. English is our Associate Official Language. Ours is the land of many languages.
Our national language Hindi is neither spoken nor understood in some states. So we
need English as an Associate Official Language for inter-state and centre-state
communication.
4. English is the only language that is spoken in almost all countries. Most magazines
of the world are in English. It is the language of the world trade. So, English is
called a world language.
5. Britain exited from the European union for political and trade purposes. Remaining 27
countries decided not to use English for their communicative purposes. We have to wait
and see how it is going to work.
6. A second language is learnt to use it in the society whereas a foreign language is
learnt to know the life style of that country.
7. Listening and speaking are called the language skills of illiterate. Because these two
skills can be used even by the illiterates.
8. English is called a skill subject as it is more of 'doing' than 'of 'knowing'. We require
skill to do anything. That way English is called a skill subject.
9. While learning a second language, the learner always compares the structures and
meanings with the mother tongue. So, the knowledge in mother tongue always
disturbs the learning of a second language. This is called 'interference' in learning a
second language.
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UNIT – II
STRUCTURE
2.1. CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS AND PSYCHOLOGY TO THE TEACHING
OF ENGLISH
2.2. LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES
2.2.1. Learning a Language.
2.2.2. Second Language Pedagogy.
2.2.3. Language as a Rule-governed Behaviour.
2.2.4. Language as a Skill.
2.3. TEACHING THE COMMUNICATION SKILLS – LISTENING, SPEAKING,
READING AND WRITING
2.4. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGE SKILLS
2.5. TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SKILL RATHER THAN A KNOWLEDGE SUBJECT
2.6. LEARNING THE MOTHER TONGUE AND LEARNING A SECOND LANGUAGE
2.6.1. Interference and Transfer from the Mother Tongue on Learning a Second Language.
2.6.2. Implications for Teaching Methods.
2.7. LET US SUM UP
2.8. KEY WORDS
36
2.1. CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS AND PSYCHOLOGY TO THE TEACHING
OF ENGLISH
Psychology and Linguistics have handsomely contributed to the language. And in this
unit we are going to get acquainted with the contribution of Psychology and
Linguistics in language learning.
Contribution of Psychology in Language Learning

Psychology plays a major role in language learning. Learning of mother tongue takes
place quite naturally. Learner's environment helps him to learn his mother tongue. Everybody in
the society is a teacher for him. So, he acquires the language skills in his mother tongue quite
easily. The mold he has on his mother tongue will always act as an obstacle to the lemming of
second language. Learning a second language requires conscious efforts. Learning a second
language is creditable rather an accomplishment.
The ability to learn a second language differs from person to person. People, who are in
the same environment, unlikely to attain the same level of proficiency in second language. So,
the factors influencing the language learning are: (i) age, (ii) motives and drive, (iii) native skill,
(iv) intelligence, (v) auditory memory span, (vi) readiness to learn, and (vii) emotion.
So, psychology being the study of behaviour, activities, conduct and mental processes of
human beings it is to assume a close link between psychology and language. Psychology, as a
science of mental life and behaviour of human individual, should have much to reveal about the
human speech that distinguishes man from other species. McCarthy says language development
in early stages happens, through 'nature' and 'nurture'. Swiss psychologist Piaget worked on the
relation between language development and its functional use and mental development of the
child. Cameroon viewed that social roles of language development were taken not of as much as
the emotional growth of the individual. Chomsky advocated that it is not the question of
'influence' of cognition on speech, rather languages are mirrors of the way the mind functions.
These theories came out under the result of man is in a unilingual environment.
After the World War II, the necessity of studies on the psychological aspects of learning a
second language has become imminent. Then emerged Psycholinguistics studies. Stern, a
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psycholinguist stated: "What from our perspective, is particularly interesting is (a) that in this
first mapping out of psycholinguistics, second language learning and bilingualism were treated
as interrelated psychological phenomena, and (b) that they were not treated separately but placed
squarely into the theoretical framework of a psychology of language".
Apart from these theories of language learning, there are other theories which
contributed to language learning. They are i) Behaviourist Theory of language learning, which
establishes that the language is learnt through habit formation, ii) Cognitivist Theory of language
learning, says that the language is learnt mainly through mental capacity. It says that if the child
has strong mental ability alone will be able to acquire the language, we cannot totally agree with
both the theories.
Argument against the Behaviourist Theory: A child is in an environment which
facilitates the language learning, if it doesn't have proper mental ability, then, getting a habit
formation itself will be questionable. So, language acquisition may not be full.
Argument against the Cognitivist Theory: A child has a strong mental ability but left
in an isolated place where there is no chance for habit formation, will the child be able to acquire
the language?
Ans: No.
So, for better acquisition of language, one should satisfy both Behaviourist Theory and also
Cognitivist Theory.
Contribution of Linguistics in Language Learning

A great development has taken place in the study of language. And it is classified into two:
1) to determine some basic assumptions like, a) language is speech, b) language is system, c)
language has variety, (d) language has changes
2) to refine methods of collecting and classifying facts.
This has contributed a lot to the teachers. Linguistics grew as a body of knowledge and
understanding concerning the nature and functioning of human knowledge, The first period of
linguistics was obviously devoted to the exploration of genetic relationship between languages.
This gave rise to historical and comparative linguistics. The second period began with the
findings of phonological explorations. This period brought in scientific analysis of speech sounds
38
both in respect to the vibrations and in respect to the muscular movements and articulation, the
greatest contribution of ordered and classified information about English, both past and present.
The findings of the linguistics research are:
1) Languages keep on changing
2) Theses changes happen consciously. Mainly caused by linguistic change
3) The 'sound change' has paved the way for treatment of etymology. '
4) Dialect differences and their promotion to become standard language are felt from
linguistic history and linguistic geography.
5) Native speakers' language is considered to be the correct language.
6) No two languages share the exact meaning of a particular word.
7) Study of phonetics gave rise to the discovery of mechanics of sound production
8) Differences are found between the native speakers using the language and the aliens
use it.
9) A foreign language learner needs a different outfit.
English has become a world language mainly because the research carried out to find out
the relation between learning a mother tongue and a foreign language. Till 19th century
researches were focused on the learning theories of a single language. Later, with the
psycholinguistics establishing the contribution of linguistics in language learning, especially
second language learning, almost all languages that have contact with one another have become
rich. Among the languages with bilingualism every language contributed something to the other
language. So linguistics has contributed a might in language development.
Check your progress

1.What are the factors that are influencing Language Learning?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2.Mention any two important findings of linguistics research.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
39
2.2. LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES
Language learning theories have basically entered around „nature‟ and „nurture‟
distinction. Two main theories of language learning are „Cognitivist Theory of Language
Learning‟ and „Behaviourist Theory of Language Learning‟. Cognitivists argue that a child
learns the language by its mental capacity which is naturally got. Behaviourists believe that the
language is a habit. Only through habit formation a language can be learnt. They argue that
when the child has the privilege of acquisition-rich-environment, then the child automatically
learns the language. On the other hand, Cognitivists argue that language learning pertains to
mental capacity of the child. If the child has a strong mental ability, then, it is bound to acquire
better language skills. Arguments should lead to a better solution. It should not travel as the two
lines of the railway tract which never meets. That way, we can‟t support either behaviourists
fully or cognitivists fully. If only habit formation is necessary for language learning and the
mental ability of the children is immaterial, then, there is a question, if we put a mentally
retarded child in a family of more members where more opportunities are there to learn the
language, will the child learn the language with all its mental disability. So, behaviourist theory
is defeated. Again, only mental ability is necessary for language learning the habit formation is
not much need, then, put a highly intellectual child in an isolated place where the child will not
get any chance to listen to the language, will the child learn the language will all its highly
mental ability. To sum up, for better language acquisition, the learners have to fulfill theories of
both behaviourists and cognitivists.
2.2.1. Learning a Language
Language that we use keeps the human being in an exalted position when compared to
other living things. Language is needed for all the people irrespective of their status. And, it is
used from our birth till death. Language is a means of communication. We use the language as
a medium through which thoughts are conveyed from person to person. It is considered a means
of social control. No society can function without language. Language is part and parcel of our
life. We cannot imagine a society without language. If no language then the progress of
mankind will be blocked. We will be deprived all the niceties of life that we enjoy now. Habit
formation is necessary for language learning and using. Learning a language involves
establishing the links between the language forms and their meanings. The process of
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establishing the link between the forms and meanings are three, namely, (i) the form, (ii) the
meaning and (iii) their association. In speaking, the speaker associates the exact form with the
meaning that he knows, and in understanding he associates the meaning with the form he learned
from others. The speaker of the language is conscious of the words he uses and form meaningful
sentences that can make the listener understand. All the time the speaker adjust the sounds to
meaningful words and words to meaningful sentences.
Language has three functions. The first one is the informative function, where
information are communicated. The second function of the language is expressive, where we
express our feelings, emotions and our opinions. The third function of the language is directive,
where we teach others, give advice etc. So, for meaningful life we require language.
2.2.2. Second Language Pedagogy
Language skills are acquired by practice. Mother tongue is learned quite automatically
without much effort as the child gets enough opportunities to listen and practice in his daily
environment. Where the child goes, it gets the chance to learn the language and whoever it
meets becomes the teacher of the language. Hence, the child learns the mother tongue very
easily. Apart from the scope that the child gets in learning the mother tongue, it is the urge that
the child has to use the language for its basic needs. The child practices the mother tongue
without much consciousness.
In the case of English as a second language, these natural resources are not available to
the learners. A second language is learnt deliberately. For many, only the English classrooms
are the places to learn the language. In learning a mother tongue many people are involved in
making the child to learn the language, to the classroom should take its full role in giving
opportunities to develop proficiency in developing a second language. The role of second
language teachers is manifold. The second language teachers should carefully select the
language learning material and present them for practice so that the learners form their own
methodology in learning it.
A great threat to second language learning is the pull of mother tongue. The situation in
learning a second language is different that of learning a mother tongue. He is tossed between
the verbal signaling system of both mother tongue and the second language. Whenever the
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learner wants to express anything in the second language, he is much disturbed by the first
language and he has to keep check to this influence. Pronouncing in second language is difficult
as his ears are accustomed to listen to the first language. He is not able to distinguish the
difference between the sounds of the two languages. This forces him to replace the sounds of the
second language with the similar sounds of his mother tongue. This is the case with the syntactic
structures also. This tendency to replace the sounds and structures of the second language with
those of the mother tongue is known as „the pull of the mother tongue‟. In psychological terms
this phenomenon is known as TRANSFER. This transfer is either positive or negative. If this
transfer helps in learning the second language, it is called „positive transfer‟ or
FACILITATION and if the transfer disturbs in learning the second is called „negative transfer‟
or INTERFERENCE.
2.2.3. Language as a Rule-governed Behaviour
The very purpose of learning a language is to establish a bond between the language form
and its meaning. It is proved by some psychological tests of „conditioned learning‟ through
stimuli and responses in animals. Habit alone cannot make a language learning in human being.
We have seen „behaviourists‟ theory‟ and „cognitivists‟ theory‟ of language learning. Human
being has to apply their senses in language uses according to the demand of the situation. A
parrot can be trained to speak but how far it will change its learning to use it in different
situations. Skills of substitution are not possible in animals. But, as a child picks up the system
is, capable of using the substitution. Of course, the child makes mistakes in the beginning, but,
gets corrected in course of the learning and soon becomes a perfect user of language.
We cannot determine the number of sentences possible in a sentence. There are all
possibilities to frame new sentences, though are more sentences available for the situations.
There are more situations that may arise by some means, especially with the coinage of new
words go in a faster pace. Thanks to development in science and technology and in computer.
Many new patterns of sentence have been coming, though we know there are 5 basic sentence
patterns. The child is able to master over these patterns of his mother tongue at a fairly early
age.
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The assimilation of these patterns of grammar takes place in „critical period‟ of learning.
This period is very important one as the growth in the organisms prone to learn specific skills
naturally. This critical period lies between two years and adolescence. This characteristic of
internalization of grammar into automatic habits that language is sometimes considered Rule-
Governed Behaviour.
Check your progress

3.What is meant by “the pull of the mother tongue”?
________________________________________________________________________________
4.Define Rule-Governed Behaviour.
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2.2.4. Language as a Skill
Language is authentically called a „skill‟ rather than a „subject‟. The skill of language is
not altogether an intellectual activity. It is more of „doing‟ than of „knowing‟. In learning the
mother tongue, the child acquires the ability of understanding others speak, which means, the
child starts developing the listening skill. The next, the child tries to reproduce the sound
sequences to express its thoughts and feelings and thus, acquires the skill of speaking. The skill
of listening and skill of speaking are called the skills of even illiterate, which means, even
illiterate people can acquire these skills when they are acquisition-rich-environment.
After speaking, as we want all our children are literate, we introduce the skill of reading
and the skill of writing. Reading practice from the textbook should start after about a few months
of aural-oral (listening-speaking) practice. Finally, the language learners need to acquires the
skills of writing. That way, as the four skills, namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing
are required to use the language, the language is a skill.
2.3. TEACHING THE COMMUNICATION SKILLS – LISTENING, SPEAKING,
READING AND WRITING
Refer – 1.6.1., 1.6.2., 1.6.3., 1.6.4.
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2.4. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGE SKILLS
Listening and reading are passive skills. They are also called Receptive Skills, as the
learners receive or acquire the language from listening and reading. Speaking and writing are
active skills. They are also called Productive Skills. These language skills can be grouped in
other way also. Listening and speaking which demand the exercise of the auditory and speech
are called Aural-Oral Skills; while reading and writing are called Graphic-Motors skills as these
two skills involve the visual and the psychomotor organs. These skills are dramatically
presented here:
Skills
Productive Receptive
(Active) (Passive)
Speaking Writing Listening Reading

(Skills of Expression) (Skills of Comprehension)
Fig1.1
Skills
Aural-oral Graphic-motor
listening Speaking Reading Writing

Fig 1.2
From the diagram above, it is clearly understood that the skills cannot be grouped under
one category.
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2.5. TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SKILL RATHER THAN A KNOWLEDGE SUBJECT
Learning a language is a skill and learning English as a second language requires more
skills to be incorporated. As the entire world is webbed in the utility of computer, the language
skills in English has become a paramount importance. Many computer experts are not able to
achieve much to their aspirations mainly because of their lack of language skills in English.
Governments are busy establishing Language Laboratories in educational institutions and
different councils like British Council and Cambridge ESOL have been launching many
programmes in developing language skills in English in the students. Our students are lacking in
communicative skills in English both orally and in written, mainly because English is not taught
as skill subject.
Language is often called a skill subject rather than a knowledge subject. Subjects like
Science, Mathematics, and History are knowledge subjects. Content is given more prominence in
these subjects. They are also called content subjects. Rote memory is given prominence, whereas
English is a skill subject. It is more a matter of 'doing' than of 'knowing'. In learning the mother
tongue, the first skill that a child acquires is the ability to understand the spoken word - the skill
of listening. Next, he tries to reproduce these sound sequences to express his own desires and
needs and thereby, acquires the skill of speaking. For an illiterate person, these two basic skills
constitute his language ability. The ability to read and write is matters of literacy. These skills are
classified as passive skills and active skills. Listening and reading are passive skills. Speaking
and writing are active skills. These skills are also classified as Receptive Skills and Productive
Skills. Listening and Speaking are called Aural-oral Skills. Reading and writing are called
Graphic-motor skills.
The strategies for teaching English should be based on considering it as a skill subject.
English, in India, is taught as a second language. Pupils do not have acquisition-rich environment
for learning English. So the classroom activities must provide sufficient motivation and scope for
learning English as a skill subject. Skill subjects are those areas in which the learners need to
develop a set of skills to learn anything at all.
A balanced skill in Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing is the need of the hour.
Curriculum in English should ensure that the learners are given enough opportunities develop
these skills. Testing in English is a flaw in our examination system. One of the four
characteristics of testing is Validity, which means whether the question paper tests the objectives
45
of teaching. In all the Lesson Plan our teachers write the Specific Instructional Objectives are to
develop LSRW skills. But, it is not followed up in the testing pattern. „Necessity is the mother
of invention‟. We can develop language skills in English in the learners or teaching English as a
skill subject but we can be successful in these attempts only when the teachers‟ attempts in the
classrooms are supported by the good set of question papers that demand skills in English to get
promoted to the next level.
2.6. LEARNING THE MOTHER TONGUE AND LEARNING A SECOND LANGUAGE
The learner of English as a second language has some special problems. In Indian
context leaning English as a second language is an artificial process. It is the same in the case of
mother tongue which is learned quite naturally. The social situation prompts the children to
learn the mother tongue. He has strong urge to use his mother tongue. He is continually
surrounded by mother tongue and he doesn‟t have any interference in learning the language. He
is benefited from the large number of teachers. Everybody he meets is a teacher of his mother
tongue. There is no gap of opportunities to forget the language use. Learning English as a
second language has different set up.
Mother tongue is learnt quite automatically, whereas, a second language is learnt

consciously. Learning a second language is a painful process and it requires a lot of practice.
Constant and sustained practice alone can help the learner of second language to some extent.
The teacher has to feel the importance of situation to learn English as a second language and
accordingly design the activities that can develop language skills in English in his students.
2.6.1. Interference and Transfer from the Mother Tongue on Learning a Second Language
Learning a foreign language as a second language is a fascinating one. When we learn a

foreign language, definitely, the hindrance from the mother tongue is imminent. Many studies
have been carried out to find out the factors that promote or interfere in learning a foreign
language. When there is a similarity in the knowledge and structure between the mother tongue
and the target language, then the mother tongue facilitates the learning of the target language.
Apart from this, learning of mother-tongue takes place in a very natural way. Learners need not
show tiring efforts to learn their mother-tongue. They are provided with acquisition-rich
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environment. Wherever they go, they have opportunity to learn the language. Everybody in the
society is a teacher. If they make any mistake, it is corrected instantly. Listening and speaking
are learnt at home and then, the child is sent to school for learning, reading and writing of the
language.
Learning a foreign language as a second language is much difficult. Robert Paul says:
“when learn our first language, we face the universe directly and learn to clothe it with speech;
when we learn a second language, we tend to filter the universe through the language already
known”. The learners have to render a constant effort to learn. Learning English as a second
language is an artificial process. The difference between learning a mother tongue and a foreign
language is well defined by David Abercrombie. He says: "...the infant has little else to do, has
the strongest social compulsion to learn, is continually surrounded by the language it is learning,
and has no old habits likely to interfere with what it is doing. But the foreign language learner,
whether school-child or adult, is at a disadvantage compared with the infant in so far as he has
many other things to do, has sometimes little urge to learn, encounters the language he is
learning only at intervals, and finds the native language habits in continual conflict with those
needed for the new language. But he is also at an advantage compared with the infant in so far as
he possesses a developed intelligence, and is also literate".
Therefore, whenever he wants to express something in the second language, he has to

keep the habits of the first language in check in order to produce the new sounds and structures.
Human being is always comfortable with easy going. His ears have become accustomed to the
sounds of his mother tongue, is not able to produce the distinctive sounds of the second
language. He is confused in syntactic structures also. His conscious attempt at arranging words
into syntactic patterns results in literal translation, and when the patterning in the two languages
differs, he produces ungrammatical structures. This tendency to replace the sounds and structures
of the second language with those of the mother-tongue is known as the 'pull of the mother-
tongue'. In psychological terms, this phenomenon is known as TRANSFER.
This transfer may be either positive or negative. In those matters in which the two
languages do not differ, the habits of the first language will help in the learning of the second.
This is called 'positive transfer' or FACILITATION. But in the areas where the two languages
differ, the effect will be the opposite. Here, the learner will have to overcome the pull of his
47
mother tongue in order to produce the sounds and the structures of the second language. This is
called 'negative transfer' or INTERFERENCE. In the areas of language learning where habits
play the predominant role, the force of such interference is maximum. In the case of
pronunciation, the 'pull' is so great that it is almost impossible for a second language learner to
acquire the pronunciation of the native speakers of the language.
Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
5.What is Rote memory?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2.6.2. Implications for Teaching Methods

The need for learning English goes on changing. The area where English has importance
is constantly increasing. So, the English curriculum, teacher training in English and the
transaction of English in the classroom should necessarily undergo changes to live up to the
demands. There are many implications in teaching of English
1. Standards and Assessments

Most of the learners of English are first generation learners. There are many inhibitions
for them in learning English. Teaching of English should address to their problem.
When they gain confidence, it will be easy for them to learn English easily. Till then, the
assessment should be done. While maintaining the standards gradually assessments also
should be done to check their progress.
2. Evaluation of Teacher and pre-service Teacher Effectiveness.
Success of the English class depends mostly on the potential and attitude of the
teachers. To impart good English education, the teachers have to be fully equipped.
They should cause influence in their students to show more interest in learning English.
48
In many cases, it is the wrong method and sub-standard teachers who cause fear in the
mind of the students in learning English. Pre-service training should be very effective.
Teacher qualities have to be groomed in the training colleges itself.
3. Increased participation in the Teacher Quality Conversation
English teachers have to be competent enough to use the language aspects in
English. They have to use appropriate vocabulary to the situation that they take for
teaching. Easily comprehensible words should be used in the class. Grammar should be
taught inductively. English is a non-phonetic language. So, pronunciation is not easy for
second language learner. The teacher has to initiate a quality conversation in whatever
the task that the teachers take up for teaching.
4. Preparing English Teachers to be Teachers of Literacy.
Prior to preparing the students to use English, it is mandatory on the part of the
policy makers to prepare the English teachers to be teachers of literacy.
5. Technology Integration
The pace of learning today has exponentially increased with the multimedia in
education. Technology is not meant only for the science teachers. And, now, technology
is more handy to the English teachers than other subject teachers. So, English teachers
have to be technology-savvy.
6. English Language Learners

The success of English language teaching depends on the readiness of English language
learners. They have understand the benefits they are bound to get from learning English.
They have to set target for the teachers, so that reciprocal competition will be initiated in
teaching and learning.
2.7. LET US SUM UP
 Understands the importance of linguistics in learning and language

 Realize the contribution of psychology to the teaching of English
 Learns the various language learning theories
 Learns the benefit of learning a language
 Learns the ways to learn the second language
 Language has rule-governed behavior
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 Language is a skill subject
2.8. KEY WORDS
Behaviorist Theory of
language learning : the language learning theory which says that the language is
learnt mainly through habit formation.
Cognitivist Theory : the language learning theory which says that the learning of a
language depends language learning on the mental ability of the
individual.
1. Age, motives and drives, native skills, intelligence, auditory memory span, readiness to learn
and emotion.
2. i. Languages keep on changing.
ii. No two languages share the exact meaning of a particular word.
3.The tendency of replacing the sounds and structures of the second language with those of the
mother tongue is known as “The pull of the mother tongue”.
4. The characteristic of internalisation of grammar into automatic habits is known as „Rule-

Governed Behaviour‟.
5. Learning something without knowing the real meaning of it like, reading for exams.
50
UNIT – III
STRUCTURE
3.1. METHODS, APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING (ELT)
3.1.1. Methods:
3.1.1.a. Grammar Translation Method.
3.1.1.b. Direct Method.
3.1.1.c. Dr. West‟s New Method.
3.1.1.d. Audio Lingual Method – Merits and Demerits.
3.1.2. Approaches:
3.1.2.a. Structural Approach.
3.1.2.b. Communicative Approach.
3.1.2.c. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
3.1.2.d. Eclectic Approach.
3.2. RECENT TRENDS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH
3.2.1 Communicative Language Teaching
3.2.2 Cooperative Language Learning
3.2.3 Task-Based Language Teaching
3.2.4 Activity Based Learning
3.3. LET US SUM UP
3.4. KEY WORDS
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3.1. METHODS, APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING (ELT)
3.1.1. Methods:
The methods of teaching determined by the aims for which it is taught. More care is
needed when selecting method of teaching a foreign language like English as a second language.
If the aim of learning English is to know the information, then Grammar Translation Method is
more appropriate. And, if the aim of learning English is for communication purposes, then Direct
Method will be more useful. English is learnt for many purposes. If the aim of learning English
to acquire knowledge from reading, then Dr. West‟s New Method will help.
The Indian educationists are in the strong belief that the very aim of teaching in English
in India is to prepare the students to acquire practical command over English. We need to
employ different methods and approaches to achieve this aim. And to this effect, Bertrant
Russel emphasized the importance of the connection between aims of teaching and methods of
teaching by saying, “The question, „what should be taught‟ and „how should be taught‟ are
intimately connected with each other, because if better methods of teaching are devised, it is
possible to learn more from them”
3.1.1.a. Grammar Translation Method
Grammar Translation Method is the oldest method where teacher translate every word,
phrase and sentence of English into mother tongue for the easy comprehension by the students.
When English was introduced in 18th century, as Indians were not in know about of English,
English could be not given to them directly. It had to be taught through their vernacular
language. It was easy for both teachers and students as the teacher‟s translating every word,
phrase and sentence from English into their mother tongue, the students were able to assimilate
English phraseology through the medium of the mother tongue. The Grammar Translation
Method emphasizes the learning of grammar, which is taught deductively, that is, by presentation
and study of grammar rules. The structures of the foreign language are compared and contrasted
with those of the mother tongue.
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Principles of Grammar Translation Method
The Grammar Translation Method is based on the three principles:
1. Translation interprets foreign words, phrases and sentences in the best possible
manner.
2. In this process of interpretation foreign words, phrases and sentences are best
assimilated.
3. The structures of the foreign language are best learnt when compared and contrasted
with those of the mother tongue.
Advantages
1. It is an easy method. The child proceeds from known to unknown in Grammar

Translation method. The vocabulary and the language using ability in mother tongue
helps the learners to learn English easily.
2. It helps in building vocabulary. Translation from English into the mother tongue
enables the learners to develop their vocabulary very rapidly. As this method avoids
difficult definitions or lengthy explanations, the learners are able to grasp the exact
meaning of words.
3. The Teacher is comfortable. The teachers don‟t need to labour hard either in the
preparation lesson plan and in the process of implementing the teaching items in the
class. He doesn‟t need to think of the ways and means to explain new words even
without using audio-visual aids.
4. Comprehension is easily tested. Testing the students‟ comprehending ability in
English is easy as they are permitted to tell the answer in their mother tongue.
5. Proper grammar is taught easily. English grammar is taught very easily by
comparing it with the grammar of the mother tongue.
Disadvantages
1. It is an unnatural method. The logical sequence of learning a language is

Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing. But in Grammar Translation Method the
learning process is started from reading and writing which is unnatural. And, because
53
of this reason that our graduates are not able to acquire language skills in English
even after studying English for more 13 years.
2. Speech is neglected. Language is speech. There are languages that exist even
without written form. But, no language exists without spoken form. The learners are
not privileged to acquire speaking ability in English.
3. No room for pattern practice. The Grammar Translation Method doesn‟t give any
room for pattern practice. Hence, the students are not able to speak English correctly.
4. No possibility of habit formation. As there is no speech and pattern practice, habit
formation is not possible in this method. After all language is a habit. The students
never practice to think in English. Rather, they think in their mother tongue then
translate it into English.
5. Exact translation is not possible. Each language has its own uniqueness. No two
languages have their history, traditions, culture and the life style same. So, exact
matching of words in these two languages is not possible. In many cases the
idiomatic expressions in English are not possible at all. Even if it is done the result
will very ridiculous.
6. Rule governed learning. Language is used in situation. It is not possible to learn
any language by learning its rules. In the words of Dr. Ballard, “To speak any
language, whether native or foreign entirely by rule, is quite impossible.
7. Students are not active. In this method, only teacher is active and the students are
passive listeners. So, they don‟t develop any language skills.
8. It is uninteresting. Translation method is dull and mechanical and also bookish.
Instructional aids are not used to make lessons interesting. It reduces the learning of a
living language to that of a dead language.
3.1.1.b Direct Method.
Direct Method is the result of failure of Grammar Translation Method vis-à-vis in making
the students to have practical command over English. If a language is taught directly where
immediate association between experience and expression in words, phrase and meaning is
possible, then there are all possibilities for learning the language. The basic aim of Direct
Method is to teach any foreign language through conversation, discussion and reading in the
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target language by associating the experience and expression without using the students‟ mother
tongue.
Principles
1. Oral Practice. The Direct gives importance to speech. English is taught through
English only. Students are given sufficient practice in listening to the language and then
speaking it. Oral practice helps the students to associate with the objects and ideas for
which they stand.
2. Restrain the mother tongue. The students are taught by showing the real objects or
performing actions or by suitable illustration in context. This makes them to think in
English and they learn to respond in English.
3. The sentence is the unit of speech. No single in English has a single meaning. All the
words have connotative meanings. In Direct Method meanings are taught contextually.
4. Grammar is taught inductively. Inductive method of teaching grammar is always good
for the learners, as it makes the learners to frame the rules from the language they learn.
So, they are able comprehend the language well and frame the rules of the language
better.
5. Opportunities to learn new vocabulary. New words are chosen after careful selection
and gradation and they are taught at definite stages through spoken language. So, the
students learn more vocabulary.
Advantages
1. It is a natural method. Natural way of leaning any language is in the order of

Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing. The Direct Method follows this natural
method.
2. Fluency of speech is guaranteed. As students are involved in conversation in
English, their oral fluency in improved.
3. It develops pronouncing skill. The students are make to listen to their teachers and
then to speak, they have a good model to pronounce English words. This practice
helps them developing a better English pronunciation.
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4. Supports in written work. Fluency in speech help in written work. Only thing that
the students have to concentrate is to mind on their spelling.
5. Promotes the study of literature. The students are able to further proceed to enjoy
literature with the knowledge their gained in oral and written aspects of the target
language.
6. Accommodates audio-visual aids. Unlike the Grammar Translation Method,
Direct Method makes of audio-visual aids, and thus, making the learning interesting
and proper.
Disadvantages
1. It is not a complete method. The Direct Method gives much importance to speech.
It almost neglects reading and writing. It fails to give a balanced language
development in the students. So, it is an incomplete method.
2. It requires competent teachers. Teachers should be very competent in using
English to the level of the students. If they lack in communication skill in English
and stumble, then, they will resort to other way of satisfying students which are quite
detrimental to both students and the system.
3. It demands linguistically qualitative students. As the discussion and teaching are
all there in English, it demands highly linguistically interested qualitative students.
Otherwise, the efforts of the teachers will b futile.
4. Non-availability of proper aids. We don‟t have enough facilities that can support
our teaching in making a direct bond between the objects and the ideas that they stand
for.
5. Over-crowded classes. Individual attention at every stage of teaching is required in
this method. Small classes are advisable to this method. Unfortunately, all the Indian
classes are over-crowded.
6. Difficult verbal explanation. In most of the cases, teachers are forced to rely on
verbal explanation. Apart from it being difficult, it leads to boredom as verbal is a
perennial villain in the classroom.
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Check your progress
1.Write any two advantages of Grammar Translation Method.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2.Write any two disadvantages of Grammar Translation Method.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3.1.1.c. Dr. West’s New Method
Introduction
Dr. Michael West a professor at Dacca University is the father of this New Method of
Teaching English. Being dissatisfied with the other methods available in teaching of English, he
formulated his own method which considered the anxiety of the Indian students to study English
and try to learn it. In his new method Dr. West has laid a great amount of importance to
Reading. He strongly felt that the Indian students are required to concentrate on loud reading on
top of practicing silent reading.
Dr. West’s Views on Teaching of English
Dr. West believed that English should be taught to Indian students in line with the
following reasons:
1. The teaching of English should develop the feeling of internationalism and help in
establishing relationship with the other countries and broaden their outlook
2. As English is a rich language and a good number of literature in science and
technology shall help Indian students.
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3. Children upto the age 12 should be kept busy in reading only. Acquiring reading
efficiency at the small age is easy. This character of the children needs to be
capitalized in the study of a foreign language..
4. He didn‟t propose the art of speaking in his new method. Dr. West‟s New Method of
Teaching is based on the psychological principle that the child tries to hear and
understand before speaking.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF NEW METHOD OF TEACHING
1. Indian students have acquisition-poor-environment as far as learning English is

concerned. Hence, reading as a receptive skill is more important than speaking as a
productive skill.
2. Children learn more ideas from reading. These ideas will lead to appreciating the
language and get acquainted with the other culture. And, the method of reading is
easier than speaking and writing.
3. Reading is easier to practice than speaking and writing.
4. Indian students should practice both silent reading and loud reading.
5. Children should have the knowledge of functions of structural words and also the
semantic aspects of content words
3.1.1.d. Audio Lingual Method – Merits and Demerits
The audio-lingual method or Army method is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign
languages. This method was emerged at the time of World War II. It is almost equal to Direct
Method as the foreign language is taught directly. This method considers LSRW as the logical
sequence by the learner should learn the language. Listening is important in developing
proficiency in speaking and speaking is effective through listening. Articulation is more proper
by hearing the sounds and the learners develop a liking for the language. Listening is foundation
for speaking, but we neglect this fact and treat it as incidental to speaking rather than treating as
a foundation for it. Activities are to be developed for the systematic development for listening.
The foreign language is taught for communication purpose. So, oral skills are practised
systematically in developing communication skills. Practice in all the four language skills is
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given prominence, as it will lead to habit formation. Though many activities are undertaken to
develop oral skills, practice is taken up only on the experience that they gained through listening.
Merits
 Aural-oral skills developed in a meticulous manner.

 Teaching of vocabulary is made effective by the use of visual aids.
 Universally accepted pronunciation and proper structure are acquired.
 The basic principle is to be functional and easy for a larger group.
 Designed, based on the theory of language learning.
Demerits
 The behaviourist theory of language learning is not considered prominently.

 The method is almost guided learning as it is dominated by the teacher.
 The learners are passive and they don‟t have much control over their learning.
 The scope for learning analytically is not there as it demands pattern practice, drilling,
and memorization over functional learning.
 Language form alone is considered while meaning is treated secondarily.
 A balanced importance is not given to all the four skills.
Check your progress

3.What do you mean by „audio lingual method‟?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3.1.2. Approaches:
3.1.2.a. Structural Approach
A strong debate is going on whether it is „structural method‟ or „structural approach. A

method is a body of techniques. Besides, methods also vary from person to person, from place to
place and from subject to subject. But in case of an approach, we do not have any such type of
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alternatives'. As we have to follow the structure quite ceremoniously without any fluctuation, it
is 'Structural Approach' not "Structural Method'. In structural approach, the structures have to be
taught. The different structures form the subject matter to be presented.
According to B.D. Srivastva, “The structural approach is, in fact, the situational approach
to language teaching. It is based upon the assumption that the language can best be learnt when
its need is felt in a situation. Thus a concrete relationship between explanation and content can
be established. This is essential in language learning. The Structural Approach makes use of
situations in which meaning finds last expression”.
It is called structural approach because the main emphasis is laid on the mastery of
structures or pattern of sentences and phrases and also on the special features of the language
which help in the construction of a sentence such as word order, structural words and a few
inflexions in English.
No two languages exactly go parallel in structure, for example,
‘I went to the market’. The structure of this sentence is S + V+ O
Equivalent of this sentence in Tamil is
The pattern of the Tamil sentence is S + O + V.
So different languages require different outfit for learning the language.
This approach allows mother tongue at the initial stages mainly for explaining a situation
when some sentence pattern is to be practised. It does not allow translation of structure which is
to be practised because the same theme is presented in different structures in different languages.
The learners are given drill of the structures till a habit formation is made on the structures.
The main aim of this approach is to give the learners LSRW skills. E.V. Gatenby says:
“First follow nature is a good piece of advice for the language teacher. As nature does show us a
sure way to success, it is only common sense to follow her methods. Where they are followed
today in the schools of the world, there is very little failure to learn a language.”
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According to Menon and Patel, the objectives of structural approach are:
- to lay the foundation of English by establishing through drill and repetition about
275 graded structure.
- to enable the children to attain mastery over an essential vocabulary of about
3000 root words for active use.
- to correlate the teaching of grammar and composition with the reading lessons
- to teach the four fundamental skills namely LSRW skills.
- to lay proper emphasis on the aural-oral approach, active methods and the
condemnation of formal grammar for its own sake.
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL APPROACH

1. Importance of Speech
The very purpose of the language is for communication. We can communicate by two
means.1) speaking 2) writing. Writing is a skill of literates. Speaking is a skill of both literates
and illiterates. So, speaking is more important for language users. Structural approach gives
much importance to speech.
2. Formation of Language Habits
Structural Approach relies much on pattern drill. Pattern drill is given mainly to give an
opportunity to have habit formation. This is done because language is a habit. The child is able to
use the language mainly with the constant listening to the language that leads to habit formation.
3. Pupil's Activity
In structural Approach, pupil's activity is given more importance as compared to teacher's
activity. The Structural Approach takes care of actively involving both teacher and students for a
better teaching learning transaction.
4. Mastery of Structures
More emphasis is given on learning structures rather than vocabulary. A particular structure is
taken for teaching. Practice on all the language skills (LSRW) is done one by one on the same
structure.
5. Meaningful Situations
To avoid monotonous, the teacher has to be innovative in creating meaningful situations to
present a teaching item. The different types of meaningful situations can be created by facial
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expressions, by dramatization and by gesticulations. There is no dearth of ideas for a resourceful
teacher.
6. Teaching One Item of Language at a Time
In structural approach students are introduced only one item at a time. The familiar
vocabulary is taken to teach a new structure. Only after getting mastery over the first structure,
the second structure is introduced to them.
Principles for the Selection of Structures

Usefulness
Structures selected should be in line with the usefulness of the learners. Care must be taken
while selecting structures. Structures should be selected on the basis of the situations that the
learners are normally involved.
Productivity
If the structure has scope for producing more sentences, that structure is said to be having
more productivity. So, we should opt for structures that have more productivity. For example
1. She has to go
2. Heat the iron
We can make an innumerable sentences with the first structure (the structure „has to‟) so,
this structure has high productivity. The number of sentences that can be made from the second
structure is almost limited.
Simplicity
By simplicity, we mean that the form and meaning of the structure should be simple. For
example, „they are playing‟ is simpler as compared to the structure „No sooner did the rain stop
than the boys started playing'. So, care must be taken to take up simple structures to teach.
Teachability
By teachability, we mean that the structure should give more scope for easy
demonstration. The structure which can be taught very easily, should be given preference.
Advantages of Structural Approach
1. This approach, promotes speech habits of students with repeated oral drills for various
structural patterns.
2. Oral practice ensures that the students acquire proper pronunciation.
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3. If the teacher is innovative and create a better classroom situation, structural approach
can motivate the students to the maximum.
4. Through habit formation structures are permanently grasped.
5. It is best suited approach for objective based teaching of a foreign language.
6. Proper selection and gradation of the learning material is possible through this approach.
7. The class is always active as it encourages participation of all students.
8. The free situation available in the classroom facilitates the functional aspects of the
language.
9. The popularity of the structural syllabus all over the country is the testimony of its
effectiveness.
10. Instant correction of students' mistakes is possible as its main emphasis is on oral practice
of the language structures.
Limitations of Structural Approach
1. This approach is suited for lower classes. Repetition of structures leads to boredom in
higher classes.
2. A few structures alone can be practiced, as creating real or contrived situations is not
possible always.
3. There is no authenticity of using this approach on teaching of poetry, precis writing,
descriptive and narrative writing.
4. Complete knowledge of grammar cannot be obtained through this approach as it only
touches functional aspect of it.
5. It is time consuming and completion of syllabus will be difficult.
6. It is difficult to apply on overcrowded classes.
3.1.2.b. Communicative Approach
1. Linguistic Competence. The learner who has the linguistic competence alone will be
able to utilize the language to use as and when he requires.
2. Different Forms of Linguistics. The learner has to be acquainted with all the forms of
linguistics. Only when he is familiar with different forms of linguistics, he will be able to
choose the specific form to be used in a specific situation.
3. Develop skills and strategies for using the language. The learner should possess all the
skills that facilitate the learning. of language. To be an effective user of language, he
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should be trained in different strategies which could be applied for using the language in
different situations.
4. Social Background. English is learnt as a second language. That means, the learners
have to use the language in the society. Man is known by his company. That way, only
when he has a right type of environment in the society, he will show interest in learning
the target and use it in the society. Society should be a ground for the learner to practice
what he learnt. The speaker should use the language suitable to the requirements of the
audience. Then only he is said to have used the language rightly.
Advantages of Communicative Approach
Students and their communicative purposes are at the very core of the teaching
programme. So, there are many advantages to the learners.
1. It provides for the teaching of everyday, real-world language used in variety of
socio-cultural situations in which features of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar
and culture are selected and graded according to their priority in actual
communication.
2. It recognizes that the students must have a real purpose for using language.
3. The language user feels satisfied on his own performance and that acts as a
motivating factor.
4. He is recognized the society where he uses the language successfully.
5. It aims at giving practical aspect of using the language.
6. It is situational, meaningful, motivating others and is self-rewarding.
A better communicator has a lot advantage over others. Communication plays a major
role in teaching-learning process. So, the teacher and the students should realize this core
responsibility. Both should come forward to establish a right environment for the acquisition of
communicative language. Once the habit of right communication is formed, the learner comes
out a good speaker and an accurate conveyor of his thoughts.
3.1.2.c. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
The main purpose of learning any language is to communicate our thoughts and to others.
Whatever the language we learn, it should focus the ways and means to use it for our
communication purpose. For effective communication, one must master all aspects of the
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language, linguistics, being the most important one. Verbal communication is possible only
when the speaker and listener physically present and know the context. For effective
communication both words and structures are needed.
But Chomsky disapproved the structural linguistic theory and introduced the idea
creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences as fundamental characteristic of language.
During the same period British applied linguists grew conscious of another fundamental
dimension of language and that was the functional and communicative potential of language.
Famous scholars like, Candlin, Widdowson, Firth, Halliday.
3.1.2.d. Eclectic Approach
Eclectic means choosing and accepting freely from various sources. No method is superior
and not method is inferior. Every method has its own merit and demerit. No method is perfect
and totally acceptable. This is our understanding based on the analysis and approaches we have
made so far of different methods and approaches to the teaching of English.
The teacher is the competent person to decide on the method depending upon the classroom
dynamics. He can have a compromise of using various aspects of the methods discussed so far.
Even in some cases, some teachers may use some methods which might not have come to light.
Whatever the method that the teacher adopts his sole aim should be in developing the four
language skills in the students. The skills of the language in the natural order of LSRW are to be
given focus.
Different activities for developing oral skill as suggested in Unit IV have to be carried out.
Question-answer technique can be followed. Only when required the teacher can use mother
tongue for explaining some abstract words, phrase or situations.
The teacher can use Inductive and Deductive approaches to teach grammar. He has to ensure
that the grammar classes don't lead them to hate the English Language. This is mainly because,
most of us have hatred towards English as we tried to learn language after memorizing the
grammar rules. There, putting a big block on our learning the language.
The teacher can use play-way method as it gives an immense pleasure to the learner. As
much as possible apt audio-visual aids to be used for effective learning. The teacher must
manipulate his techniques to suit the needs and standard of his students, the time, the material
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and the aids available on hand to realize his objectives of teaching English. We can call this as
Eclectic Method or Complete Method or an Integrated Method.
3.2. RECENT TRENDS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH
The importance of English in India is felt more today than any point of time in the history
of English in India. It is rightly said that the reach of English is far and wide and there is no area
which is not influenced by English. Hence, the responsibilities of English teachers have become
manifold. The teaching of English is to cater to the various needs of the learners. The learners
need to be prepared to use English globally. Keeping these aims in mind, the strategies for
teaching is formed. Many modern trends have been introduced in teaching of English.
3.2.1. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
The origins of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) are to be found in the changes
in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s. It is the result of rejection
of Audiolingualism in the United States. Many methods and approaches of teaching English
make the learners to learn English to some extent. But, when it comes to communicating in
English, our students have some inhibition. The Communicative Language Teaching takes care
of the learners of English in communicating in English.
Objectives:
- aimed at developing communicative ability in the learners

- importance is given to meanings functions rather than the structure of the language.
- task based language practice helps the learners to acquire a better language skills.
- a balanced importance is given to all the four language skills viz. LSRW.
The Method
English class should encourage dialogue and not the monologue of the teacher. Most of
the activities are done in pair work or group work. Role play, language games, grammar games,
interactive sessions, interviews, debate and other related activities are the ways the classes are
conducted. Specified text books are not the only content for learning. Any materials, even non-
conventional materials are taken for designing and activities and solving solutions. There are
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teachers who pick up any news item from the Hindu, frame some questions, dictate these
questions to the students or write the questions on the blackboard, have a small pre-reading
session on the news item before reading the news item for the students to answer the questions.
This has become a very effective practice for developing not only reading but also listening, as
the students listen to comprehend the news item. There are some other teachers who capitalize
the interest of the students in cricket, allow them to watch cricket match ask the students to read
cricket news item in the Hindu, the next day and have small discussion. This method helps in
grasping a good number of vocabulary.
3.2.2. Cooperative Language Learning (CLL)
Cooperative Language Learning is part of a more general teaching approach also known
as Collaborative Learning. Cooperative learning ensures maximum learning with the activities
involving pair works and group works. Oslen and Kagan defined the cooperative learning as:
“Cooperative learning is group; learning activity organized so that learning is dependent

on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in
which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to
increase the learning of others”.
In Cooperative Learning, group activities are the major mode of learning and the part of
comprehensive theory and system for the use of group work in teaching. Group activities are
carefully planned that can ensure maximum participation of the students to each other‟s
learning.
3.2.3. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)
There is a difference between „acquiring‟ a language and „learning‟ a language.

„Acquisition‟ of the language takes place quite naturally and „learning‟ of the language takes
place quite consciously. Mother tongue is acquired and other targeted languages are learned.
Language is better acquired than learned. That way, English classroom should have
opportunities to acquire the language. It should give the learners of English Acquisition-rich-
environment. Apart from giving a conducive environment for acquiring language skills in
English, the activities in the English classroom have to be interesting also. The only option that
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the English teacher has now to live upto this expectation is to rely on Task-Based Language
Teaching Approach.
Martin Bygate, University of Lancaster, John M. Norris, University of Hawaii at Manoa,

Kris Van den Branden, Ku Leuven say that:
“Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is an educational framework for the theory

and practice of teaching second or foreign languages. It is based on a constellation of
ideas issuing from philosophy of education, theories of second language acquisition,
empirical findings on effective instructional techniques, and the exigencies of language
learning in contemporary society”.
Advantages of Task-Based Language Teaching
There are many advantages of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) for the learners of
English as a second language. The most important benefit of TBLT is that it removes the
passivity in the minds of the learners and act as a motivational for learning more. The learners
stand to bring their experience for completing the tasks which ensures that the learners are able
to execute their knowledge in using situation. And, of course, teachers are there to help them in
this regard. Task-based learning is advantageous to the student because it is more student-
centered, allows for more meaningful communication, and often provides for practical extra-
linguistic skill building. Although the teacher may present language in the pre-task, the students
are ultimately free to use what grammar constructs and vocabulary they want. This allows them
to use all the language they know and are learning, rather than just the „target language‟ of the
lesson. Furthermore, as the tasks are likely to be familiar to the students (eg. Visiting the
doctor), students are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them in their
language learning.
Meaning is primary in TBLT. As primary importance is given to meaning that would

create interest in the students and they would come voluntarily forward to do more activities that
facilitate language learning. Learners are not restricted in their use of language forms. So, the
learners are not besieged with some rigid stigma that is followed in an English class. As tasks
bear a relationship, to real-world activities, the learners are not doing tasks in any simulated
situation or in contrived situation. The real life situation is the form of tasks the learners can
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devote their entire time in giving language aspect to the sense that they have in their mind and
heart. That way, task-based language teaching activities will play a stimulus for learning the
target language with great enthusiasm.
The priority in a task-based language teaching class is on achieving the goal of the task.
Tasks are assessed based on their outcome. TBLT provides a structured framework for both
instruction and assessment. Using tasks as the basic building blocks of syllabus design allows
teachers to both sequence the lessons and assess their outcomes, while at the same time creating
reasonably authentic parameters within which students can communicate with each other for a
purpose. Most importantly, it allows them to focus on what it is that they are saying to each
other, rather than on how they are saying it.
Task-based teaching offers the opportunity for „natural‟ learning inside the classroom. It
emphasizes meaning over form but can also cater for language form. It is intrinsically
motivating. It is compatible with a learner-centred educational philosophy but also allows for
teacher input and direction. It caters to the development of communicative fluency while not
neglecting accuracy. It can be used alongside a more traditional approach.
3.2.4. Activity Based Learning (ABL)
Activity-based learning (ABL) as defined by Prince (2004) is a learning method in which

students are engaged in the learning processes. In Activity-based learning (ABL) teaching
method, in the words of Harfield, Davies, Hede, Panko Kenley (2007) “students actively
participate in the learning experience rather than sit as passive listeners”. Learning activities if
based on real life experience help learners to transform knowledge or information into their
personal knowledge which they can apply in different situations. Activity –based learning as the
learning process in which “student is actively involved in doing or in seeing something done.”
Activity –Based Teaching (ABT) method “frequently involves the use of manipulative
materials”. According to Churchill, ABL helps learners to construct mental models that allow
for 'higher-order' performance such as applied problem solving and transfer of information and
skills‟. In ABL the learner examines learning requirements and thinks how to solve a problem
given to him. The students do not learn about the content, rather they learn about the process to
solve the problem. As they go towards the solution of the problem, they also learn about the
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content. Effective teaching –learning process is not possible without students‟ motivation. Hake
argues that students‟ motivation by engaging them in interactive- activities is an effective and
useful method for teaching complex concepts. He highlights the importance of different activities
related to the concepts being presented.
Activity-based learning in India

Activity-based learning or ABL describes a range of pedagogical approaches to
teaching. Its core premises include the requirement that learning should be based on doing some
hands-on experiments and activities. The idea of activity-based learning is rooted in the common
notion that children are active learners rather than passive recipients of information. If child is
provided the opportunity to explore on its own and provided an optimum learning environment
then the learning becomes joyful and retention is longer.
The ABL in its contemporary form was first undertaken by the Chennai Corporation in
13 schools on a trial basis in 2003, has been adopted by all the 270 primary schools in the
district. First designed and tested by the Rishi Valley School in Andhra Pradesh in the '90s, the
Activity-Based Learning system has been successfully implemented in several Indian states and
union territory, including Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana.
Maharashtra, Chandigarh. In Tamil Nadu, UNICEF supported the Chennai Corporation to
introduce the ABL methods in the Government schools. The philosophy of ABL finds its
antecedents in the common notion that learning can be best when it is initiated by the
surrounding environment and motivated by providing optimum opportunities to learn. A fearless
and freedom to express environment always adds to best learning outcomes.
Characteristics of activity-based learning
The major feature of the ABL method is that it uses child-friendly educational aids to
foster self-learning and allows a child to study according to his/her aptitude and skill. Under the
system, the curriculum is divided into small units, each a group of Self Learning Materials
(SLM) comprising attractively designed study cards for English, Tamil, Maths, Science and
Social Science. When a child finishes a group of cards, he completes one "milestone". Activities
in each milestone include games, rhymes, drawing, and songs to teach a letter or a word, form a
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sentence, do maths and science, or understand a concept. The child takes up an Exam Card only
after completing all the milestones in a subject.
3.3. LET US SUM UP

 Planning the lesson is important for all the teachers. Though the teachers go with the
plan, they have to be flexible in executing it.
 Objectives of teaching should be based on the need and level of the students.
 The teacher should employ all methods and approaches for effective teaching.
 If teaching items are presented interestingly the learners will show a lot of
enthusiasm in learning.
 Review for the purpose of assessing the students' learning and also the teachers'
own teaching.
3.4. KEY WORDS

Approach : the nature of language and how language is learnt
Method : the different ways of teaching language
Technique : the classroom activities that v ill facilitate better learning
Active use : use it in our regular conversation.
Habit formation : using the language without much conscious efforts
Pattern drill : the drill followed on a particular sentence pattern
Productivity : the sentence structure with which more number of sentences can be
produced
Contrived situation : artificial or created situation
Eclectic method : the method that is flexible to adopt in order to promote
efficiency in teaching.
1. i. It helps in building vocabulary.
ii. The teacher is comfortable.
2. i. It is an unnatural method.
ii. Speech is neglected.
3. Learning the language through listening is known as audio-lingual method of learning.
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UNIT – IV
STRUCTURE
4.1. TEACHING THE FOUR SKILLS OF COMMUNICATION
4.2. LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE AND COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
4.3. DEVELOPING LISTENING SKILLS
4.4. DEVELOPING SPOKEN ENGLISH
4.5. PHONETICS OF ENGLISH: STRESS, RHYTHM AND INTONATION
4.5.1. Difficult for Indian Students and Remedial Measures.
4.6. VOCABULARY ENRICHMENT
4.6.1. Enhancing Stock of Vocabulary.
4.6.2. Lexical and Grammatical Competencies.
4.6.3. Use of Dictionary and Thesaurus.
4.7. ENHANCING READING SKILLS
4.7.1. Types of Reading.
4.7.2. Study and Reference skills.
4.8. TEACHING:
4.8.1. Teaching Writing.
4.8.2. Teaching of Prose.
4.8.3. Teaching of Poetry.
4.8.4. Teaching Composition and Classroom Practices.
4.9. TESTING:
4.9.1. Testing and Evaluation of Language Skills.
4.9.2. Types of Tests.
4.9.3. Types of Achievement Tests.
4.9.4. Construction of a Good Test – Objectivity, Reliability, Validity and Administrability.
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4.9.5. Item Analysis.
4.9.5.a. Item Difficulty.
4.9.5.b. Discriminative Index.
4.10. LET US SUM UP
4.11. KEY WORDS
************************
4.1. TEACHING THE FOUR SKILLS OF COMMUNICATION
Refer 1.5, 1.5.1, 1.5.2, 1.5.3, 1.5.4.
4.2. LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE AND COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Everybody knows the inter-relationship of language and communication. But, how far,
we are successful in describing the term correctly. The aspects of linguistic description like
phonology, lexis and syntax are just part of elements that constitute for communication.
Language is used in context and understood in context. We should be able to distinguish
between lexical meaning of the utterance and contextual meaning of the utterance. Say, for
example, if a teacher fully perturbed by the behavior of a student tells, „I will kill you‟. In this
context, the student can take lexical meaning of the utterance of the teacher and takes the matter
to the police as „attempt to murder‟ rather it should be contextually understood that the teacher is
highly disturbed by the student and he may be intended to punish him as legally and
academically permitted. So, the users of the language need to be aware of the limitations
between the linguistic competence and communicative competence. So, it is learnt that
grammatical knowledge alone cannot help in participating effectively in communication. Apart
from conscious about the form of the language, the users are expected to follow certain things in
mind to make their communication effective. They are,
01. The level of the participants should be kept in mind as an approach.

02. The attitude, values prejudices and preferences of the users of the language.
03. The relationship between the communicators.
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04. Functions of the speech, whether it is done directly or in any other mode.
05. The mode of communication, whether through spoken or written
Communicative competence includes all the linguistics competence and other factors that we
discussed in the beginning of this paragraph. Chomsky believes that linguistic competence can
be separated from the rest of communicative competence and studied in isolation but socio-
linguist, like Dell Hymes believes that the notion of linguistic competence is unreal and that no
significant progress in linguistics is possible without studying forms along with the ways in
which they are used.
4.3. DEVELOPING LISTENING SKILLS
Refer 1.6.1
4.4. DEVELOPING SPOKEN ENGLISH
Refer 1.6.2.
4.5. PHONETICS OF ENGLISH: STRESS, RHYTHM AND INTONATION
There are varieties of pronunciation in English. Teacher of English in India should be

wary of selecting a suitable model for Indian students. Each individual has his own voice quality
and ways of uttering the sounds. Despite these individual differences we are able to identify
whether English is spoken by an Indian or American or a Russian or a Chinese. This is because
distinctive phonetic features which make one language different from another.
ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR ROLE

Different organs of human body are engaged in the production of speech sounds. Air
streams that come from the lungs play a major role in producing sounds. English sounds are
produced by breathe out. Of course, sounds in all other global languages are also produced by
breathing out, except Japanese language.
Respiratory System
The respiratory system includes the lungs, the muscles of the chest and the wind pipe.
The respiratory system is the backbone of the production of speech sounds. Airstream is the
source of energy to the respiratory system and the lungs being the producer of the airstream. The
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speech sounds in almost all languages are produced by breathing out the air. This airstream
mechanism is called pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism.
Phonatory System
Phonatory system comprises of Larynx otherwise known as „Adam‟s Apple‟ and the
Vocal Cords in all positions like vocal cords drawn wide apart, vocal cords held loosely together
and the local cords held tightly together.
Articulatory System
The Articulatory System includes the Pharynx, the Lips, the Teeth, the Teeth Ridge, the
Hard Palate and the Soft Palate.
Check your progress

1.Mention any three pre-requisites for effective communication.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2.What are the organs of speech that are there in Articulatory system?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
SOUNDS IN ENGLISH
Different sounds are needed for speaking any language. These speeches are in a
structured group. This group is divided into smaller groups and again into till the smallest
sound. For example, take a group of sounds in the sentence /The lady sang a song/. It can be
divided into two groups: /The lady/ and /sang a song/. Further, they can be divided into five
groups: /The/, /lady/, /sang/,/a/, /song/. And, finally, the first word can be divided into two, the
second into four, the third into three, fourth into one and the fifth into three. So, we have divided
the group of sounds into the smallest sounds till that cannot be broken any further. This smallest
sound unit is called PHONEME. The sentence that we have taken for example has totally 13
smallest sound units.
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There are some phonemes that are phonetically similar, and yet different from one
another, and of course, the difference' between them is not contrastive. For example'
Cake-/keik/ Phoneme/k/ is in two different positions. /k/is not pronounced as same in both the
places. In the first place it is pronounced with aspiration and in the end position it is unaspirated,
But both the aspirated and unaspirated /k/ are called ALLOPHONES of the phoneme /k/.
4.5.1. Difficult for Indian Students and Remedial Measures
MINIMAL PAIR DRILL
There are many sounds in English which are difficult for Indian speakers. It is mainly
because the influence of mother tongue. There are a few phonemes which do not occur in our
languages and hence they are likely to be difficult for our pupils. The English phoneme which
does not have equivalent in the mother tongue, will cause a problem for them. There are some
notable pairs of sounds which our people are not able to distinguish properly. And to remove this
problem, minimal pair drill will be much useful.
In minimal pair drill, the confusing pair of sounds is taken. Words are taken for both the
sounds, where other sounds, other than these confusing sounds are same. For example, if the
learner has difficulty to distinguish between /t/ and /d/ then they can be asked to practise
tin : din /tin/ : /din/
train : drain /trein/ : /drein/
tusk : dusk /tʌsk/ : /dʌsk/

try : dry /trai/ : /drai/
beat : bead /bi:t/ : /bi:d/
wheat : weed /wi:t/ : /wi:d/
Note: other than /t/ and /d/ remaining all the other sounds are same.
Minimal Pair Drill for /p/ and /b/
pin : bin /pin/ : /bin/
peak : beak /pi:k/ : /bi:k/
rip : rib /rip/ : /rib/
peep : beep /pi:p/ : /bi:p/
gap : gab /gæp/ : /gæb/
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Minimal Pair Drill for /tʃ/ and /dz/
cheap : jeep /tʃi:p/ : /dʒ i:p/
choke : joke /tʃəʊk/ : /dʒəʊk/
chump : Jump /tʃʌmp/ : /dʒʌmp/
rich : ridge /ritʃ/ : /ridʒ /
chug : jug /tʃʌg/ . : /dʒʌg/

Minimal Pair Drill for /s/ and /z/
sink : zinc /sink/ : /zink/
sue : zoo /su:/ : /zu:/
loose : lose /lu:s/ : /lu:z/
bus : buzz /bʌs/ : /bʌz/
Minimal Pair Drill for /k/ and /g/
cap : gap /kæp/ : /gæp/
crow : grow /krəʊ/ : /grəʊ/
clad : glad /klæd/ : /glæd
WORD-STRESS
Collins Co-build English Language Dictionary says: “Stress is an extra emphasis that you
put on a word or a part of a word when you pronounce it, so that it sounds slightly louder”. Stress
means the aspect of giving greater prominence to some of the syllables. There are two kinds of
stress: the word-stress and the sentence-stress.
Each English word consisting of more than one syllable has a fixed stress pattern. The
syllable which should receive the greater prominence is marked (') in dictionaries. One has to
master over the syllabification before trying to learn stress.
How to syllabify a word? A word is divided into syllables by the number of vowels it
contained. To put it simply, each syllable has only one vowel sound in it. For example, the word
'examination'/ig/zæ/mi/nei/ʃən/ has five syllables in it. You can notice that there is only one
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vowel sound in each syllable. In English two unstressed syllables rarely occur before a stressed
one. Therefore, in words consisting of three or more syllables, the syllable which is two syllables
before the syllable with the heaviest stress receives an amount of stress which is intermediate
between the heaviest and the weakest stress. This intermediate stress is called Secondary Stress
while the heaviest one is called the Primary Stress.
Stress Shift
Individual words don't have fixed stress pattern. The same words have different stress
pattern depends on the parts of speech of the words. When the words come as noun or adjective
they get stress on the first syllable. If they are verbs then the second syllable is stressed.
______________________________________________________________________________
Word Noun or Adjective Verb
______________________________________________________________________________
Absent /'æbsənt/ /əb'sent/
Conduct /'kɒndʌkt/ /kən'dʌkt/
Desert /'desət/ /di'sɜ:t/
Export /'ekspɔ:t/ /iks'pɔ:t/
Import /'impɔ:t/ /im'pɔ:t/
Object /' ɔbdʒikt/ /əb'dʒekt/
Permit /'pɜ:mit/ /pə'mit/

Sometimes shift of stress is based on the morphological structure of words. Stress shift
from the first syllable to the second, the third, or the fourth syllable. This shift takes place when
smaller words by affixing more syllables get changed their grammatical forms and stress shifter
from the base word to the number of syllables added into it. For example,
'democrat (3 Syllables) de „mocracv(4 Syllables) demo „cractic (5)

„diplomat (3) dip „lomacy (4) diploma „tically (6)
„politics (3) po „litical (4) poli 'tically (5)
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'photograph (3) pho'tographer (4) photo „graphical (5)
Word stress helps to identify compound words from related noun phrases
Compound Noun Phrases
'blackbird 'black'bird
'crossword 'cross'word
'grandmother 'grand'mother
'greenfly 'green'fly
Check your progress
3.What is a minimal pair?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
4.What is a word stress?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Inflexional Suffixes
The words which do not change their grammatical status even by affixing something into
them are called Inflexional suffixes. Inflexional means „not flexible‟. For example
'table (Noun) 'tables (Noun)
„student (Noun) „students (Noun)
'simple (Adjective) 'simpler (Adjective) 'simplest (Adjective)
'enter (Verb) 'enters (Verb) 'entered (Verb)
'realize (Vern) 'realizes (Verb) 'realized (Verb)
Derivational Suffixes
Derivational suffixes change their grammatical status by affixing something into them.
They are classified into two classes (a) those which do not affect stress (b) which affect the word
stress.
VERB NOUN
Decide Decision
Teach Teacher
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Apply Application
Realise Realisation
Enter Entrance
Add Addition
ADJECTIVE ADVERB
Beautiful Beautifully
Cheap Cheaply
Quick Quickly
Angry Angrily
Probable Probably
Terrible Terribly
NOUN ADJECTIVE
Achievement Achievable
Addition Additional
Adjustment Adjustable
Mass Massive
Approach Approachable
Attention Attentive
VERB ADJECTIVE
Accept Acceptable
Act Active
Adjust Adjustable
Attend Attentive
Attract Attractive
Avoid Avoidable
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Intonation
Stress is described as the degree of force applied on different syllables, whereas
Intonation is the change of pitch of the voice. Intonation also gives different meanings like
phoneme and stress when we make a change of pitch. In English different intonation patterns are
associated with different types of sentences. Attitude of the speaker also gets changed with the
change of intonation and this makes the speech difficult to be understood.
There are five basic intonation- patterns in English. They are
I. Rising
II. Falling
III. Falling-Rising
IV. Rising-Falling
V. Rising-Falling-Rising.
Rising
Rising tone is used with the sentences which are inconclusive or anticipatory in nature.
Usage No. 1: It is used with the Inverted Questions (Questions start with auxiliary verb) which
require „Yes‟ or „No‟ answer
e.g. Are you going to Chennai ?
Usage No. 2: It is used with the sentence with two tone groups like Main Clause and
Subordinate Clause. Rising tone is used with the subordination clause and Falling tone is used
with the main clause. e.g. When I reached the station the train had already left.
Falling
Falling tone is used with the sentences which are conclusive and final.
Usage No. 1: It is used with the general statements
e.g. Chennai is the capital of Tamil Nadu.
Usage No. 2: It is used with the sentences of command
e.g. Shut the door
Usage No. 3: It is used with Specific Questions (Questions start with Interrogative Words which
start with „W‟ or „H‟)
e.g. Where did you go?
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Usage No. 4: It is used with the question-tag when expecting confirmation
e.g. Tomorrow is wednesday, isn‟t it?
THE PRONUNCIATION
Pronunciation means the way of producing the sounds of a language. The users of the
language do not pronounce the words in any language the same way. Researches reveal that the
pronunciation of the same word gets changed within the radius of 30 kilometres. It is right in all
senses. We have Coimbatore Tamil, Tirunelveli Tamil, Thanjai Tamil, Madurai Tamil and in top
of all we have Chennai Chenthamizh. A person from Thanjavur may not easily understand the
Tamil spoken by a person from other part of Tamil Nadu. Leave alone the hardship that the
people of other part of Tamil Nadu will encounter on trying to understand Chennai Tamil.
If that is the case with the language that is spoken in 300 kilometre circumference, what
would be the case with English that is being spoken all around the world? It will be definitely
difficult to understand English in different dialects. So we need a common pronouncing pattern
to make the encoding and decoding of the English pronunciation go together. And for this
purpose Daniel Jones has brought out a pronouncing dictionary with Received Pronunciation.
Received Pronunciation means the pronunciation that is acceptable to all.

There are 44 sounds in English. They are classified as:
1) Pure Vowels - 12
2) Diphthongs - 08
3) Consonants - 22
4) Semi-vowels - 02
CONSONANTS
Consonants are best described in terms of their articulation. The following questions
should be asked to describe the consonants.
1) Does the air come out from the lungs or from some other organs?
2) Is the air pushed out or drawn inwards'?
3) Do the vocal cords vibrate or not?
4) Is the soft palate raised or lowered?
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5) Where does the articulation take place?
6) What is the manner of articulation?
Place of Articulation
Articulation means jointing. Place of Articulation means, where the active articulators
and passive articulators meet to produce sounds. Active articulators are the speech organs which
can move from their place of rest towards passive articulators in order to produce sounds.
Phonetic Transcription
There are 12 pure vowels and 08 diphthongs. Diphthongs are all along vowels. They are also
called gliding vowels.
English Pure Vowels
______________________________________________________________________________
Sl.No. Symbol Key Words PhoneticTranscription
______________________________________________________________________________
01 /i/ ink, think, rusty /ink/, /θink/, /rʌsti/
02 /i:/ eat, beat., sea / i: t/, /bi:t/, /si:/
03 /e/ echo, better, ---- /ekəu/, /betə /, --------
04 /æ/ act, cat, ------ /ækt/, /kæt/, ---------
05 /a:/ arc, part, harp /a:k/, /pa:t/, /ha:p/
06 /ʌ/ upper, cup, suffer /ʌpə/, /kʌp/, -----
07 /ɔ/ dog, fog. chop /dɔg/, /fɔg, /tʃɔp/
08 /ɔ:/ cork, dawn, talk /kɔ:k/, /dɔ:n/, /tɔ:k/
09 /u/ wood, cook, put /wud/, /kuk/, /put/
10 /u:/ moon, stool. tooth /mu:n/, /stu:l/, /tu:θ/
11 /ɜ:/ curl, pearl, her /kɜ:l/, /pɜ:l/, /hɜ:/
12 /ə/ balloon, banana, abacus /bəlu:n/, /bəna:nə/, /æbəkəs/
______________________________________________________________________________
Classification of English Vowels

(i) According to the part of tongue raised
/i: i e æ/ ---------- are front vowels
/ʌ ə: ə/ ---------- are central vowels
/a: ɔ ɔ: u u: / ---------- are back vowels
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(ii) According to the height of the tongue
/i:. u:/ ----------- are close vowels
/i u ə:/ ------ are half-close vowels
/e ɔ: ʌ ə/ ------ are half-open vowels
/æ a: ɔ/ ------ are open vowels
(iii) /i: i e æ/ ------ are spread vowels
/a: ʌ ə: ə/ ------ are neutral vowels
/ ɔ ɔ: u u:/ ------ are round vowels
Diphthongs
Sl. No. Symbol Key Words Phonetic Transcription
01 /eɪ/ rate, game, train /reɪt/, /geɪm/, /treɪn/
02 /aɪ/ sky, try, pride /skaɪ/, /traɪ/, /praɪd/
03 /ɔɪ/ coil, soil, boy /kɔɪl/, /sɔɪl/, /bɔɪ/
04 /əʊ/ home, above, rose /həʊm/, /əbəʊ/, /rəʊz/
05 /aʊ/ cow, plough, rout /kaʊ/, /plaʊ/, /raʊt/
06 /ɪə/ spear, deer, tear /spɪə/, /dɪə/, /tɪə/
07 /eə/ wear, share, despair /weə/, /ʃeə/, /dispeə/
08 /ʊə/ poor, duel, cruel /pʊə/, /djʊəl/, /krʊəl/
Manner of Articulation
I. Plosives
(a) Bi-labial /p/ and /b/
Both the lips brought together for awhile, air behind the closure is compressed then the
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articulatory organs (both the lips) part rapidly with explosion
e.g. /p/ - /pit/, /spit/, /skip/
/b/ - /bit/, /bet/, /rib/
Note: There is no doubling of consonants in transcription. We cannot, transcribe „rabbit‟
as/rabbit/ though there are two bs in the words rabbit.
(b) Alveolar /t/ and /d/

Tip of the tongue closed the air passage by pressing against the teeth ridge, the soft palate is
raised and no air passage to the nasal cavity and the tip of the tongue is raised to release the air
suddenly.
eg. /t/ - /tin/, /bet/, /bi;t/
/d/ - /din/, / splendid/, /bi:d/
(c) Velar /k/ and /g/

The back of the tongue is raised and pressed against the soft palate and the air passage is
closed. The nasal passage is also closed. Then the air is allowed to rush out suddenly by lowering
the tongue.
e.g. /k/ - /ki:p/, /skai/, /spi:k/
/g/ - /gəʊld/. /əgəʊ/, /dɔg/

II. Fricatives
(a) Labio-Dental /f/ and /v/
Lower lip is pressed against the upper teeth causing a partial closure of air passage.
The soft palate is up and the passage to nasal cavity is blocked and the air is allowed to escape
through the narrow opening between the teeth and the lips.
e.g. /f/ - /fæn/, /selfi:/, /ka:f/
/v/ - /væn/, /la:və/, /li:v/
(b) Intra-Dental /θ/ and /ð/

The tip of the tongue is placed just behind the upper teeth. The Palate is up and the passage
to naval cavity is blocked. The air escapes through the narrow opening between the teeth
85
e.g. /θ/ - / θin/, /mʌnθs/, /ba:θ/
/ð/ - /ðen/, /ra:ðə/ /kləʊð/

(c) Alveolar /s/, /z/, /l/, /r/
The air passage is partially closed by raising the tip of the tongue against the teeth
ridge. The soft palate is raised and the passage to nasal cavity is blocked.
e.g. /s/ - /sin/, /best/, /mis/
/z/ - /zink/, /bisniz/, /lu:z/
/l/ - //lid/, /kli:n/, /ku:l/
/r/ - /rinz/, /bri:m/, -----
(d) Palato-alveolar / ʃ / and / ʒ /

The blade of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. The air passage is partially
closed. The sides of the blade of the tongue are pressed against the front of hard palate. The soft
palate is up and the nasal passage is blocked.
e.g. /ʃ/ - /ʃip/, /wiʃiŋ/, /puʃ/
/3/ - /3a:nə/, /me3ə/, /ru:3/(rouge-red powder used on face)

(g) Glottal /h/
The glottis is open and the air passes through it with slight friction
e.g. /h/ - /haiv/, /biheiv/ ------
III Affricates /tʃ/ and /dʒ/

The soft palate is raised and the passage to nasal cavity is blocked. The air passage is closed
by raising the tip of the tongue against the area between teeth ridge and hard palate. The air is
first locked and then released slowly.
e.g. /tʃ/ - /tʃein/ /butʃə/ /ritʃ/
/dʒ/ - /dʒʌdʒ /peidʒə/ /bridʒ/

IV Nasals /m/, /n/, /k/
The oral passage is closed and the air is released through the nasal cavity.
e.g. /m/ - /mint/, /trimd/, dri:m/
/n/ - /nais/, /baind/, /spin/
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/ŋ/ - /siŋə/ /briŋ/ -----
V Semi-vowels
Bilabial - /w/
The back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate. The soft palate is up and the passage
to nasal cavity is closed. The lips are closed rounded and they come forward before any sound is
made.
e.g. /w/ - /win/, /swim/ --------
Palatal - /j/ - /jes/, /bju:ti/ ------------
4.6. VOCABULARY ENRICHMENT
INTRODUCTION
Teachers of English pay an unsparing attention on making a good stock of vocabulary in
their students. Despite this effort students are not able to acquire adequate amount of vocabulary
for their communication or to understand any written passage. Vocabulary plays a major role in
meaningful verbal communication. Equally important is the grammar part of the language.
Grammar can be taught either by inductive or deductive approach. Reading techniques will
enhance the level of language acquisition to maximum, says Dr. West. Writing is a very
important means of communication reader is not present. So the writers have to be careful in
bringing the entire situation in front of the readers. We are going to learn about the ways and
means of enriching vocabulary, importance of reading habits and tips to improve reading habits
and importance of writing and how it can be developed.
Vocabulary is a tool through which communication in any' language is possible.

Acquiring vocabulary of a vernacular language is easy for the learners, whereas it is very
difficult in the case of learners of second language, especially, English, as a second language.
This is mainly because the learners are not privileged to the right kind of environment. Then,
what type of environment should a learner of English have?
The Two types of environments for learning a language:
a) Acquisition-rich-environment
b) Acquisition-poor-environment
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Acquisition-rich-environment
Acquisition-rich-environment is an environment where the learners have more
opportunities to acquire the target language. The learners are exposed to the language wherever
he goes. Not only the school is a place from where he learns the language but also from home
and the society. Everybody around him is a teacher. That means, he can learn the language from
whoever he meets. So, acquiring the language skills of English as a second language will be to
the maximum if the learners are provided with the acquisition-rich-environment.
Acquisition-poor-environment
Acquisition-poor-environment is an environment where the learners have less opportunities
to acquire the target language. The learners may have scope only in formal situation, that is, in
school only. The learners in this environment do not get cleared of their doubts then and there.
Accumulation of doubts may lead to ignore them. So, the doubts will remain as doubts in the
minds of the learners. Or, sometimes, these doubts will vanish from the minds of the learners.
OBJECTIVES
- establishing the importance of teaching vocabulary in a second language
- understand the difference between active vocabulary and passive vocabulary
- realizing the importance of learning and enhancing the content words
- learns to use the content words contextually
- learns the different methods of teaching vocabulary
NEED FOR LEARNING VOCABULARY

Man is social by nature. He has to communicate with his fellow-beings to have a
meaningful life. Vocabulary plays a major role in communication. If vocabulary plays a major
role in communication what about the grammatical structure? Vocabulary and Structure are the
two sides of the same coin, as far as effective communication is concerned. A wrong vocabulary
in a right structure will never carry the right meaning the speaker wants to convey. And, of
course, a right, vocabulary in a wrong structure will also never carry the right meaning. But, of
the two, vocabulary alone is enough for effective communication, provided the speaker and the
listener know the context of the speech. That way, to some extent in oral communication,
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vocabulary will do a great favour to the user of the language. But, at the same time, structure
does not play a second role to vocabulary in effective communication.
KINDS OF VOCABULARY
There are two types of words. 1. Structural words and 2. Content words. Structural words
are part of grammar. These words cannot give a complete meaning independently. But we cannot
weigh them lowly also. Because without them, grammatically correct sentences in unfamiliar
situation are not possible. Content words can give meaning independently. So, it is mandatory on
the part of the teacher to enrich the list of content words of his pupils.
F.G.French classifies the words of a language into three, in relation to its users:
a) the words that he knows intimately and can use them effectively,
b) a large number of words that he understands but doesn't normally use, and
c) the unlimited number of words in the language that he doesn't know.
French compares the first group to our "friends", the second to our "acquaintances" and
the third to the "strangers" who we do not know. French further establishes that these groups
may change their position. The list of words that we intimately know and can effectively use,
may become the words of "acquaintances" if we minimize the use of these words. And further
these words may go to the list of words under "strangers". In the same way, the words which are
in the list of "strangers" may, in due course be considered under "acquaintances" and "friends"
also.
Active Vocabulary: The words that we know intimately and use them effectively in our daily
life.
Passive Vocabulary: The words that we may not use in our daily life but realise their
meaning when we happen to come across.
IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING A WORD

The meaning of a word can never be understood when it is in isolation. Like human being
the word is known by the company it keeps. To put it simply, the meaning of a word can
precisely be understood when we know the context in which it is used. It proves further that
'language is situation '. Any word that is learnt through situation is bound to remain in the mind
of the learners for a longer time. So, picking up dictionary to learn a few words everyday will be
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wastage of time. Because, much cannot be retained and recalled through this method. The
purpose of learning anything can be fulfilled when we are able to recall them at the time 'of need.
How long does one take to learn all the meaning of a particular word? It is a very simple
question. The answer may vary 'from one day to a few months'. But the gross reality is that it
takes one's life time to master over the meaning of a single word. All the words in English are
open-ended. That means a new meaning can be given to a word at any time. So, it is said that
nobody will be able to learn all the meanings of even a particular word.
Check Your Progress

Note: Write your answers in the space given below.
5. What do you mean by „stress shift‟?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. What are inflexional suffixes?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. What are derivational suffixes?
____________________________________________________________________________
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4.6.1. Enhancing Stock of Vocabulary.
1. Classroom Situation: Teachers of English are sometimes underprivileged as their pupils don't
have acquisition-rich-environment to learn English as a second language. But they should not be
disheartened with this situation. Definitely, children are very eager to speak in English. This
eagerness of children should properly be exploited by the teachers to teach English. The teacher
can teach vocabulary through the items available in his classroom. What are the items may be
available in a classroom?
Fan, Table, Duster, Chalk, Wall, Paint, Whitewash, Switches, Wire...
Fan
i. The fan is whirling clockwise.
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ii. The fan is brown in color.
iii. The fan has a long iron rod.
iv. If the fan is not working we feel suffocated.
v. If the fan is not whirling we perspire.
vi. The fan has three leaves. These leaves rotate and we get air.
So, there are l 5 words that can be learnt through the examples cited above. The number of
sentences that can be made on' Fan' and the number of words that can be learnt from these
sentences has no bound. Likewise many sentences and many words can be learnt through the
items available in a classroom. So, the teacher can very much utilize the items available in his
classroom to teach many vocabulary.
2. Actual Objects: Another effective means of teaching vocabulary is through showing real
objects. There are innumerable objects whose English relevant the students may not know, can
be brought to the class. The preference of objects should have been familiar to the students. How
many of us know the English equivalent to the items that are there in our home. Say, the names
of ingredients that are used in the preparation of some dishes. So, the teacher can prefer to teach
them first. Then, the other items at home can follow. Likewise the teacher can choose to bring
some objects that are familiar to the students and give their English equivalent.
3. Actions and Gesticulations: The teacher can teach much vocabulary through actions and
gesticulations. Even silence can communicate. Words like walk, run, sit, clean, beat, punch, drag,
push, pull, stare, grimace, lift, etc. can very easily be taught through actions and gesticulations.
The listed words are just samples. There are many words that can be added to this list. Even
words that show feelings can very effectively be taught through actions and gesticulations.
Blackboard Sketches: Many words can very easily be taught through blackboard sketches. The
teacher needn't be very accurate in his attempt to draw some sketches to teach vocabulary. Even
a line or just a circle will be quite handy to the teacher. Meaning of some prepositions can be
effectively taught through this method.
O O O O O O
In on into over out of under
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Verbal Situations: When we find difficult to teach through other means then we have to depend
on teaching vocabulary through verbal situation with familiar words,
e.g. Instead: (1) John was called but Babu went. Babu went instead of John.
(2) I wanted a Ford car but they supplied a Maruthi. 1nstead of a Ford car
they supplied a Maruthi car.
EXPANDING PUPILS' VOCABULARY

One should have a good stock of vocabulary for a better communication in English.
There are many ways through which pupils' vocabulary can be optimized. The best method may
be through extensive reading. Most of the children, nowadays, are very fond of cricket. The
interest that the children show on cricket can be effectively exploited by the teacher to expand
the vocabulary of the students. Then, what should the teacher do for this cause? Simply, the
students can be asked to watch cricket match live if possible and the next day they should be
asked to read the cricket news from 'the Hindu'. It will do a lot of wonder in expanding pupils'
vocabulary as the situations are familiar to them, they can very easily pick up the apt vocabulary
to the known situations.
Other ways to expand pupils' vocabulary are:
(i) Word Families: A family of words can be formed with the basic word.
Example:
Care careful carefully careless carelessly carelessness

Fear ? ? ? ? ?
Shame ? ? ? ? ?
Hope ? ? ? ? ?
(ii) Word Patterns: By adding some affixes new words can be formed.
Example:
(a) Adjective Adverb
quick quickly
slow ?
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Firm ?
violent ?
(b) Verb Noun
move movement
advertise ?
settle ?
enrich ?
So, enrichment of vocabulary can be done in many ways. Even, the easiest way to enrich
one's vocabulary is to follow the advertisement. If we just look at the advertising boards, a lot of
useful vocabulary can be gained.
4.6.2. Lexical and Grammatical Competencies
Lexical and Grammatical Competence

Competence is the quality of being competent. We can say a person in competent when
we have proof of him working over a period of time to a desirable standard. The proof must
show that they can bring many parts of a job together. When one is able to bring different skills
together to prove his mettle and ability to create, he is, then, considered competent. Competence
can be proved not just because of what he can do but because of how he applies that ability in the
field of his work. Here, the competence means, the ability to grasp the English language and use
it appropriately when time demands.
Communicative Competence
Communicative competence is the underlying competence systems of knowledge and
skill required for communication. The four areas of communicative competence are:
1. Grammatical Competence, which is concerned with mastery of the language code,
vocabulary and linguistic semantics.
2. Sociolinguistic Competence, which is involved in decisions about appropriacy of
language to context
3. Discourse Competence, which means the ability to construct and maintain in
negotiation, properly coherent talk and text.
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4. Strategic Competence, which involves in decisions about how to repair breakdowns
that occur in communication, or to enhance the message.
Communicative competence is the ability to use language properly in productive and receptive
situations for real communication.
Grammatical competence: Grammatical competence is the ability to recognize and produce the
distinctive grammatical structures of a language and to use them effectively in
communication. Grammatical competence is the ability to recognize and produce the distinctive
grammatical structures of a language and to use them effectively in communication and to use
the forms of the language (sounds, words, and sentence structure). Grammatical competence in
English is very essential for communication otherwise, wrong meaning will be conveyed.
Lexical competence: Lexical competence is the ability to recognize and use words in a language
in the way that speakers of the language use them. Lexical competence includes understanding
the different relationships among families of words and the common collocations of words.
When we talk about lexical items we refer to the “words” that are stored in our minds and that all
together build our mental vocabulary. So, lexical competence is a term derived from second
language studies, especially competence in English. When we learn English as a second
language we are learning and storing, somehow, a set of lexical items that will constitute the
second language vocabulary.
Grammatical and lexical competence: It is the ability to use both competences in order to
recognize, produce, and understand words and grammatical structures to use them effectively in
written and spoken communication.
4.6.3. Use of Dictionary and Thesaurus
Dictionary
One of the most valuable reference materials available is dictionary. Learning to use a
dictionary is an important skill. Dictionary skill does not mean the ability to locate the word in
the dictionary. It also means the ability to
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(i) Choose the correct meaning from the number of meanings supplied for the single
word.
(ii) Learn the pronunciation
(iii) Learn grammar and use parts of speech and structure
(iv) Understand different meanings of the same word.
Students should be trained to realize all these benefits that are assured in the dictionary.
They should be aware of the learning items available in a dictionary and accordingly try to make
use of these facilities. Students should refer only standard dictionaries. Everybody should have
a dictionary of his own purposes. In the beginning it may be time-consuming. Later, it will be
quite interesting for the students to refer the dictionary for different meanings and for
pronunciations. English teacher should ensure that the students refer dictionary everyday either
for meaning or for pronunciation.
Thesaurus
Thesaurus is like a dictionary which helps us expand the way that we discuss our topic. A
thesaurus contains groupings of words that are collected in terms of their meaning. In some
cases, people are more comfortable with thesaurus than dictionary for the illustration that they
enjoy in thesaurus.
How to use a thesaurus

 Choose the word for which we need to know the meaning
 Find the word in the alphabetical order
 Once the word is found out, look at the words that are listed alongside the main word.
 Be wary to pick the right meaning from the number of meanings given.
Using a thesaurus can often be part of using a dictionary, as many online dictionaries will
include these words at the ends of the definitions. This speeds up the process of finding the right
word for your needs.
Online Thesaurus:
Online thesaurus has become very famous with the young learners. If we want to find a suitable
thesaurus online, there are many options available. These online thesauruses are up to date and
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they can give you a long list of words and their meanings. Online thesauruses are accessible
from anywhere with an internet connection and they allow us always to have this option
available to us when we are online.
Book Thesaurus
Book thesauruses are also available which can be at our fingertips. This will offer a reference
book in the internet is not available. A few useful thesauruses are:
 Roget‟s Super Thesaurus

 Webster‟s New World Thesaurus
 The Merriam-Webster Thesaurus
Book thesauruses are easy and an independent reference material unlike the online thesaurus
which requires computer, internet and power. These thesauruses can be borrowed from a library,
or they can be purchased from a variety of bookstores and online shops. The only disadvantage
in book thesaurus is it is not updated until the next edition comes.
4.7. ENHANCING READING SKILLS
Reading is one of the receptive skills. Apart from helping the students academically,
reading plays a major role in one‟s knowledge acquisition. Reading is the process of looking
carefully at written or printed symbols and translating them into the spoken symbols. The
spoken symbols are associated with the objects, qualities or actions for which they stand. Thus,
we can say that Reading consists of three elements i.e. the written or printed symbol, the spoken
symbol and the sense. Reading is an important skill in learning a foreign language, because it
opens a good store of useful and interesting material to the students. Reading or the ability to
understand the written language is the most useful skill for the learners. Dr. West, who had a
great experience of teaching English to Indian students gives his verdict that reading should be
given the key place in the total scheme of teaching English as a foreign language in Indian
schools. So, it is mandatory for the educational system in India to ensure the enhancement of
reading skills in the students.
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The English teacher can provide enough opportunities to students to develop reading
comprehension.
* students should be encouraged to develop good reading habits.
* they should be allowed to in a normal speed.
* reading in a meaningful segment is mandatory to comprehend the reading. Teachers should

help them develop this skill.
* train them to understand lexical meaning and contextual meaning of the content read.
* give enough practice to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words.
* make them feel the importance of referring dictionary for meaning and teach them the ways to
refer the dictionary for locating the appropriate meaning that the reader requires.
* help them develop to skip the unwanted portion of the reading. In other words, develop the
skimming ability.
* train them to develop silent reading.
* help them identify the most important point of the reading.
* teach them to infer the mood of the writer to deduce the exact meaning.
4.7.1. Types of Reading
It is essential that the habit of reading should be developed among our students from the
very beginning. To do this job effectively the teacher should have the knowledge of the types of
reading that facilitates reading comprehension. The different types of reading are:
(i) Loud Reading

(ii) Silent Reading
(iii) Intensive Reading
(iv) Extensive Reading and
Loud Reading
Loud reading helps to acquire correct pronunciation. The teacher has to be wary in
correcting the wrong pronunciation immediately and give a drill of correct pronunciation to the
whole class. There is a controversy on the point whether silent reading should be followed by
loud reading or vice versa. Marrison is of the opinion that loud reading by students should be
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followed by silent reading, just the opposite of what is practised generally in our schools. The
obvious benefit of loud reading is that it provides practice in good speech to the pupil and affords
the teacher an opportunity to find out whether the pupil is reading with correct pronunciation or
not. Reading loud also helps in inculcating the pupil in the correct habit of reading in sense
groups.
The teacher should drill the correct forms of the mistakes made by the pupils in chorus as
well as individually. Habit of loud reading should be cultivated because this is an important part
of education. Good reading is an asset in actual reading context. The skill of reading well also
gives the learner a sense of pleasure, power and mastery over the language. The pupil
concentrates while reading aloud as it requires conscious efforts. Hence, at the initial stage more
attention should be paid to reading aloud.
Silent Reading
In silent reading there is no movement of the lips or the tongue. Along with the ability to
read aloud, pupils should be introduced to silent reading. The importance of silent reading may
be judged from the fact that most of the reading done by an adult is on this nature. While the
purpose of reading aloud is to improve the pronunciation of pupils, the purpose of silent reading
is to enable them to comprehend the meaning of what they read with speed. The pace of reading
in silent reading is more than the pace of loud reading. In loud reading the reader loses the
energy and it is difficult read for a long time, whereas, in silent reading, the energy of the readers
is not drained and thus, has the chances of reading for a longer time. So, right from secondary
education, it is suggested to practice and gain from silent reading. Teachers should ensure that
the students don‟t move their lips while in silent reading, otherwise, it will lead to faulty habit of
reading, as there are chances of mismatch between the movement of the lips and the movement
of the eyes. Test the reading comprehension of the students through silent reading is a challenge
to the teachers. The teacher has to be meticulous in assessing the reading comprehension by
asking a few questions to check.
Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is aimed at mastering the structures and vocabulary apart from reading
for comprehension. The pupils have more opportunities to learn the aspects of the language
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through intensive reading. If properly carried out, even non-native speakers of English may
develop themselves better users of English than the native speakers of English in writing.
Intensive reading can also be done in the absence of the teachers. So, by spending more time on
intensive reading, one may get language skills in English. And, the only practicable means of
learning a foreign language as a second language is through intensive reading. The intensive
reading has some prerequisites like, the readers should be able to identify the words and
sentences spoken orally and acquire sufficient speed in reading.
Extensive Reading
In intensive reading, the pupils pay attention to almost all aspects of language. And
further the efforts of learning the language is supplemented by extensive reading. Extensive
readers should be interesting stories. Magazines, newspapers and variety of story books will
form the material for extensive reader. The two main themes of extensive reading are reading
for pleasure and reading for information..
Extensive readers facilitate passive vocabulary in the learners. And it also consolidates
active vocabulary. Os, the teachers should regularly give some assignment and thus forcing the
students to library. Sending the students to library can be done as a means of assertive
punishment also. As the students read more and more books, their power of phonic analysis
improves and makes the learner to pronounce any word that he sees for the first time. Group
discussion also can be done on extensive reader.
4.7.2. Study and Reference skills.
Study Skills
Study skills help learners to study anything more efficiently. To pursue higher education
and to come successful in any competitive examination, one requires study skills. The persons
who are not efficient in study skills are bound to beat the bush. In some cases they may not get
the benefit proportionate to the efforts that they have put up.
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The process of study skills is four:
1. Perception
2. Comprehension
3. Retention
4. Retrieval
In higher education and in competitive examination, it is very difficult for the examinee
to master over the entire syllabus prescribed. So, they go for preparing selected areas. For
example, if there are 10 chapters in a paper, 6 important chapters can be chosen for intensive
reading and the other 4 chapters can be for extensive reading. This kind of locating the area for
preparation is called ‘perception’. Once, the area for preparation is chosen, then the next step is
comprehending the selected topics. Skill of perceptions and skill of comprehension are called
‘gathering’.
The next step in study skills is storage skills. Whatever is understood in the second step
of study skills should properly be retained in our memory. This skill is called ‘retention skill’.
The last study skill is the skill of ‘retrieval’. The efforts that are put up in all the other three
steps will have to depend on the last skill for success. You might have watched many examinees
complaining that though they know the answer but they could not retrieve the answer at the time
of need. So, one has to be efficient in applying all the four study skills for the benefit.
Reference Skills
The learner of English has to develop the skill of reading to pursue higher education. The
situation that we give to the learners in the classroom is meager. The exposure that they get can
only lay foundation. Remaining, everything should be learnt by the students themselves. This
can be achieved only when they acquire mastery over some supplementary skills through
reference materials. These skills are called „Reference skills‟. When the reference skills
developed properly, the students would definitely be able to use English effectively.
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4.8. TEACHING:
4.8.1. Teaching Writing
The languages of today have come to stay for a major part of their function, as written
languages. So the need is made compulsory for the teachers to take efforts on developing
writing skill in their students. Writing is often regarded as the visual representation of speech.
But this is true only to the extent that speech sounds can be represented by some marks on paper.
There are not many situations where we have a free choice between speech and writing; in most
cases we use one of these two modes of communication. Writing is compulsory to the situation
where the physical presence is not required or for the situation where we have to make a record
of things. As writing is a record for others to peruse, making mistake in writing will expose our
lacuna.
Speaking is supported by gestures, intonation, facial expression, the physical situation

etc. The response of the listeners also supports the cause of speaking. These all advantages are
not there in writing. To compensate for these advantages in speaking, other devices have to be
employed in writing. A few devices that have to be used in writing are punctuation marks,
paragraphing, use of capital or bold letters, underlining, italicizing, use of various types of
sentence connectors like, therefore, however, in other words, in short, to begin with, finally etc.
For further information on Teaching Writing Refer 1.6.4.
4.8.2. Teaching of Prose
Teaching prose means teaching reading with comprehension. As the students are already
taught the methods of reading a language, the next logical step is to teach them reading with
comprehension. According to Coleridge, “Prose is best words in their best order”. Teaching of
prose means the intensive study of language, structures and vocabulary. The major objective of
teaching prose is to make the students to understand and use English language without any
problem. Thus, it is inferred that the teaching of prose concentrates both on language study and
comprehension of ideas or linguistic skills.
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There are different ways to prepare the lesson plan. The most useful method is Herbart Five Step
System. According to Herbart, the five steps for teaching English prose are
1. Aims
2. Preparation
3. Presentation
4. Recapitulation
5. Assignment
In schools, generally, teaching of prose is considered an easy affair by the teachers. It is
because they translate the content into their mother tongue and get satisfied that they teach well.
But, prose should be taught in the perspective of teaching English as a skill subject and not as a
content subject. The priority of the teachers is to give them 'facilities to acquire language skills
through prose- teaching, Effective teaching of prose means the attainment of different aims fixed
up by the authorities. If this is the case, then the teaching of prose is rather challenging. Reading
material should be easy, 'interesting and comprehensible in nature. Johnson says, "I will let him
at first read any English book which happens to engage his attention because you have done a
great deal when you have taught him to have entertainment from a book. 13e'll get better books,
afterwards."
Present Position of Teaching Prose

i) English has to be taught as a skill subject. In this regard, prose is the most important one with
which the teachers can give language acquiring environment to the students. But, what actually
practiced is faulty.
ii) Most of the teachers concentrate on giving mother tongue equivalent to the prose piece. They
feel happy when their students understand the content of the prose. This is their wrong notion.
iii) The teachers teach prose in the perspective of examination. They never take up to teach
language skills to them
iv) Functional aspect of the grammar is not dealt simultaneously with prose teaching. In most of
the cases, it is given as home assignment and the students invariably rely 'on substandard market
guides, which is quite detrimental
v) Very few teachers teach prose as a tool to give language abilities to their students.
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Methods of Teaching Reading
i) The Alphabet method: This is the oldest method where the pupils are made to memorise the
names of letters of the alphabet in their sequential order. For example, ee ei tee -> eat, etc.
ii) The Phonic or Syllabic Method: This method is considered an improved version of the
alphabet method. In alphabet method, the emphasis is given on the names of the letters, whereas
in phonic method, the emphasis is given on the sounds each of them represents. This method is
easy for the beginners. But it has its limitations in later stages. It is mainly because English is not
a Phonetic language.
iii) The Whole-Word Method. "The word is taken as the minimum meaningful unit. In this
method the learner is taught to read each word as a word-picture. Photographic memory is
promoted. The popular Look-and-say method of teaching reading at the beginning stages is
based on this method
iv) The Sentence Method: Minimum teaching unit is the sentence, not the word, as in the case
of Whole-Word method. This is based on the psycholinguistic principle of taking the sentence as
the minimum unit of thought. The sentence method relies heavily on the principle of situational
teaching.
v) The Story Method: To give the situational learning, the teacher tells a story. He then presents
sentences connected with the story. The story method regards the entire story as the unit of
thought.
vi) An Eclectic Method: Effective teaching of prose does not rely on any one method.
Different occasions require different methods. So, the teacher should meticulously be
incorporating all methods for effective teaching of prose. A) 1 the methods lie on a scale which
extends from single letters to the entire story.
The Process of Teaching Structural Reader

Step 1: The teacher should introduce the vocabulary and the structure that are used in the
lesson. He takes up this work as an oral lesson in functional grammar. This is done before
opening the textbook. He has to ensure that he teaches the words and structures with interesting
illustrations contextually.
Step II: This is called pre-reading session. The teacher gives all necessary information that will
facilitate to understand the text while reading. He revises the structure taught in step 1. If the
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passage to be taught is the continuation of the previous class, then the teacher has to make the
students to recall what they learnt in their previous class.
Step III: Model- reading by the teacher. He reads out the passage with correct
pronunciation, stress, intonation and pause. Pupils listen to the model reading of the teacher
carefully,
Step IV: Pupils read the passage silently. Pupils are allowed to read the passage silently. They
are encouraged to consult the dictionary for word-meaning
Step V: When the pupils complete silent reading, detailed study of the passage is taken up. The
teacher discusses the language aspects and the main points of the passage.
Step VI: The teacher recapitulates in order to check the understanding of the pupils on the
passages taught. If any further explanation is required, it is given at this point.
Step VII: Post-reading session. Pupils work out some more exercises on vocabulary and
grammar and also on the theme of the passage.
Step VIII: Loud Reading by the pupils. Some teachers follow this loud reading after his model
reading. It is a wrong method, because, pupils should not be allowed to read aloud anything
which they do not understand.
4.8.3. Teaching of Poetry

It has rightly been observed, „The matter and method for teaching poetry to Indian
children should be completely reoriented, if the teaching of poetry is to be of any value to them.
Much of the English poetry now being studied in our secondary school ought not to be there at
all. Certain classes of English poems, characterised by obscurity of language, difficulty of
thought or sentiments or associations expressed are unsuitable for Indian pupils of secondary
schools”.
Argument is afloat whether Poetry should be included in the school subject. In school,
teaching of English concentrates on giving learning experience to acquire language skills. Poetry
comes under literature. A major aim of teaching poetry is literary appreciation. We cannot expect
our students to give literary appreciation with their limited language skills in English. Still, we
can prescribe poetry for school students. To make the learners to enjoy the poem language
aspects also can be taught through poetry.
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AIMS OF TEACHING POETRY
The aims of teaching poetry should be both giving the pupils the language skills and
prepare them to enjoy aesthetic sense through the poem. The general aims of teaching poetry
are:
(i) To make the learners to appreciate the beauty of the poem:
(ii) To make them to enjoy the individual chorus recitation of the poem;
(iii) To make the students to understand the thoughts and imagery of the poem:
(iv) To create a love and develop taste for literature.
The Specific Aims of teaching poetry are:
(i) To make the students to recite the poem with proper rhyme and rhythm:
(ii) To make them to grasp and appreciate the underlying idea of the poem: and
(iii) To communicate to the students a particular message of the poet.
POETRY LESSONS FOR TEACHING LANGUAGE

Poetry lessons in English can develop in the pupils a favourable attitude towards the
language. Attitude plays a major role in one's achievement. Rhyme and rhythmic activity always
enchant the children. And, for this, poems should be very simple in language and in subject
matter. If the poem prescribed is humorous in nature, definitely, students show much interest in
learning the poem. This interest of the students can very well be exploited for teaching language.
And for this, teacher has to keep the following points in his mind;
i. The teacher should recite the verse as a song.
ii. He should not attempt to give word by word meaning of the poem. Students will lose their
interest. His aim is to give the students the music in the poem. He has to give explanation of
words or expressions only when it requires for enjoying the poem.
iii. Moral of the poem should be avoided.
iv. Aspect of language teaching should not be prominence
v. Every care should be taken to make the learners to enjoy the poem.
Though there are irregular structures in poetry, but in many cases regular structures are
used. So, poetry can be used to teach some idiomatic and grammatical constructions. As poetry is
appealing, the structures in poetry are well received by the students and they will be able to use
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these structures when situations arise. In this regard, memory poem comes quite handy.
Poetry lessons can improve pupils' pronunciation. English verses are rhythmic. Stress is the base
for rhythm. That way, the students grasp better pronouncing style.
The Process of Teaching Poetry Lesson

Step I: The teacher creates proper atmosphere for the poem, By using some teaching aids, he
tells something about the poem in simple English. It is called pre reciting session.
Step II : The teacher gives a model recitation of the poem. He uses all possible stimulus variation
while reciting the poem. He can use the tape script of the poem if available.
Step III: To remove the barrier of enjoying the poem, the teacher takes up to explain the
meaning of difficult words with the active participation of the students.
Step IV: The teacher gives a model recitation of the poem for the second time.
Step V: Selective students are asked to recite the poem, as recited by the teacher. Teacher
corrects the mistakes committed by the students.
Step VI: The teacher concentrates on the problems of the students in understanding the poem.
Step VII: The teacher asks some comprehension questions in order to check whether the
students understood the poem.
Step VIII: The teacher gives some home assignment. This may be asking them to memorise the
poem or write the summary of the poem. If the teacher wants to build creativity in the minds of
the students, then he can give a simple topic and ask the students to write a poem on the topic.
4.8.4. Teaching Composition and Classroom Practices.

Teaching composition starts with choosing the topic and finding out the structures and
vocabulary required to write the composition. The topic for composition should be interesting
and should be familiar with the students. Composition should be experience based. This
experience has two aspects: (1) easy subject-matter and (2) within the experience of the students.
There are two types of compositions:
1. Guided Composition
2. Free Composition
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GUIDED COMPOSITION
In guided composition, vocabulary, structure and points for writing are given by the
teacher himself. As an example, he makes his own write up which eliminates all difficult words
and structures. When teacher enters the class with this kind of preparation it will facilitate the
students to reciprocate in writing the composition at the expected level. But, unfortunately, most
of the teachers don‟t take this necessary step and the guided composition classes are in
deplorable state. The teacher has to conduct a pre-composition session where he can deliberate
the points to be included in the writing and also he can give the choice of vocabulary and
structures to the students. This initial discussion helps the students precisely on the choice of
sentences they should make. To ensure the correctness of writing of the guided composition, the
teacher has to ask a few questions to elicit answer from the students. If everything goes on well,
there is all possibilities in the making of good guided composition.
FREE COMPOSITION
Free composition can be introduced only when the students have a good stock of
vocabulary and better use of syntactic structures. As it is difficult, the students make a slow
progress in this task. There are four major reasons for a slow progress in writing free
composition in English. 1. Lack of preliminary work for the writing, 2. Demand for writing is
not there, 3. Proper guidance is not available and 4. Unfamiliar topic for writing.
However, these inhibitions can be overcome if proper preparation is done. The ultimate
aim of composition is to make the pupil arrange his own ideas in his own way, freely; to choose
his own words; to express his own ideas freely.
4.9. TESTING:
4.9.1. Testing and Evaluation of Language Skills.
TEST and EXAMINATIONS are still the most widely-used tools of evaluation. Test and
Evaluation are interchangeably used. But, there is a slight variation between the two. Test is to
determine whether the students have learnt what is taught. There is no yardstick. Examinations
on the other hand an attempt to determine whether the students have achieved some fixed
standard. But both test and examinations are tools for evaluation.
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Uses of Tests
Tests are used to
(a) determine the strength and weaknesses of the students
(b) help the teacher to understand his success or failure
(c) fix a predetermined goal for students and teachers
(d) motivate the students externally
(e) help the teacher and the students to change their approach towards teaching and
learning
(f) promote the students to the next higher class, or to issue certificate
(g) assess the quality of teaching and the standard of the school.
4.9.2. Types of Tests
1. Achievement Test
2. Standardised Achievement Test
3. The Aptitude Test
4. Proficiency Tests
5. Diagnostic Tests
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4.9.3. Types of Achievement Tests
Achievement
tests
Standardised Teacher made tests

tests (or)
Classroom tests
Subjective Objective
type tests type tests
Written Oral Practical
paper and tests tests
pencil tests
Short Essay
answer type
type test tests
Objective Short answer Essay type
type tests type tests tests
Achievement tests are of two types:
1) Standardised Achievement Tests and

2) Teacher made Tests (or) Classroom Tests.
STANDARDISED ACHIEVEMENT TESTS:
Standardised achievement tests are broadly classified into two classes, namely
subjective type tests and objective type tests.
Subjective Type Tests: Subjective type tests include short answer type questions and essay type
questions. Short answer type question test mainly the semantic aspect of the content and the
ability to recall by the pupils. Essay type questions are mainly used to know how well and deep
the student knows the particular topic of the subject.
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Objective Type Tests: Objective type questions are used to test the knowledge of the student
about the topic and the subject.
TEACHER MADE TESTS OR CLASSROOM TESTS:
Teacher made tests (or) classroom tests are broadly classified into three types, namely
(i)Written paper and pencil tests (ii) Oral tests and (iii) Practical tests.
(i)Written paper and pencil tests: Written paper and pencil tests are used to test the level of
understanding of the content by the student. It is further divided into three types, namely
(a)Objective type tests, (b) Short answer type tests and (c) Essay type tests.
(a) Objective Type Tests: objective type tests means the teachers have to be objective.
He can not influence his personal feelings on the papers that he corrects. He doesn‟t have any
hope to be biased in evaluating a paper.
(b) Short answer type tests: Short answer type tests reveal the true listening capacity of
a student to the teacher clearly.
(c) Essay type tests: Essay type tests are used to mainly test the knowledge of the student
in that particular topic. Essay type questions are persistently used still for mainly one reason that
it has direct link with social life. The skill of logical coherence that is practised in essay type
questions help us to use this logical reasoning in presenting our cause to other family members
or to our higher officials. We may be strong in using the language, but when we use it logically
it brings prosperity and peace to us.
(ii) Oral tests: Oral tests are used to know the recital capacity and the knowledge of the student.
Conducting oral test in an Indian large classroom is very difficult. There are many hurdles in
conducting oral test. Teachers of English should persist on trying to conduct oral test. Because,
we language mainly of speech. Language is speech.
(iii) Practical tests: Practical tests are mainly to be conducted so that the student understands the
concept of the topic so easily and clearly. He has the chance to convert the learning situation to
using situation. Anything that is learnt theoretically will have strong support when it is done
practically.
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4.9.4. Construction of a Good Test – Objectivity, Reliability, Validity and Administrability
A good tool of evaluation has the following characteristics:

Objectivity
Validity
Reliability
Administrability
Objectivity: A test should not give scope for the examiner to influence his own perception into
awarding marks to the answer. It should be free from the subjective judgment of the examiner.
Validity: It is meant to test the objective it aims to test. For example, the objectives of teaching
English are to give learning experiences to students to acquire language skills. But in most tests,
the skills are not tested. Students can get, through in the examination by memorizing some
passages. It is because of this, our graduates also are not able to use English, after having studied
English for many years.
Reliability: A test should not give different results in different situations. If so, the test doesn't
have reliability.
Administrability: Administrability is related to the conduct of the test. It should not give any
scope for copying. The test should be neither too long nor too short. An average student should
be able to complete it within the stipulated time. It should keep the students busy all the time.
Construction of a Scholastic Achievement Test

While constructing an achievement test, the teacher should ensure that relative weightages are
given to a) objectives b) content c) types of questions and with this Blueprint should be pre
pared. The teacher should follow the blueprint while preparing test items for test.
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Design
Subject: English Time: 45 minutes
Unit: Direct and Indirect Speeches Maximum Marks: 25
Class: IX
(a) WEIGHTAGE TO OBJECTIVES
1. Knowledge of Structure 40%
2. Skill of writing 60%
100%
(b) WEIGHTAGE TO CONTENTS MARKS

1. Recognition of correct reported speech 4
2. Sequence of tense in direct and indirect speech 4
3. Removal of sign of interrogation and change into assertive type 2
4. Interrogatives beginning with helping verbs 5
5. Interrogatives beginning with question words 5
6. Conversion into direct speech 5
Total = 25
(c) WEIGHTAGE TO TYPE OF QUESTIONS
1. Objective Type = 10 Marks = 40%
2, Short Answer Type = 15 Marks = 60%
100%
BLUE PRINT
S.NO CONTENT OBJECTIVES TOTA

Knowledge Skill L
1. Recognition of correct reported speech 4(4) 4(4)
2. Sequence of tense 4(4) 4(4)
3. Removal of sign of interrogation 2(2) 2(2)
4. Interrogatives beginning with helping verbs 5(5) 5(5)
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5. Interrogatives beginning with question words 5(5) 5(5)
6. Conversion into direct speech 5(5) 5(5)
Total 10(10) 15(15) 25(25)
NOTE:
The figures outside the brackets indicate marks and those within the brackets indicate the
number of questions.
THE TEST
Subject: English Time: 45 minutes
Class: IX Max. Marks: 25
Instructions: Attempt all the questions
I.a. Recognize which of the following sentences is correctly reported. Write A, B or C in the
given bracket for correct answer.
(A) Mohan asked me that was he going to Jaipur
(B) Gopal said to me if he going to Delhi.
(C) Hari asked me if I was going to Ajmer. (1)1
b. Write A, B or C in the bracket to indicate which of the following sentences is correctly

reported
(A) He asked me that where did I live
(B) He asked me where I lived
(C) He asked me where did I live (1)1
c. Choose the correct answer out of the following and write A,B, or C in the bracket.
(A) He asked me what my name was.
(B) He asked me what my name was.
(C) He asked me that what my name was. (1)1
d. Find which of the following is correctly reposed. Write A, B or C in the bracket.
(A) She asked me when was he absent.
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(B) She asked me when he was absent.
(C) She asked me that when he was absent. (1)1
II.a. Which of the following sentences has correct sequence of tense? Write A, B, or C for the
correct use.
(A) Mohan asked me why I am late.
(B) Mohan asked me why I was late.
(C) He asked me why I am angry. (1)l
b. Choose the right sentence having correct tense-sequence out of the following sentences. Mark
A, B, or C in the bracket.
(A) Hari asked me if I am going to Lucknow.
(B) Gopal asked me if I was angry with him.
(C) She asked me if it will rain. (1)1
c. Select which of the following sentences is correctly reported. Mark A, B, or C in the bracket
for the correct speech.
(A) He asked me if I can go to Meerut the next day.
(8) She asked me if I shall attend her birth day party.
(C) Ram asked Rahim whether he would go to school on Sunday (1)1
d. Choose the correct tense-sequence not of the following sentences and write A, B, or C for the
correct one.
(A) He asked me whether I have broken his pen.
(B) Raja asked me if I had written a letter to Lakshmi
(C) Rajan asked me if l have received his message (1)1
III.a. Which of the following has a correct form of assertive type.

(A) Dina asked me when I had received Dona's letter
(B) Sneha asked me when are you coming to Meerut, next time.
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(C) Swetha asked Sam when had he broken that cup (1)1
b. Which of the following has a correct assertive form?

(A) John asked the beggar what was he doing there.
(B) Grace asked Manju where was she going.
(C) She asked me how old I was. (1)1
IV. Change the following into indirect speech

(a) Kalai said to Ravi, “Is it your pen”?
(b) Vijay said, “Are you attending the function”?
(c) The mother said to her child. “Did u do your homework”?
(d) The teacher said to him, “Have you visited Taj Mahal”?
(e) He said to me, “Am I disturbing you”? (5)5
V. Change the following from direct into indirect speech.

(a) Varun said to me, “When will the match start”?
(b) Sunil said to me, “When are they are going to come”?
(c) She said to her husband, “who was in the room”?
(d) I said to her, “Why are you crying”?
(e) Raghu said “How are they going there”? (5)5
VI. Convert the following sentences into direct speech

(a) He asked me if I was going to Lucknow
(b) He asked his wife whether she was angry with him
(c) The teacher asked the new comer what his name was.
(d) He asked me why I had come late the pervious day.
(e) She asked her husband where he was going then. ( 5)5
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Q.No Ia b c d IIa B c d IIIa b Total
Question
Key c b a b b B c b a c 10
Marks 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
4.9.5. Item Analysis
To understand the difficulty level of each question item analysis is done. This involved
the calculation of two main values in respect of each test item – its difficulty value and
discrimination index.
4.9.5.a. Item Difficulty
The proportion students answering correctly is taken for the difficulty value of a test
item. The larger the proportion, the easier the item. If an item is answered correctly by 80% of
the pupils, it is comparatively an easy item, its difficulty value being 0.80. If only 15% of the
pupils answered, then, it is a difficult item and its difficulty value is 0.15. we should understand
that a low difficulty value indicates a hard item, while an easy item has a high difficulty value.
4.9.5.b. Discriminative Index.
Rank list is prepared and then top 27% and bottom 27% of the candidates are taken.
Then the proportion of the two groups passing a given item is found. For each item the
proportion of bottom-scoring students who get a particular item right is subtracted from the
proportion of the top-scoring ones who also get it right. The resulting proportion is called an
index of discrimination.
4.10. LET US SUM UP
 Listening and Speaking are language skills of even illiterates

 Ear-training is needed for fast acquisition language skills.
 One should be trained to speak the target language to fulfil the purpose of the language.
 Minimal pair drill is to be adopted for distinguishing confusing sounds
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 Stress and Intonation should be practice for effective speech
 Learners have to be familiar with all the 44 sounds
4.11. KEY WORDS

Tape script : listening material that is recorded in a cassette
Cooperative Learning : learning by sharing
Extempore speech : speech made without any prior preparation

Phoneme : smallest sound unit.
Allophone : the same phoneme is pronounced differently in different position
Articulation : joining of two speech organs in order to produce meaningful
sound
Stress Shift : change of prominence from one syllable to another on the
same word.
Content words : the words that can independently give meaning
Predetermination : the result has already been decided by previous events (in
cricket predetermined shots normally result in a six or a four or even
losing the wicket)

1.i. The level of the participants should be known.
ii. The relationship between the communications.
iii. The mode of communication whether through spoken or written.
2.The pharynx, the lips, the teeth, the teeth ridge, the hard palate and the soft palate.
3.When the speakers are not able to distinguish between the similar sound, the minimal drill is
practiced.
4.Stress means the aspect of giving greater prominence to some of the syllables.
5.The aspect of changing the stress from one syllable to the other is called stress shift. It is doe
for semantic and parts of speech changes.
6. The words which do not change their grammatical status even by affixing something into them
are called inflexional suffixes.
7. Derivational suffixes change their grammatical status by affixing something into them.
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UNIT – V
STRUCTURE
5.1. MICRO TEACHING:
5.1.1. Meaning and Definitions of Micro Teaching.
5.1.2. Characteristics of Micro Teaching.
5.1.3. Features of Indian Model of Micro Teaching.
5.1.4. Micro Teaching Cycle.
5.1.5. Steps in Micro Teaching Cycle.
5.1.6. Practice of Relevant Skills:
5.1.6.a. Skill of Reinforcement.
5.1.6.b. Skill of Stimulus Variation.
5.1.6.c. Skill of Explaining.
5.1.6.d. Skill of Probing Questions.
5.1.6.e. Skill of Using Blackboard.
5.2. DEMONSTRATION CLASS
5.3. NEED FOR LINK LESSON IN MICRO TEACHING
5.4. LET US SUM UP
5.5. KEY WORDS
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5.1. MICRO TEACHING:
5.1.1. Meaning and Definitions of Micro Teaching
Micro-teaching is a “scaled down teaching encounter” in which a teacher trainee teaches

a small unit to a group of 5 to 10 students for a small period of 5 to 10 minutes. Such a situation
offers a helpful setting for an inexperienced teacher trainee to acquire new teaching skills and to
refine old ones. Micro-teaching is a new design for teacher training, which provides trainees
with information about their performance immediately after completion of their lessons.
Definitions:
Allen: “Scaled-down teaching encounter in class size and class time”.
Bush: “ A teacher education technique which allows teachers to apply clearly defined teaching
skills to carefully prepared lessons in a planned series of five to ten minutes encounters with a
small group of real students often with an opportunity to observe the results on videotapes”.
McAleese and Unwin suggest that the term micro-teaching is often applied to the use of closed
circuit television to give immediate feedback of a trainee teacher‟s performance in a simplified
environment, but insist that micro-teaching is best viewed as a form of simulated teaching
usually incorporating reduced complexity and some feedback placed”.
5.1.2. Characteristics of Micro Teaching
1. Micro-teaching is a practice where the trainee concentrates on only one specific skill at a time.
2. Classroom interaction is provided and there is an immediate feedback possible.
3. The trainee concentrates on practicing a specific well-defined skill.
4. It gives opportunities for the trainees to learn the classroom technique.
5.1.3. Features of Indian Model of Micro Teaching
Micro-teaching disseminated from USA to different countries of the world including

India. It was in 1967 micro-teaching was referred in India when Tiwari attempted a project on
micro-teaching in the Central Pedagogical Institute at Allahabad. He was satisfied that micro-
teaching could be used as training in developing insight in student teachers and making them
more alert to the individual needs of the pupils. Allen, one of the pioneers of micro-teaching
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visited India during this time and it helped popularize the concept among teacher educators.
Though many studies had been taken in different Teacher Training Colleges, the major work on
micro-teaching was carried out in the Centre of Advanced Study in Education, Baroda and the
NCERT. NCERT in collaboration with the CASE and the Indore University which gave way for
NCTE to recognize micro-teaching in the teacher education programme.
Rationale of Micro-teaching in India.
Many researchers have found the rationale for micro-teaching in teacher education
programme. They are
1. The teacher trainee concentrate only on one skill at a time, hence, the practice
becomes quite easy.
2. Micro-teaching gives exact feedback that too immediately.
3. As it is a miniaturized practice there is no problem of classroom discipline.
4. There is no administrative problem, problems of space or any other problem in
carrying out micro-teaching practice.
Indian Model of Micro-teaching.
The Indian model of micro-teaching has the following features:
1. the practice is done without using any electronic gadgets like VCR, audio-tapes and
films.
2. Peer group observers give the feedback immediately. Teacher educators also give
feedback.
3. It is conducted in a simulated situation. Students are not real students and the person
who is teaching is not a teacher.
4. Micro-teaching class doesn‟t require much facilities.
5. The duration of the micro-teaching cycleis:
Teach … … 6 Minutes
Feedback … … 6 Minutes
Replan … … 12 Minutes
Reteach … … 6 Minutes
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Refeedback … … 6 Minutes
As students are the micro-teaching practitioner‟s own classmates, he doesn‟t have any
nervousness and inhibition. Observer‟s schedule is prepared and the observers record the aspect
of teaching in the schedule and that helps the teacher trainees to get a proper feedback. Micro-
teaching is a great contribution in Indian teacher education programme.
Check your progress

1.What is micro-teaching?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2.Give any two characteristics of micro-teaching.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5.1.4. MICRO TEACHING CYCLE
Planning a
Micro-lesson
Refeedback Teaching
Reteaching Feedback
Replanning
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5.1.5. Steps in Micro Teaching Cycle.
Step 1: Planning a Micro-lesson. In consultation with the supervisor a suitable content is

chosen and episode for the chosen skill is prepared so as to practice for 5-7 minutes.
Step 2: Teaching Session. The selected content is practised in the presence of the supervisor
and the trainees.
Step 3: Feedback. The supervisor and the co-trainees discuss strengths and weaknesses of
the micro-teaching practice and concrete feedback is given.
Step 4: Replanning Session. The micro-teaching practitioner makes some changes in his
episode as suggested by the supervisor and the observers.
Step 5: Reteaching Session. The teacher trainee practises the same skill may be with the
other set of 5-7 students.
Step 6: Refeedback: The supervisor and the observers again discusses on the level of practice
and give feedback to improve his teaching skills.
5.1.6. PRACTICE OF RELEVANT SKILLS:
5.1.6.a. Skill of Reinforcement
Everybody in the classroom expects some kind of recognition for their responding
behavior. There is a belief that „child cries for recognition‟ and „the man dies for recognition‟.
When the efforts of any individual are recognized then the efficiency in their works get
enhanced. If a teacher wants his pupils to be involved in his teaching and expects to have more
learning experiences, then the teacher needs to use reinforcers to encourage his pupils.
The Sub-skills of Skill of Reinforcement
1. Positive Verbal Reinforcers (very good, fine, fantastic, keep it up etc.)

2. Positive non-verbal reinforcers
3. Negative verbal reinforcers
4. Negative non-verbal reinforcers
5. Extra verbal reinforcers
6. Repeating and rephrasing pupils‟ responses
7. Writing pupils‟ responses on the blackboard.
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5.1.6.b. The Sub-skills of Skill of Stimulus Variation
1. Movement of the teacher
2. Using Gestures.
3. Interaction style.
4. Pausing.
5. Aural-visual shifting
6. Voice Modulation
5.1.6.c. The Sub-skills of Skill of Explaining
1. Beginning Statement
2. Explaining Links
3. Questions to Test Pupil Understanding
4. Questions Followed by Correct Response
5. Concluding Statement
5.1.6.d. The Sub-skills of Skill of Probing Questions
1. Prompting Technique
2. Redirecting
3. Refocusing
4. Seeking Further Information
5. Critical Awareness
5.1.6.e. Skill of Using Blackboard
Blackboard needs to be used quite meaningfully. Some teachers have the habit of writing
on the blackboard as they wish. Students cannot gain anything from this kind of blackboard
usage. Though there are many electronic gadgets that are used in teaching, but most of the
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government schools in India are left with only blackboard for educational transaction. Hence,
teachers have to use it meticulously in order to give the students „photographic memory‟ from
the blackboard. There are a few benefits on good blackboard usage.
1. Students understand the teaching concept very clearly.

2. It acts as an reinforcement to the pupils when they answer.
3. Diagramic presentation helps in mind mapping.
4. Attention of the students is drawn very easily.
The main components of this skill are legibility in handwriting, neatness in using the blackboard
and using it appropriately.
Blackboard is the oldest teaching aid and for some schools it is the only teaching aid
available. Blackboard can be used for teaching any language item. Some teachers use the
blackboard very efficiently. The teachers should effectively use it for the benefit of the students.
The teacher has to divide the board into two. One should be for reference area and the
other for working area. Reference area may be one third of the board and working area may be
two third of the board. In reference area the teacher can write all the specific instructional
objectives aimed to teach in that particular period. So that no specific instructional objective is
left untaught.
Blackboard sketches for Developing Aural-oral Skills

Blackboard sketches are more useful for the situational teaching of English. Many
situations can be created with the help of blackboard sketches. Blackboard sketches will kindle
the imaginative power of the children. The teacher need not to be good at drawing. Even roughly
drawn sketches will attract the attention of the children. It also acts as a great motivator.
Blacboard sketches have great advantage over picture is that they are done in front of the
children. So, they have strong appealing to the children.
Blackboard sketches for Developing Reading and Writing skills

While using the blackboard for writing the meaning of the words verbally he can use
simple sketches also. Beginners will be trained in the mechanics of writing through blackboard.
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Since the teacher writes the alphabet in front of the students, they will easily imitate the method
of writing from him. Students may be allowed to write on the board during.
Check your progress

3.What is micro-teaching cycle?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4.Mention any two sub-skills of „skill of explaining‟.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5.2. DEMONSTRATION CLASS
When the teacher trainees completed their micro-teaching practice, the subject expert
takes a demonstration class incorporating all the micro-teaching skills. Before presenting model
to the student-teachers, the subject experts are acquainted with the theory of the skill under
practice. On the basis of the theory, method master or the teacher educator demonstrates the
actions and relevant behaviours using proper situation and sequence these events in a
psychological manner in order to make the student-teachers clear about what is needed in the
skill under practice and what is expected from them in the training process. The trainees observe
the demonstration, take note of important behaviours of the skill and try to acquire the
demonstrated behavior through practice.
In modeling, the teacher observes demonstrated behavior and acquires the demonstrated
behavior. Thus, in demonstration strategy the student-teacher learns through observation.
During practice, student-teachers try to exhibit all demonstrated behaviours and refines them
through continuous practice. According to Gagne‟s conditions of learning, acquaintance of the
trainee with the relevant theory of the skill to be practiced, fulfills the primary need of the trainee
and then he prepares himself for the acquisition of the demonstrated behavior.
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5.3. NEED FOR LINK LESSON IN MICRO TEACHING
After all the skills of teaching are practiced by the student-teachers, they are asked to go
to schools for practice teaching in real classroom setting. In this setting, they expected to link all
the skills that they practiced. Link lesson is an ability on the part of a student teachers to
understand a given situation analytically, to examine his repertoire of the component skills, to
select and organize them into a sequenced pattern to achieve the instructional objectives, and to
use component teaching skills in the desired pattern with ease and mastery. Linking the
component teaching skills is thus a process in which this ability is acquired. Linking can thus be
defined as the process through which the ability to perceive the teaching situation analytically
select and organize the component teaching skill in desired sequence to make effective pattern in
order to achieve the specified instructional objectives.
Check your progress

5.What do you mean by „Demonstration class‟?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5.4. LET US SUM UP
 Micro-teaching is a scaled down encounter.

 Micro-teaching is not teaching but a practice that the trainees do.
 Plan-Teach-Feedback-Replan-Reteach-Refeedback.
 Skills of Stimulus Variation, Reinforcement, Probing question and Explaining are
practised.
 Link lesson is practised by the teacher.
 Demonstration is done by Teacher Education.
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5.5. KEY WORDS
Scaled down - reduced
Reinforcement - the encouraging actions from the teacher
Rephrasing - if the students‟ responses are not completely correct, the teacher rephrases.
Prompting - making somebody to do something.
Refocussing - learning in comparison, learning beyond the text.
Aural-Oral - listening and speaking.
1. Micro-teaching is a „scaled down teaching encounter‟ in which a teacher trainee teaches a

small unit to a group of 5 to 10 students for a small period of 5 to 10 minutes.
2. i. Micro-teaching ia practice where the trainee concentrates on only one specific skill at a
time.
ii. Opportunities to learn the classroom technique.
3. Micro-teaching cycle means the logical sequence that the Micro-teaching practice is
taken up.
4. i. Beginning Statement.
ii. Explaining Links.
iii. Questions to Test Pupil Understanding.
5. After completing the Micro-teaching practice by the students, the subject expert take a
incorporating all the micro-skills. This is called Demonstration class.
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UNIT – VI
STRUCTURE
6.1. INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS:
6.1.1. Audio- Visual Aids.
6.1.2. Teacher-made Aids – Flash Cards, Pictures, Charts, Models, Blackboard Sketches.
6.1.3. Electronic Aids – Overhead Projector, Tape Recorder, Lingua Phone Records, Radio,
Television.
6.2. PROGRAMMED LEARNING
6.3. LANGUAGE LABORATORY
6.3.1. Technology Enabled Language Learning.
6.3.2. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL).
6.4. MULTIMEDIA FOR ELT
6.5. WEB-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING
6.6. LET US SUM UP
6.7. KEY WORDS
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6.1. INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS:
Instructional aids are used in the classroom to encourage learning and thereby make it easier
and interesting. The materials like charts, maps, models, concrete objects, film strips, projector,
radio, television etc. which help a teacher for effective teaching may be called instructional aids.
Albert Duret rightly said, “It is easier to believe what you see than what you hear; but if you both
see and hear, then you can understand more readily and retain more lastingly”.
Classification of Aids
Instructional aids can be classified into three main categories
l. Audio aids
2. Visual aids
3. Audio-visual aids
Teaching Aids
6.1.1. Audio- Visual Aids
Audio Aids Visual Aids Audio-Visual Aids

Tape recorders Printed Non-printed Motion Pictures
Radio Books Blackboard Television
Lingua phone Newspapers Pictures
Magazines Charts
Flash cards
Models
Slides & slide
projector
LCD projector
Film strips
6.1.2. Teacher-made Aids – Flash Cards, Pictures, Charts, Models, Blackboard Sketches
Flash Cards: Flash Cards are also an inexpensive teaching aid. They can be used to teach words,
pronunciation etc. We can also use them as testing device.
Pictures: School children are enthused by pictures. The interest of the children on pictures can
very easily be exploited to describe a scene, a series of pictures can narrate a story. Pictures are
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used to explain the meaning of some difficult words. It can also be used to develop the
imagination of the students.
Charts: Chart is the easiest and cost-effective teaching aid. It can be used to teach all the four
skills. It is the timesaving teaching aid for teaching structures by Substitution Tables. Moreover
it can be used for at least for a few years. It is also useful to minimal pair drill. Mechanics of
writing also can be taught by drawing the strokes. Vocabulary, pronunciation and main points of
the lesson also can be taught through chart. Chart promotes the photographic memory in the
students.
Models: Models also play a vital role in teaching of English. When we do not have the real
objects, models will come in handy. Some real objects like ship, Indian Parliament etc. cannot be
brought to the classroom. In that case, models will be much useful.
Blackboard. "A blackboard is an easily available, dependable visual aid. This can improve the
handwriting of the students. There are many advantages of blackboard. Some teachers are totally
crippled without a blackboard.
Printed Visuals: Printed visuals like, books, newspaper and magazines are vital in promoting
self-leaning. These printed visuals have all ingredients to take for teaching of English. So,
teachers have to encourage the students to rely more on the printed visuals for learning English.
6.1.3. Electronic Aids – Overhead Projector, Tape Recorder, Lingua Phone Records,
Radio, Television.
Slides and the Slide Projector

Slides are a bit expensive, as they require a projector. The teacher can make his own slides
with camera. Vocabulary can be taught through slide projector and students can be asked to
frame their own sentences with the words learnt.
Filmstrips: Film Strips are very useful in many respects. A sequence of story can be projected
through filmstrips. They are used on a slide projector or a film strip projector.
Tape Recorder: Tape recorders are very useful in training the ear. Ear training in very important
for developing listening skill. Listening skill is the most important language skill which can pave
way to the acquisition of other language skills. Tapes are available for good pronunciation, prose
reading, poem recitation, stress, intonation etc. It is fine, if the teacher is confident of creating his
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own tape script which can suit his students. Tape Recorder is useful for self-examination, self-
criticism and self–education.
Lingua phone: Lingua phone is of great advantage in the class-room situations. There are
records available on speeches of great personalities. This will enable the students to become
good speakers of English. The new concept of Language Laboratory is strengthened by lingua
phone.
Radio: Radio helps improving the pronunciation of the students. Lectures, talks and addresses of
important personalities can be heard on A.I.R. Radio is one of the important teaching aids.
Fredric Wittis says, " I like to think of education by radio as a timely, vital, dramatic thing, a
system of learning or acquiring more information, means of widening one's horizon or enriching
one's life and breaking down prejudices through inspiration and prescription, and education by
desire and not by discipline, a pattern of swiftly changing pictures, events..."
Television: We have been trying to find out ways through which our children will understand
difficult tasks very easily. When we are successful in using Radio and Tape-recorder for the
educational purposes, they are not able to hold the audience to the required level. Students have
to pay extra attention to gain knowledge from radio and tape-recorders. The blessing that we got
to eliminate this problem is Television. Teaching through television makes the learners attracted
towards the content of learning. There are many subject oriented CDs available in the markets
with quite interesting way of presenting the content. The work of the teacher is made easy and
the hardship that the students have to put for understanding is kept aside with teaching through
television.
Recent trend of putting the Ramayan, the Mahabharath, the Bible, the Jataka Tales and
other stories through cartoon networks have made our children be aware of the culture and rich
religious background of our India. So, the benefits of teaching through television should be
capitalized by the teachers in imparting teaching items to the pupils.
When teachers use educational television programs during class, the relationship between
them and their students have desirable changes. Usually the status quo of the classroom is the
teacher imparts knowledge while students absorb the information. Educational programs change
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the status quo by, in a way, making the educator and children peers who can share and discuss
the viewing experience. Teachers can take advantage of this shift in roles by encouraging small
group discussions after watching the show. Educators can set specific goals or activities for
students in these small groups, which allows them to explore their own questions and share their
ideas on the given topic with their classmates. The instructor can then ask one member of the
small group to share their team's insights with the rest of the class, strengthening the absorption
of knowledge.
Check your progress
1.What do you mean by „Instructional aids‟?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2.What do you mean by Visual Aids?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
3.Give any two usefulness of newspaper.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
6.2. PROGRAMMED LEARNING
The principles of programmed learning were mainly drawn from the “operant
conditioning” model. The three major principles are 1) active responding 2) minimal errors and
3) knowledge of results. To put it simply, the learner should make an error free response and it
should be confirmed by knowledge of result. If the learning sequence is made by adopting these
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principles, it is a programmed learning model. The following programme on The Principles of
programmed learning was developed in U.S.A. and it follows almost Skinnerial and Ruleg
principles in both content and example. The teacher trainees are advised to read each frame
carefully.
Principles of Programmed Learning
1. Learning should be fun. However, in the early stages students make many errors
2. When a student makes errors he starts disliking the subject
3. Educators and psychologists feel that it is impossible to learn anything without
making a large number of errors. They support „trial and error‟learning.
4. If programmed well, the student will make very few error.
5. Small and easy steps (I principle). The basic idea of programmed learning is that the most
efficient, pleasant, and permanent learning takes place when the student proceeds through a
course by large number of small, easy to take steps
6. A programme is made of a large number of easy-to-take steps
7. If the programme is carefully prepared, the student will make minimum error.
8. Another major principle is that the students learn best if he is Actively Responding
(II principle) as he is learning.
9. The third principle is the principle of Immediate Confirmation
10. Self-pacing (IV principle). If the students do the work their pace they are
bound to do the quite satisfactorily.
11. Student Testing (V principle). Revision of a programme on the basis of student performance
is called the principle of student testing.
So the Programmed Learning developed on the principles of

l. Small Steps
2. Active Responding
3. Immediate confirmation
4. Self-pacing
5. Student testing
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Many people feel that the application of these principles will cause a fundamental change
in our educational techniques. The most important aspect of programmed Learning is the record,
which the student leaves of his learning experience. By revising our programmes on the basis of
these records, we can develop programmes which teach more efficiently. And, the records left by
a student in a programme give us a powerful tool for learning about learning.
Check your progress
4.What are the advantages of Tape-recorder in an English class?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.What are the principles of Programmed Learning?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
6.3. LANGUAGE LABORATORY
6.3.1. Technology Enabled Language Learning
English language teachers have understood the importance of integrating technology in

teaching English. It is felt that tradition English class doesn‟t have required scope for learning
English at a desired level. So, it is imperative to offer language instruction in multiple settings as
it promotes the use of language skills in authentic situations with the help of various techniques
using technology.
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In the present era of globalization, multinational companies demand a wide variety of soft
skills and life skills along with technical skills. Now English Language Resource Centres have
been set up in various universities. Language laboratory is a concept introduced to improve the
communication skills of engineering students. The demand of the job market has necessitated
effective lab oriented activities for the students‟ development.
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) serves as the motivating factor to

increase students‟ interest in language learning. Students can overcome their inhibitions in such
language labs participating with unlimited enthusiasm. CALL helps to introduce English speech
sounds, accent, stress, rhythm and intonation to neutralize the influence of the mother tongue or
in other words, in many situations there is no influence of mother in language laboratories.
CALL provides advantages to the students to record their responses, listen to them, check the
correctness and identify the errors. Such learning allows weak learners to learn language at their
own pace with minimum assistance.
Advantages of Technology Enabled Language Learning
 Learning has become integrated with audio-video support systems in the past few
years.
 With internet, a new platform of CALL systems has evolved. Native speakers now
resort to e-mail and chatting.
 The main advantage of such technological packages is that they enable reading,
writing, speaking and listening to be combined in a single activity, with the learner
exercising a high degree of control over the path that he/she follows through the
learning materials.
 It builds on multimedia technology and in addition enables both asynchronous and
synchronous communication between learners and teachers.
 Technology promotes the acquisition of autonomous learning developing the
learner‟s critical faculties. It allows a sufficient level of stimulation (both cognitively
and affectively) dealing with multiple modalities (to support various learning styles
and strategies). There is a high level of interaction (human-machine and human-
human) formed since teacher too is available in such Labs as a facilitator.
 Listening skills are precisely acquired with technology in English class.
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 As English is a non-phonetic language, learning the pronunciation of English words is
very difficult. With technology, the students are exposed to very authentic and
reliable speech pattern.
 Technology helps teaching and learning of speaking and reading to great extent that
makes the learning to use English in a balanced way in their life situation.
6.3.2. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
There is no field in the world which doesn‟t use the utility of the computer. So, it
will not be an exaggeration to say that computer makes teaching and learning process, quite a
meaningful way. Use of computer technology in classrooms motivates both students and
teachers. It increases productivity and facilitates instruction for better understanding. Integration
of technology in education is practised as a supplement to human capabilities.
Computer Assisted Language Teaching (CALT) is a system of educational instruction

done almost entirely by computer, CALT is a type of educational program designed to serve as a
teaching tool. It has facilities for both teaching and testing. It enables the students to do the
works at their own pace. The functions of this type of instruction are:
 Entry behaviour of the students is tested
 Easily understandable language materials.
 Repetitive drills to make habit formation of the language.
 Language games inspire the students for learning.
 Terminal behaviour of the students is tested.
 Continuous programmes on language items prepare the students to use English globally.
The Tamil Nadu government is in the right perspective of establishing language laboratory
in all government schools. Language Laboratory can do wonder in giving the learners the perfect
language acquisition. It develops communicative skills in the students. Whatever the language
that the students acquire is error free. They are exposed to the very best text to listen and to
practise. So, there are many benefits we get from computer Assisted Instruction. The teacher has
the facility to have more interactivity, it is quite economical (may be expensive at the time of set
up) and drills are possible which is every essential for language learning.
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6.4. MULTIMEDIA FOR ELT
Multimedia has stretched its wings to all fields including education. The classrooms have
become lively with use of multimedia. The conventional way of teaching English has been
drastically changed with the use of technology. Technology provides so many options which
make teaching effective and meaningful. Students are more comfortable and confident in using
technology and this promotes learning of English as easier. India being a country of many
languages, the unifying factor is English. So, due importance has to be given to English, and of
course, English has a privileged position in India. English is an associate official language in
India. Apart from this, English is the language of trade and in academic circle English is taught
as a I language, II language and III language. Hence, teaching of English has become a more
sought after activity. But, most of the students have nightmarish experience. Use of multimedia
makes the students show much interest in learning English.
Multimedia in English Classsroom
Technology helps in all possible ways to make English classroom a place for learning. In
chalk and talk method, the participation of students is minimum. The use of multimedia means
use of print texts, film and internet that develops language skills in English. Using print, film and
Internet as resources for studying provides students with opportunities to gather information
through stimuli that will stimulate their imaginations, engage their interest and introduce them to
the raw materials for analysis and interpretation of both language and context. Thus they greatly
increase their overall knowledge base, as well as their English language and critical literacy
skills, facilitating their performance in future college courses.
The Computer and Internet

Computer technology has given Internet, which has various uses. Internet has given the
students a wide range of collection of English language texts. Before the general use of
computers in colleges and universities to teach writing, students met in a traditional classroom
were taught to write standard essay. Instruction was personified commonly by the teachers
standing behind a lectern or by the teacher marking errors on student texts (Blair, 1997). The
computer has given the internet in which the print and visual materials are ready for reference
whoever visit. It is mandatory for anybody who wishes to learn more and the learning expected
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to be innovative and fresh, the only option for us is internet. Anything that comes to be known
to the world in any corner will be ready for every to realize its importance through internet. So,
teachers and students have to capitalize this situation for their academic benefit.
6.5. WEB-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING
Internet has made the entire globe into a small village. The use of internet has given the
education sector a giant leap in the perspective of amount of learning and quality of learning and
of course, the innovativeness in all fields. So, any teacher concerned and concerned teacher will
capitalize the benefits of websites in teaching his subject. English, being taught as a second
language, is crippled with the teachers‟ use of language, especially, in pronunciation perspective.
Received pronunciation can be brought to the English classroom just with a smart classroom.
Any topic of reference, you search for, there is a treasure of information available in the various
websites. This facility has to be utilized by the students for their benefits in gaining knowledge.
As we browse in the internet, we are exposed to treasure of information. Animation helps
learning the language better than it helps to learn other subjects. There are millions of articles
published on the internet by specialists. Finding out the exact information is an uphill task
considering the stack of documents available on even in one topic. To avoid wasting our time
Directories help in a great deal.
6.6. LET US SUM UP
 Audio aids, visual aids, and audio-visual aids are instructional aids.
 Tape-recorder helps in Micro-teaching and develops listening skills.
 Tape-recorders, radio and lingua-phone help in developing listening skill.
 Visual aids support the teaching and facilitates learning and retention.
6.7. KEY WORDS
Lingua-Phone - well rehearsed recorded contents are played to the students for language
acquisition
Flash cards - effective teaching aid which can be used even for smallest content of
learning
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1.The aids that help in making teaching easier are called Instructional aids.
2.Teaching aids that helps in learning through seeing are called visual aids.
3.i. It develops the vocabulary and grammar.
ii. Gives knowledge about the current affairs.
4.Tape recorder helps in developing listening skill. Students‟ speeches can be recorded then
assessed and guided.
5.i. Small and easy step.
ii. Active responding.
iii. Immediate confirmation.
iv. Self-pacing.
v. Student testing.
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UNIT – VII
STRUCTURE
7.1. PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
7.2. LIMITATIONS IN THE EXISTING SCHOOL CURRICULUM.
7.3. QUALITIES OF GOOD ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEXTBOOK
7.4. TEACHING PROSE, POETRY, EXTENSIVE READERS, PREPARATION OF
LESSON PLAN
7.5. LET US SUM UP
7.6. KEY WORDS
*******
7.1. PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
A. Principles of Child-Centredness
Curriculum is mainly meant for the children only. So, while constructing the curriculum
the child‟s age, interest, capability, capacity, aspiration, needs and psychology of the learner
should be considered.
B. Principle of Community-Centredness
Any curriculum is meant to develop the society. So, social needs and regional needs of
the learners should be counted.
C. Principle of Balance
Curriculum should produce the children who are not biased and having any inhibition. It
should make the children to lead a balanced social life.
D. Principle of Need
Learner is left to face many challenges to face in the life. He has to be intellectually
strong. He needs to get a good joy. He needs to perform all the duties that he is entrusted with
both in family life and social life.
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E. Principle of Utility
Curriculum should provide the child to lead a happy life. Hence, it should give the child
rich experiences, both academic and social life.
F. Principle of Creativity
In today‟s competitive world one has to be creative for a sustained meaningful life. So,
curriculum should help in developing creativity in the children.
G. Principle of Variety
Students are with different caliber in knowledge, traditions, intelligence, ability, aptitude
and attitude.
H. Principle of Flexibility
Curriculum should not be rigid. It should be flexible according to the need of the
learners.
I. Principle of Contemporary Knowledge
„A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush‟. That way, the curriculum should give
enough knowledge about the contemporary life.
7.2. LIMITATIONS IN THE EXISTING SCHOOL CURRICULUM.
However the curriculum planners try to give a comprehensive and utility oriented
curriculum, there are, definitely a few issues which hamper to realize the objectives of
curriculum. When we try to address all social problems and social needs the influence of other
things are unavoidable. The main limitation in the existing school curriculum is irrelevant
curriculum.
Irrelevant curriculum
People always criticize the school and its curriculum quite often. When people say the
curriculum is irrelevant they mean to say that on learning the curriculum, the learners are not
going to get much benefit. Teaching strategies are planned based on the need of the learner.
Curriculum and the level of the students should the teachers in this aspect. It is the duty of the
teachers to develop the students to a desirable level and this is possible only with the strong and
apt curriculum. Though the curriculum is planned keeping the target group in mind, and yet it is
directionless. Curriculum should be flexible and accommodate all the learners according to their
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interest, level of understanding and performance and for their prosperous future. Most of the
educators feel the curriculum becomes irrelevant when it is fixed and trivial.
Testing, Lacking in Quality.
Sub-standard testing is the main cause that blocks to realized the potential in the
curriculum. „Necessity is the mother of invention”. Our testing pattern is so low that our
students don‟t feel the importance of internalizing the curriculum. It is very peculiar to note in
some cases that what is there in the curriculum is not taught by the teacher, and if the teacher
which his own interest teaches better, then the students are not ready to learn, and the students
are ready to learn and attempt to write better answers, then the examiners don‟t have patience to
read the answer and award mark the aptly. These all situations render their might against the
duty of the curriculum. So, only when testing is done quite strictly, then, the people concerned
will realize the importance of curriculum. So, the main limitations of existing school
curriculum are 1) Lack of clear-cut objectives, 2) Sub-standard Textbooks, 3) Unsatisfactory
Evaluation system.
7.3. QUALITIES OF GOOD ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEXTBOOK
A good English textbook has the following qualities:
A. Vocabulary and Structure:
1. Vocabulary and structures should be carefully selected keeping the level of the students
in mind.
2. Words and structures need to be carefully graded.
3. New words should be introduced in regular intervals and it should be ensured that they
are repeated in the neighbouring units also.
4. Already learnt words and structures should be repeated.
5. Meticulous flashing of records of words and structures should be maintained.
B. Subject Matter:
1. Introducing new vocabulary should be put in an interesting subject matter.
2. The variety of topics should correspond to the variety of interests.
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3. The topics should be dealt with in different forms which should provide different pieces of
composition.
4. The matter has to provide new information.
5. The various language items should be used in natural context.
6. The sense of enjoyment can be heightened by providing some pieces of poetry.
C. Exercises:
A good text book is not only meant for teaching but also for testing. The real
consolidation of the learning process takes place at the time of practice and testing.
1. There should be practice and test

2. The exercises should test as many items of vocabulary as possible.
3. The test is meant for both active and passive vocabulary.
4. The vocabulary and the sentence structures taught should be put to use in similar but
new situations.
5. Instructions to do the exercise should invariably be clear and unambiguous.
6. Exercises should be graded.
7. Variety in the form of exercises is also needed.
D. Illustrations:
1. The pictures in a good textbook need special attention. If they are well-drawn and
realistically coloured, they make the process of learning convenient and quick.
2. Too many details should not be stuffed into.
3. The illustrations should be suitable for language practice.
4. Illustrations should be attractive.
5. Colour pictures are the most sought after ones.
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E. Technical Consideration:
The appearance of the book has to be attractive. If it is repulsive, then there is no charm
to read and learn from the book. The physical appearance of the text books should have the
following points.
1. It should be printed on a quality paper.

2. The type used should be bold and thick and heading and sub-headings should be in
still bolder type.
3. The binding should be proper and strong and it should be flexible to turn pages.
4. Misprint and Misspelt words should never be presented to the pupils.
5. The book should be easy to carry.
6. The price should be affordable.
F. General:
It is always advisable to have Teachers‟ Handbook along with students‟ textbook. The
aims and objectives are uniform to all the students across the areas where the textbook is used.
7.4. TEACHING PROSE, POETRY, EXTENSIVE READERS, PREPARATION OF
LESSON PLAN
Teaching Prose:
Refer 4.8.2.
Teaching Poetry:
Refer 4.8.3.
Extensive Readers:
Refer 1.5.3
Preparation of Lesson Plan:
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LESSON PLAN: PROSE
General Instructional Objectives: The pupil
 develops the listening, speaking, reading and writing skills.
 learns new words.
 learns pronunciation of difficult words and terminologies.
 understands the meaning of some phrases.
 comprehension of the theme.
 gets enlightened of the discrimination and bondage of black people.
Specific Instructional Objectives: The pupil
 grasps the meaning of difficult words.
 learns the pronunciation of a few word.
 learns synonyms and antonym of hard words.
 learns syllabification.
 understands the meaning of a few phrases.
 comprehends the content of the first two paragraphs.
 discriminates the good and bad and the social evils of the society.
 understands the slavery system existed during Martin Luther King‟s Period.
 learns how to face struggle with dignity.
Teaching Aids:
IX standard English Text book.
OHP Sheet.
Chart
Motivation (Introduction)
Teacher : Good morning students.
Students : Good morning sir.
Teacher : How many of you dream".
Students : Almost every one sir.
Teacher : Good, but how many of your dream: come true".
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Students : None of our dreams comes true sir.
Teacher : Well, the dream you dreamt are not visions, they are simply the vanishing
dreams, which you dreamt during night time. What should we do to make our
dream a reality?
Students : We don't know sir.

Teacher : Well, there are several great leaders who dared to dream big dreams which
resulted in great success; in that list we have Martin Luther King for our
discussion. His secret of success is his Dream. From him we are going to learn
how we can make our dream a real one.
Specification Content Learning Experience Evaluation
Pre-reading I have a dream Teacher: do you know The lesson „I have a

Dream‟-Is it a
The different kinds of Dream vanishing dream or a
Student: We do not know sir. dream of vision?
Teacher: there are several drams like,

the dream which we dream during night
time,(i.e. while sleeping) and day-
dream(X mental lapse during day time
(Mentally absent) and a dream of
vision. E.g. A dream of vision like
becoming an engineer, a Doctor
something like that. Student: Under
what category of dream we can list this
lesson “I have a Dream‟ sir?
Teacher: This lesson is a Dream of

thousands of black Americans
Model Reading First two The teacher reads the first two A few students are
paragraphs paragraphs with proper pronunciation, asked to read the two
and voice modulation. paragraphs.
Learns new (I Paragraph) The word emancipation means freedom What is meant by
word and their Emancipation from political or social restrictions. E.g. „Emancipation‟?
pronunciation. Emancipation of Women is not fully
practised in India.
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Emancipation - /imænsipeiʃn/
Proclamation Proclamation is a Public statement. Frame a sentence of
Announcing something in front of the your own using the
public. word‟Proclamation‟.
e.g.
Our Proclamation of freedom was

announced an August 15th , 1947 at
midnight. What does „captivity‟
mean?
Proclamation - /prɔkləmeiʃn/
Captivity The state of being a prisoner e.g. The

long captivity of Tamilans in Srilanka
puts pressure on the Indian
Government.
Captivity - /kæptiviti/
Learns Emancipation Liberation is synonymous with

Synonyms Emancipation.
Proclamation-Declaration or
Proclamation Announcement
What is the synonym of
the word
Captivity Captivity-bondage
‟captivity‟?
Learns Proclamation Proclamation x Concealment Write the antonyms for

Antonyms the word
Captivity Captivity x Liberation
‟Proclamation” and
Emancipation Emancipation X Restriction „Emanacipation‟
Learns E-man-ci-pa-tion So, there are 5 syllables in the word‟

Syllabifications Emancipation‟
Note: Each syllable contains only one

vowel sound in it.
Pro-cla-ma-tion There are 4 syllables
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Comprehends 1. Emancipation Proclamation
the main points was signed a century ago, but
(1 paragraph) still the blacks could not enjoy How did the
the fruits of freedom. expectation level seem
2. The anticipation of the blacks after Emancipation was
goes higher after the proclaimed?
Emancipation was signed.
Learns new Crippled Here the word Crippled means badly How will you
words and their damaged and is prevented from working pronounce the word
pronunciation or operating properly. „Segregation‟
(2nd paragraph)
/kripld/
e.g. A ship crippled by storm.
Segregation means keeping somebody

away from others.
Segregation
e.g. We oppose segregation on
religious grounds.
/segrigeiʃn/
Sent away from one‟s native country.

Exile e.g. some of the leader‟s of the nation
were in exile
/egzail/
Learns Segregation Segregation x co-operation Write the antonyms of

Antonyms
„declare‟
Discrimination Discrimination X equality
Learns phrases „Crippled by the Denotes something worse‟

chains‟
e.g. crippled the chains of poverty and
ailment.
Learns Segregation Seg-re-ga-tion (4 syllables) How many syllables are
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syllabification there in
discrimination Dis-cri-mi-na-tion (5 Syllables) „Proclamation‟
Comprehends II paragraph 1. Even after the Proclamation What was the condition
the main points was signed, the Negroes were of Negros after the
treated bad and considered as Emancipation signed?
an exile in their own country.
2. There was no room for the
black people to showcase their
talents, they (Negroes) were
segregated and discriminated.
Recapitulation:
1. The teacher recalls all the necessary and important points to ensure the students'
understanding. He asks some questions.
2. How were the black treated after Emancipation was Proclaimed?
3. Write the synonyms of the words 'Emancipation', 'Captivity'.
Assignment:
The teacher asks the students to write any discrimination that is prevailing in India. Add a few
tips to eradicate this problem.
LESSON PLAN- POETRY

(Our Casuarina Tree)
General Instructional Objectives:
1. To enable the pupils to recite and enjoy the music and feel for it.
2. Learns some new vocabulary with their meanings.
3. Learns pronunciation of difficult words.
4. Appreciates the Poem.
Specific Instructional Objectives: The Pupil
1. Learns to recite the poem rhythmically.
2. Learns the pronunciation of difficult words.
3. Learns the rhyming words in each stanza.
4. Comprehends the meaning in each stanza.
5. Appreciates the poem critically.
149
Teaching Aids:
IX standard English Book
Blackboard
Chart
Chalk
Motivation
Teacher : Have you ever seen a casuarina tree?
Student : Yes, sir.
Teacher : yes. What does it look like?
Student : The tree has small branches and its leaves look like needles.
Teacher : Very good. Where do we normally grow the casuarina tree?
Student : It is grown even in dry land. It doesn‟t require much water for its growth.
Teacher : Yes. Very good. Today we are going to learn the poem „Our Casuarina Tree‟ by
Toru Dutt.
Specification Content Learning experience Evaluation
Model Recitation Our Casuarina Tree The teacher recites the Students are asked to
poem with correct recite the poem as
pronunciation, stress, recited by the teacher.
intonation and pause.
The quite rhythmic
reading adds beauty to
the poem.
Learns new words Rugged The word ‟rugged‟ Use the word ‘rugged’
means strong. Rugged in your own sentence.
is used to emphasis the
strength of the
Casuarina tree.
If a tree is indented it
Indented has notches or marks I
its edge or its surface.
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The summit of a What is the meaning
mountain or hill is the of the word ‘summit’
Summit highest point or part of in this sentence?
it.
Repose is a state in
which both your body Say true or false ‘Birds
Repose and your mind are repose in trees’
resting, for example
when you are asleep.
Learns the Rugged /rʌgid/ Pronounce the word

pronunciation ‘summoned’
Indented /indentid/
Summit /sʌmit/
Repose /ripəuz/
Learns rhyming words Our Casuarina Tree The words which end
in similar sound are
called rhyming words.
Rhyming wordsare
used to give beauty
and music to the
poem.
Round- bound
Stars-scars
Hung-among
Close-repose
Thrown-alone
Rest-crest
Boughs-cows
Play-day
Vast- cast
Learns some poetic Simile Simile is a poetic Identify the poetic

device where two
151
devices different objects are devices from the
compared of their following expressions
likelihood by using that have been taken
„as‟ or „like‟. from the poem ‘our
casuarina tree’.
eg. He fights like a
lion 1.winding round and
round.
Metaphor
Metaphor is a poetic 2.The gaint wears the
device in which two scarf.
different objects are
3. The water lilies
compared without
using „as‟ and „like‟ spring like snow
enmassed.
Eg. He is lion in
fighting. 4. Like a huge python..
a creeper climbs.
Alliterations means
Alliteration repeating a same word
or the consecutive
words start with ame
sound
Eg. 1.Rain!Rain! Go
away ,2. Burning
bright
Grasps the main points Our casuarina tree A climber encircles

the casuarina tree like
a huge python.
The tree is very strong

to bear the rugged
embrace of the
climber.
The flowers are

crimson colour and
hung in clusters.
The darkling sings at

night.
The poetess
reminisces when she
opens the casement
152
Appreciates the poem Our Casuarina tree The childhood
critically experience and
delightment of the
poetess is very much
felt all through the
poem. She has
employed the
attractive poetic
devices to give beauty
to the poem.
Recapitulation:
The teacher asks some questions to check whether they understand and enjoy the poem.
1. Why is the climber compared to a large python?
2. What are the living creatures that repose in the tree?
3. What does the baboon symbolize?
Check your progress
1.What are the steps involved in teaching English prose?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2.What are the methods of Teaching Reading?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3.Why is Phonic or Syllabic method of reading is not effective?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
153
4.What are the specific aims of Teaching Poetry?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
7.5. LET US SUM UP
 Steps for teaching English prose are (i) Aims, (ii)Preparation, (iii) Presentation, (iv)
Recapitulation and (v) Assignment.
 Alphabet method ,Phonic (or) syllabic method, Whole word method, Sentence method
and Eclectic method are the methods of teaching reading.
 The main aim of the poetry teaching must be to kindle the student‟s interest towards
English and the poem.
 The specific aims are (i) to make the students to recite the poem properly, (ii)
appreciating to grasp the underlying idea of the poem and (iii) to help students‟ to
identify the message of the poet through the poem
7.6. KEY WORDS
Instructional Objectives - the reason for teaching the particular content.
Recapitulation - asking questions to get the feedback of teaching.
Phonic Method - which represents the sound.
Eclectic Method - inclusive of all methods.
1. i. Aims
ii. Preparation
iii. Presentation
iv. Recapitulation
v. Assignment
154
2. i. Alphabet method
ii. Phonic or Syllabic Method.
iii. Whole word Method.
iv. Sentence Method.
v. Eclectic Method.
3. This method is easy for the beginners. But it has its own limitations in later stages, because
English is not a Phonetic language.
4. i. To make the students to recite the poem with proper rhyme and rhythm
ii. To make them to grasp and appreciate the underlying idea of the poem.
iii. To communicate to the students a particular message of the poet.
Practicum
 Awareness of different phonemic scripts.
 Oral practices in sounds that cause difficulty.
 Oral practice in word stress and sentence stress
 An album of Phonetic scripts, and articulation of vowels and consonants.
 Preparation of aids to make the high school pupils and higher secondary students to
 understand certain grammatical concepts.
 An oral test assessing the teacher trainees, knowledge and mastery of the various areas in
 Grammar.
 Exercise in word formation.
 Practice in the use a dictionary.
 Note making and summary writing exercises
 Reviews to be written for five books and two English exercises.
 Practice in writing different types of composition exercises.
 Preparing language learning materials through computer.
155
References
Dhand, H. (2009). Techniques of Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation

Siddiqui, M.H. (2009). Techniques of Classroom Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing
Corporation.
Aggarwal. J. C. (2008). Principles, Methods & Techniques of Teaching. UP: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Chauhan, S. S. (2008). Innovations in Teaching Learning Process. UP: Vikas Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd.
Venkateswaran, S. (2008). Principles of Teaching English. UP: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Sharma, R. N. (2008). Principles and Techniques of Education. Delhi: Surjeet Publications.
Sharma, R. N. (2008). Contemporary Teaching of English. Delhi: Surjeet Publications.
Baruah, T. C. (1993). The English Teacher’s Handbook. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers.
Bennett, W. A. (1969). Aspects of Language and Language Teaching. London: Cambridge
University Press.
Christopher, S. W. (1998). Computer and Language Learning. Singapore: SEAMEO –
Regional Language Centre.
Francis Soundararaj, F. (1995). Teaching Spoken English and Communication Skills. Chennai
Krishnaswamy, N. (1995). Teaching English Grammar. Chennai: T.R. Publication.
Wright, A. (1977). Visual material for the language teacher. London: Longman.
Lee, W. R. (1976). Language teaching games and contexts. London: Oxford University Press.
Krishnaswamy and Lalitha Krishnaswamy. (2003) Teaching English – Approaches, Methods and
Techniques. Bangalore: Macmillan India Ltd.
Hornby, A. S. (1968). The Teaching of Structural Words and Sentence Patterns. London: Oxford
University Press
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BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 024

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

(Copyright reserved) For Private Circulation only

Dr. R. Babu Rajendran

Centre for Distance Education

Course Material Co-ordinator

Professor & Head, Dept .of Education, CDE

1.1. OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON

1.2. ROLE OF ENGLISH IN THE PRESENT-DAY INDIA

1.2.1. English as a National Link Language.

1.2.2. English as an International Link Language.

1.2.3. English as a Library Language.

1.3. RATIONALE FOR LEARNING ENGLISH

1.4. POSITIONS OF ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

1.4.1. Aims of Teaching English at the Primary Level.

1.4.2. Aims of Teaching English at the Secondary Level.

1.4.3. Aims of Teaching English at the Higher Secondary Level.

1.5. OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

1.6. TEACHING THE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

1.6.1. Teaching Listening.

1.6.2. Teaching Speaking.

1.6.3. Teaching Reading.

1.6.4. Teaching Writing.

1.7. LET US SUM UP

1.8. KEY WORDS

1.9. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.2. ROLE OF ENGLISH IN THE PRESENT-DAY INDIA

1.2.1. English as a National Link Language.

F.G.French says, “ by accidents of history and by rapid spread of industrial

1.2.3. English as a Library Language.

Kothari Commission (1964-66) had recommended English to be used as Library

When we consider English as a library language, we expect the learners just to

Check you progress

5. What do you mean by „Brexit‟?

1.3. RATIONALE FOR LEARNING ENGLISH

 Learn the culture of different countries by direct experience.

1.4. POSITIONS OF ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

a) understand English when spoken

1.4.1. Aims of Teaching English at the Primary Level.

Aims of teaching English at primary level

 To learn English alphabet

1.4.2. Aims of Teaching English at Secondary Level

 To understand spoken English with ease and to understand English from

1.4.3. Aims of Teaching English at the Higher Secondary Level.

 To understand English with ease when spoken at normal conversational speed.

Official Language Commission recommended that English should primarily be taught as

1.6. TEACHING THE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

1.6.1. Teaching Listening.

Authentic Materials for Listening Class

2. Writing Message of a Telephone Call

3. Listening to a recipe and complete the write up

4. Listening to a tape script and identifies the kidnapper

ACTIVITIES TO DEVELOP SPEAKING SKILL

Total No. of Students : 39

No. of Students in a Group : 06

Reading is a complex skill involving a number of simultaneous operations. In India,

Check your progress

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE READING