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Transgenic animal technology: Recent advances and applications: A Review

Article · January 2015

DOI: 10.5958/0976-0741.2015.00005.7

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 Agri. Review, 36 (1) 2015 : 46-53 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COMMUNICATION CENTRE
Print ISSN:0253-1696 / Online ISSN:0976-0539 www.arccjournals.com

Transgenic animal technology: Recent advances and applications: A Review

Rakesh Kumar*, Alok Kumar Yadav, Vikas Kumar Singh 1, Rajesh Kumar Vandre 2, Pankaj Kumar Singh3,
Nishant Verma, Ramendra Das and M.R. Vineeth
Dairy Cattle Breeding Division,
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132 001, Haryana.
Received: 14-08-2014 Accepted: 26-01-2015 DOI: 10.5958/0976-0741.2015.00005.7
ABSTRACT
Transgenic animal technologies are one of the fastest growing techniques in the biotechnology areas. It is used to incorporate
exogenous genes into the animal genome by genetic engineering technology so that these genes can be inherited and expressed
by offspring. Two fundamental determinants of the success of any transgenic exploitation of a livestock species are the
transport of DNA across the plasma membrane of the recipient cell, and the transport of that DNA across the nuclear
membrane to gain access to the chromosomes. A variety of transgenic technologies are available like microinjection method,
chemical method mediated transgenesis, somatic cell nuclear transfer, restriction enzyme-mediated integration, retrovirus-
mediated gene transfer, sperm mediated gene transfer and embryonic stem cell mediated method etc. Use of transgenic
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animals will provide solutions for drug research, xenotransplantation, disease resistance and tissue repair etc. This review
focuses on various methods of transgenesis and its application.
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Key words: Applications, Methods, Transgenesis.

The term transgenic animal refers to an animal in animals for breeding new animal varieties and promote the
which there has been a deliberate modification of the genome, development of medical sciences, livestock production and
in contrast to spontaneous mutation. It is used to integrate other fields.
exogenous genes into the animal genome by genetic Transgenesis allows improvement  of nutrients  in
engineering technology so that these genes can be expressed animal products, including their quantity, the quality of the
and inherited by offspring. Foreign DNA is introduced into whole food, and specific nutritional composition. Transgenic
the animal, using recombinant DNA technology, which gets technology could provide a means of transferring or
transmitted through the germ line so that every cell, including increasing nutritionally beneficial traits. For example,
germ cells, of the animal contains the same modified genetic enhancing the omega-3 fatty acid in fish consumed by humans
material. If the germ cell line is altered, characters will be may contribute to a decreased occurrence of coronary heart
passed on to succeeding generations in normal reproduction. disease. In fact, transgenic pigs that contain elevated levels
The transgenic efficiency and precise control of gene of omega-3 fatty acids have been produced (Lai et al., 2006).
expression are the key limiting factors in the production of Furthermore, transfer of a transgene that elevates the levels
transgenic animals. Advance studies will allow transgenic of omega-3 fatty acids into pigs may enhance the nutritional
technology to explore gene function, animal genetic quality of pork (Lai et al., 2006). The production of lower
improvement, bioreactors, animal disease models and organ fat, more nutritious animal products produced by transgenesis
transplantation. Transgenesis may involve whole organisms, could enable improvements in public health. Another aspect
rather than individual cells and there may be in vivo alteration of manipulating carcass composition is that of altering the
of body function. Recent developments in animal gene fat or cholesterol composition of the carcass. By altering the
transfer techniques are microinjection method, sperm metabolism or uptake of cholesterol and/or fatty acids, the
mediated gene transfer method, embryonic stem cell mediated content of fat and cholesterol of meats, eggs, and cheeses
gene transfer, somatic cell nuclear transplantation method, could be lowered. There is also the possibility of introducing
nuclear transfer and retroviral vector method. These beneficial fats such as the omega-3 fatty acids from fish or
techniques can provide a better platform to develop transgenic other animals into our livestock (Lai et al., 2006). In addition,
*Corresponding author e-mail:[email protected], 1Division of Immunology, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly (U.P), India.
2
College of Veterinary science and Animal husbandry, Rewa (MP), India, 3LPM Section, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal, Haryana.
 Vol. 36 No. 1, 2015 47
receptors such as the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor For processes such as cellular or pronuclear injection the
gene and hormones like leptin are potential targets that would target cell is positioned under the microscope and two
decrease fat and cholesterol in animal products. Recent micromanipulators— one holding the pipette and other one,
progress has produced prion-free (Richt et  al., 2007)  and holding a micro capillary needle usually between 0.5 to 5 µm
suppressed prion livestock (Golding et al., 2006). Prions are in diameter (larger if injecting stem cells into an embryo)
the causative agents in bovine spongiform encephalopathy are used to penetrate the cell membrane and/or the nuclear
(BSE) or ‘mad cow disease’ in cattle and in Creutzfeldt-Jacob envelope (David and Matthew, 2013).
disease (CJD) in humans. This is only a partial list of The method relies on random integration of the
organisms or genetic diseases that decrease production transgenic DNA via the recruitment of cellular DNA repair
efficiency and may also be targets for manipulation via pathways and remains a highly inefficient process with
transgenic methodologies. Small improvements in milk success rates of only 1-4% (Niemann and kues 2000). Apart
volume in Guzerat cows using genetic material from high from all these drawbacks the method is still being used to
producing Holsteins could have a significant impact on generate transgenic animals (Baldassarre et al., 2003) and is
Brazilian beef production (Wheeler et al., 2010). being improved with co-injection of restriction enzymes with
What is transgenic animal?: A transgenic animal is one the DNA to mediate incorporation of the transgene into the
that carries a foreign gene that has been deliberately inserted chromosome (Thermes et al., 2002).
into its genome. It is the one which has been genetically altered Retrovirus-mediated gene transfer: A retrovirus is a virus
to have specific characteristics it otherwise would not have. that carries its genetic material in the form of RNA rather
In animals, transgenesis either means transferring DNA into
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than DNA. The retrovirus-mediated expression cloning

the animal or altering DNA of the animal. Transgenic animal method is efficient because the number of the provirus
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are genetically modified to contain a gene from a different integrations in each cell is limited. This method was
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species following gene transplantation or resulting from the successfully used in 1974 when a simian virus was inserted
molecular manipulations of endogenous genomic DNA. The into mice embryos, resulting in mice carrying this DNA. The
new gene is inherited by offspring in the same way as the most important features of retrovirus as vectors are the
organism’s own genes. The earliest transgenic approaches practically ease and effectiveness of gene transfer and target
involved transferring DNA, usually by injection into a cells specificity. When cells are infected by retroviruses, the
fertilized mouse egg. However, since it is not possible to resultant viral DNA, after reverse transcription and
control the site of integration of the foreign DNA using this integration, becomes a part of the host cell genome to be
technique, it is a relatively imprecise tool. Mice resulting from maintained for the life of the host cell (Ponder, 2002).
this technique are generally called “overexpressors”. Retroviruses are being explored widely for apply in human
Currently over 95% of transgenic animals used in gene therapy and have been used in a precise condition to
biomedical research are mice. Over 80% of mouse genes treat genetic diseases (Thermes et al., 2002). Recently
function the same as those in humans. Mice also have a short lentivirus constructs have been made and used to infect
reproduction cycle and their embryos are amenable to embryonic tissue resulting in the generation of transgenic rats
manipulation. Mice are therefore an ideal human surrogate and mice (Rubinson et al., 2003). On the other hand, retroviral
in the study of most diseases. It is hoped that the refinement methods of modifying the chicken genome are progressing
of transgenesis techniques in mice will ultimately allow for a (Ivarie, 2003).
corresponding reduction in the use of “higher” animals, such
Somatic cell nuclear transfer: In genetics and
as dogs and non-human primates, in biomedical research. developmental biology, somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
Other transgenic animals include rats, pigs and sheep.
is a laboratory technique for creating a viable embryo from a
METHODS USED TO PRODUCE TRANSGENIC body cell and an egg cell. The technique consists of taking
ANIMALS an enucleated oocyte (egg cell) and implanting a donor
Microinjection: DNA microinjection has become the most nucleus from a somatic (body) cell. It is used in both
commonly applied method for gene transfer in animals. Using therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Dolly the Sheep,
DNA microinjection, mouse was the first animal to undergo famous for being the first successfully cloned mammal was
successful gene transfer. Microinjection of embryos with created using this process (Li et al., 2009). Somatic cell
DNA has been the traditional approach for generating nuclear transplantation has become a focus of study in stem
transgenic livestock. cell research. The aim of carrying out this procedure is to
 48 AGRICULTURAL REVIEWS
obtain pluripotent cells from a cloned embryo. These cells humans. An additional approach likewise lipofection
genetically matched the donor organism from which they technique (Lai et al., 2006) or electroporation (Reith et al.,
came. This gives them the ability to create patient specific 2000) method has been used to produce transgenic progeny
pluripotent cells, which could then be used in therapies or by placing the DNA inside the sperm head. With the
disease research.(Lomax and Dewitt, 2013). A potential use improvement in techniques for culturing and expanding
of stem cells genetically matched to a patient would be to spermatogonial stem cells there is now also the possibility of
create cell lines that have genes linked to a patient’s particular engineering these cells in-vitro to generate transgenic sperm
disease. By doing so, an in vitro model could be created, that could be used to fertilise oocytes and generate transgenic
would be useful for studying that particular disease, animals (Nagano et al., 2000).
potentially discovering its pathophysiology, and discovering Liposome’s mediated technology: Liposome is small bodies
therapies (Lo and Parham, 2009). For example, if a person consisting of membrane-like lipid layers surrounding hydrous
with Parkinson’s disease donated his or her somatic cells, compartments. Cationic liposome was used to increase the
the stem cells resulting from SCNT would have genes that transfection efficiency of sperm cells. Association of the
contribute to Parkinson’s disease. The disease specific stem cationic liposome/DNA complexes with sperm cells may
cell lines could then be studied in order to better understand allow DNA to be carried into oocytes at fertilization (Bachiller
the condition. Another application of SCNT stem cell research et al., 1991). However, sperm motility and fertilizing
is using the patient specific stem cell lines to generate tissues capability of spermatozoa was lower at the higher
or even organs for transplant into the specific patient (Pera concentration of liposome as assessed by microscopic
and Trounson, 2013). A number of animals with genetically observation. Recent report that BSA, a major serum protein,
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identical appearance can be produced by somatic cell nuclear could prevent the cellular uptake of liposome/DNA complexes
transfer (SCNT). From current advancement of SCNT and in cells. The high transgenic rates were reported more recently
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molecular techniques, production of a transgenic animal

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in mouse F1 (41%) and F2 (37%) offspring via testis mediated

becomes easier. Although cloning efficiency in goat is low, gene transfer (TMGT) using liposome treated plasmid DNA
the ability to propagate genetically identical animals, with a (He et al., 2009). Furthermore, the existence of several
gene or genes of interest, would be important for increasing different types of liposome makes it difficult to make general
productivity and ultimately the economic livelihood. In this predictions as to the likelihood of success, in the absence of
paper, the potential applications and uses of SCNT technology specific empirical studies.
like production of transgenic goat for production of quality Linker (receptor) based method: The process of linking
milk and meat are discussed (Abdullah et al., 2011).
the exogenous DNA to the head of the sperm was reported
Sperm-mediated gene transfer: In the year 1971, the first by using the monoclonal antibody mAbC (Chang et al., 2002).
evidence of mammalian spermatozoa being able to take up The antibody (mAbC) is a positively charged basic linker
and transfer exogenous DNA was demonstrated by Bracket protein; it binds to negatively charged DNA via ionic
et al. (1971). Sperm cells are exposed to foreign DNA, which interactions. These interactions specifically bind exogenous
binds to the surface of sperm through specific protein-protein DNA to sperm in a precise way. DNA can bind to polycations
interactions. There is currently a general agreement that only in a strong but noncovalent manner forming soluble
two steps in the processes are well-established and fully complexes. DNA coupled with antibodies or antibody-
reproducible: (i) the spontaneous interaction between sperm fragments offers the ability to internalize the complexes via
cells and foreign DNA molecules, and (ii) delivery of sperm- receptor-mediated endocytosis (Varga et al., 2000).
bound DNA to oocyte at fertilization. At present research
Restriction enzyme-mediated integration (REMI):
has been carried out to determine the appropriate conditions Restriction enzyme-mediated integration (REMI), involves
to use when incubating DNA with sperm (Lavitrano et al.,
the transformation of cells with a mixture of plasmid DNA,
2006). This method is now being hopefully perceived as a linearized with a restriction enzyme, along with a restriction
valuable technique for transgenic animal production. enzyme that is capable of generating compatible cohesive
To increases the effectiveness of sperm uptake of DNA ends in the genome. REMI has proven useful for genetic
by various approaches are being taken. One is to attach the screens and for placing genetic and molecular markers at
recombinant DNA to the sperm head via an antibody particular points in the genome. Plasmids were linearized with
amalgamated to the DNA (Chang et al., 2002). The antibody a restriction enzyme to generate single-stranded cohesive ends
used in this work recognises surface proteins common to and then introduced in vitro into decondensed sperm nuclei
sperm from cattle, pigs, sheep, chicken, goats, mice and using REMI. Shemesh et al. (2000) produced transgenic
 Vol. 36 No. 1, 2015 49
TABLE 1: Lists of some recombinant proteins obtained from transgenic animals.
Protein Source Against
Antithrombin III Goat Thrombosis
Tissue plasminogen activator Sheep, pig Thrombosis
á-antitrypsin Sheep Emphysema
Factor VIII, IX Sheep, pig, cow Hemophilia
á –Glucosidase Rabbit Pompe’s disease
Fibrinogen Cow, sheep Wound healing
Glutarmic acid decarboxylase Goat Type 1 diabetes
Human serum albumin Cow, sheep Maintenance of blood volume
Human protein c Goat Thrombosis
Monoclonal antibodies Chicken, cow, goat Vaccine production
Pro 542 Goat HIV
Lactoferrin Cow GI tract infection and infectious arthritis.

bovine sperms by combining REMI with liposome, and that could be purified from porcine blood (D’Agnillo, and
demonstrated that these transgenic sperms could be used to Chang 1988).
produce transgenic embryos and live offspring by IVF or AI. Antibodies and transgenic animals: ifferent varieties of
Applications of transgenic animals monoclonal and recombinant antibodies were produced in
Human health: The main potential application of transgenic transgenic goats and cattle (Meade et al., 1999; Grosse-
animal is the production of recombinant and biologically Hovest et al., 2004). These antibodies are useful in targeting
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active proteins in the mammary gland and this in turn could cancerous cell. Kuroiwa et al. (2002) reported that Trans-
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be used for the benefit of mankind. This is called as “Gene chromosomal animals could be used for the production of
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Pharming”. Mammary gland is the preferred site for human therapeutic polyclonal antibodies.
production of these proteins because large quantities can be Human disease models: Farm animals like cattle and pigs
extracted and purified (Meade et al., 1999 and Rudolph, could be used as an appropriate model for the study of human
1999). Moreover, milk is a secreted body fluid that is normally diseases like cystic fibrosis, cancer and neuro-degenerative
produced in large quantities and which could be collected diseases and their therapies (Theuring et al., 1995; Palmarini
without causing any harm to the animals and Fan, 2001 and Li and Engelhardt, 2003) Pigs could be
Recombinant therapeutic proteins: Several novel used as an effective model for the study of growth hormone
therapeutic proteins have been derived from the mammary releasing hormone (GHRH) defects (Draghia – Akli et al.,
gland of transgenic animals. Many conventional methods 1999).
were used for the production of therapeutic proteins through Carcass composition and growth enhancement:
bacteria, plants, yeast etc, but most of them lack the machinery Transgenic animals with exogenous gene constructs have
for post translational modifications of eukaryotic genes. The been produced which has enhanced growth rate and
transgenic livestock serve as potential bioreactors for the improved quality of food. Growth hormone and insulin
production of valuable proteins. Proteins like antithrombin like growth factors genes have been expressed at different
III (AT III), tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) and á- levels in transgenic animals. Transgenic cattle and salmon
antitrypsin have been derived from the mammary gland of fish have been produced that contains foreign gene
transgenic sheeps and goats. The human AT III (for the constructs. The introduction of chicken ski gene has caused
muscular hypertrophy in case of pigs and cattle (Bowen et
treatment of heparin resistant patients) is expected to be in
al., 1994). The acid meat gene or Rendement Napole gene
market (Kues and Niemann, 2004). Glycosidase has been
has been involved in low processing yields of pork there
produced in the milk of transgenic rabbits, which is used in
by affecting the quality of meat in pig. Silencing the
the treatment of Pompes diseases (Vanden Hout et al., 2001). expression of this gene in case of pigs alter the post mortem
A topical antibiotic against Streptococcus mutans, which is pH and improve the quality of meat. Other genes like GH
useful in the treatment of dental caries, is expected to complete releasing factor, IGF binding proteins also play a major
clinical trials. role in the modification of growth. Transgenic pig with
Blood substitutes: Transgenic swine has been developed that human metallothionein promoter had a significant
produce functional hemoglobin which has the same oxygen improvement in growth rate and feed conversion (Nottle
binding capacity as that of normal human hemoglobin and et al., 2001).
 50 AGRICULTURAL REVIEWS
Milk production and lactation: The advances in transgenic tend to develop outside the body, so no further manipulation,
technology provide ample chances to improve both the quality such as re-implantation is necessary. The first successful gene
and quantity of milk produced. The animals could be made transfer experiment in fish occurred in 1985 in China. A
to secrete nutraceuticals in milk that may have an impact over DNA construct consisting of human growth hormone under
the growth of offspring. Casein variants are the main target control of the mouse metallothionein promoter was injected
for improving the milk composition, which in turn alters the into the germinal disc of an early-stage goldfish Carassius
physio-chemical properties of milk. Brophy et al. (2003) auratus embryo. Microinjection procedures were quickly
reported that cloned transgenic cattle have been developed perfected by other groups in Norway. Brem et al. (1988)
that produce increased amounts of beta and kappa casein in were among the first to produce a commercially important
milk that increase the value of milk in the production of milk fish (Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus) bearing a human
based products like cheese, yoghurt and also increase the growth hormone transgene, again under the control of the
shelf life of milk products. Transgenic animals also could be mouse metallothionein promoter.
developed to produce “infant milk” that has increased levels Recently, in Drosophila, zebra fish, and rats, direct
of human lactoferrin, to generate lactose free milk for lactose embryo injection of engineered zinc-finger nuclease (ZFN)
in tolerance populations by inhibiting the expression of encoding mRNA or DNA has been used to generate heritable
lactalbumin locus and to produce hypoallergenic milk by knockout mutations at specific loci (Carroll 2008; Geurts et
knocking down the expression of B-lactoglobulin gene. al., 2009). Tsai et al. (2000) engineered a line of Japanese
Transgenic animals could also be made to secrete antibodies abalone Haliotis divorsicolor suportexta which expresses
in their milk that give resistance against several diseases like Chinook salmon growth hormone.
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mastitis or to secrete antimicrobial peptides like lysozyme.

Grosvenor et al. (1993) reported that the milk composition Production of pharmaceuticals in transgenic animals: The
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could also be altered by making the transgenic animals to production of therapeutic proteins from transgenic animals
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usually involves their expression from mammary-gland

secrete growth factors in milk, which in turn affect the growth
specific promoters to drive secretion of the transgene into
and maturation of newborn offspring.
milk (Martin et al., 2005). In January 2004, GTC
Disease resistance: The most important application of Biotherapeutics submitted a Market Authorization
transgenic technology is the manipulation of MHC (Major Application to the European Medicines Agency for ATryn®,
Histocompatability Complex) genes, which influence the a recombinant form of human antithrombin produced in the
immune response and increase the disease resistance capacity milk of transgenic goats (www.gtc-bio.com/pressreleases/
of livestock. Clements et al. (1994) reported that transgenic pr012604.html). This was the first product derived from a
sheep have been developed that is resistant to Visna virus transgenic animal to be submitted for formal regulatory
infection. The transmission of bovine spongiform approval in Europe or the USA. Milk is presently the most
encephalopathy (Scrapie) is also prevented by the knock down mature system to produce recombinant proteins from
of prion protein (Weissmann et al., 2002). Transgenic mice transgenic organisms. Blood, egg white, seminal plasma and
have been developed that secretes recombinant antibodies in urine are other theoretically possible systems, but all have
milk to neutralize the corona virus responsible for drawbacks. Blood, for instance, as of 2012 cannot store high
transmissible gastro enteritis (TGEV), an economically levels of stable recombinant proteins and biologically active
important disease in case of pigs (Castilla et al., 1998). proteins in blood may alter the health of the animals
Transgenic dairy cows that secrete lysostaphin into their milk (Houdebine and Louis-Marie, 2009).
have higher resistance to mastitis due to the protection Xenotransplantation: The extraordinary success of human-
provided by lysostaphin, which kills the to-human (an example of intraspecies or allotransplantation)
bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, in a dose-dependent manner transplantation of vascularized organs (i.e. heart, kidney, liver,
(Donovan et al., 2005),  that  protects  the  mammary  gland lung and pancreas) has saved many lives over the past 25
against this major mastitis-causing pathogen. years, but it has also created a significant need for donor
Transgenics in the aquaculture industries: Aquaculture organs. It was recognized early on that for physiological,
species have been particularly amenable to the production of anatomical, ethical and supply reasons the pig was the best
transgenics. Fish and shellfish tend to be highly fecund, choice as a donor animal for vascularized organs. However,
producing a large quantity of gametes. Many species can be serious immunological issues had to be over come before the
harvested for eggs and sperm and fertilisation in-vitro is often pig-to-human transplantation model could become a reality
straightforward. Eggs are relatively large and fertilised eggs (Platt et al., 1991).
 Vol. 36 No. 1, 2015 51
The first published transgenic pig-to-primate xenograft used * Insertional mutations resulting in alteration of important
a novel transgenic delivery system for human complement biological processes.
regulatory proteins (McCurry et al., 1997). Transplant organs * Unregulated gene expression resulting in improper
may soon come from transgenic animals. Currently, expression of gene products.
xenotransplantation is hampered by a pig protein that can * Possibility of side effects in transgenic animals like arthritis,
cause donor rejection but research is underway to remove dermatitis and cancer etc.
the pig protein and replace it with a human protein. CONCLUSION
Tissue repair: Using induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells In the mid-1980s, the advent of transgenic
were directly injected into the vitreous of the technologies generated great excitement in the scientific
damaged retina of  mice,  the  stem  cells  engrafted  into  the community and the pharmaceutical industry. The acknowledged
retina, grow and repaired the vascular vessels (Mullin et al., consequences and potential were equal to the societal
2014). implications and translation of the outlined basic research
Ethical issues related to transgenic animals: The social technologies toward fruitful applications. At the time,
opinion on transgenic animal research is divided almost in transgenesis were considered the next wave in the maturation
the middle. Opinion surveys in USA, Japan and New Zealand of the developing field of biotechnology. Twenty-five years
reveal that only 42, 54 and 58 percent, respectively, of the later, we now find ourselves positioned to reap the benefits of
people participating in the survey favour such research. The advances that are still deemed to be, if not in their infancy, in
main reasons for opposition of people are as follows. their adolescence. Although there are various products poised
for launch, market, ethical and product concerns have matured
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1. Use of animals in biotechnological research causes great

suffering to the animals. But most people seem to accept some considerably as we have advanced into the 21st century. The
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animal suffering to serve the basic interest and welfare of challenges are daunting, the implications thought provoking,
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mankind; this attitude has been termed as interest-sensitive with results still appearing to loom just around the corner. As
speciesism. in the case of related technologies, including stem cell-based
2. It is felt that by using animals for the production of genetic therapies, it will be interesting to observe the acceptance
pharmaceutical proteins we reduce them to mere factories. of newly engineered products that hold the promise of having
This seems not to recognize that animals also are living beings a tremendous impact on societal needs and human health.
which feel pleasure and pain just as we do. The emergence of transgenic technology has
3. Some people feel that animals should be regarded as equal widened the scope of development in case of farm animals
to humans in that they have the same basic rights as human and the advent of new molecular biology techniques has paved
beings. However, in most societies animals are relegated to a way by giving a new dimension to animal breeding. The
position several steps below that of man. transgenic technology is one of an important tool to meet the
4. An argument attempts to focus on integrity of species in future challenges for increased animals production. The
that each biological species has a right to exist as a separate biological products from animal source should be handled
identifiable entity. But biologists do not regard a species as a with safety as they are subject to contamination and could be
fixed, water-tight entity; rather they are regarded as dynamic, damaged very easily. Thus, safety guidelines should be
constantly evolving groups. developed for the commercial exploitation of recombinant
5. Finally, the introduction of human genes into animals and proteins and ensure that the transmission of pathogens from
vice-versa, may be seen by many as clouding the definition animals to human beings is prevented.
of “humanness”. But most of the known human genes are not Therefore, the genetically engineered animals and
unique and comparable genes do occur in animals. In addition, biotechnology will play a vital role in the production of
many retroviruses have integrated into the human genome pharmaceutical proteins and bring about a complete
without any recognizable devaluation of our humanness. refinement in agriculture production by increasing the quality
Limitations of transgenices: The transgenic technology even and quantity of production, protection of environment,
though has tremendous applications in livestock improvement maintenance of genetic diversity and overall improvement
programmes; still it has lots of limitations: in animals welfare.
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