ULTRASONIC TESTING

Materials Testing
DWI MARTA NURJAY
NDT Laboratory

Introduction
 Ultrasonics is a versatile inspection technique
 It is used to test a variety of both metallic and non-
metallic products such as welds, forgings, castings,
sheet, tubing, plastics and ceramics
 Ultrasonics has an advantage of detecting subsurface
discontinuities with access to only one side of the
specimen
 Imperfection and inclusion on solids cause sound
waves to be scattered, resulting in echoes,
reverberations and dampening of the sound wave
 The UT principle is based on the fact that solid
materials are good conductors of sound waves
 Sound travels by the vibrations of the atoms and
molecules present, traveling with a velocity depending
on the mechanical properties of the medium
NDT Laboratory

Objectives
 Obtaining information related to
discontinuities.
 Disclosing the nature of the discontinuity
without impairing the usefulness of the
part.
 Separating acceptable and unacceptable
materials in accordance with
predetermined standards.
NDT Laboratory

Principles
 In ultrasonic testing we use something called
“ultrasonic vibrations.” We must know two facts
about a vibration:
• a vibration is a back and forth movement
• a vibration is energy in motion
 A depression of a surface from its normal
position is called a displacement.
NDT Laboratory

Principles
 The unit of frequency used to denote one cycle per
second is Hertz (abbreviated Hz). one cycle per
second (cps) is equal to one hertz (Hz); 2 cps = 2 Hz,
etc.
 Sound travels in metal as well as in air. Sound is a
vibration and has a range of frequencies.
 Man can only hear vibrations (sound) up to about
20,000 Hz. however, sound from an ultrasonic testing
unit is about 5,000,000 Hz. (5 megahertz). Vibrations
above the human hearing range are called ultrasonic
vibrations.
 The two terms, sound and vibrations, as we will use
them will mean the same thing.
 The best way to define sound is to say that it is a
vibration that transmits energy by a series of small
material displacements
NDT Laboratory

Principles
 Vibrations pass through a solid material as a
succession of particle displacements. this can be
visualized as shown below:

 The structure of a material is actually many small

particles or groups of atoms.
 These particles have normal or rest positions, and can
be displaced from these positions by some force.
when the force is removed, the particles will tend to
return to their original positions.
NDT Laboratory

Principles
 Ultrasonic testing is the process of applying ultrasonic sound
to a specimen and determining its soundness, thickness, or
some physical property.
 The energy is originated in something called a “Transducer”
which causes material displacement within the specimen.
 A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form
to another. Example: electrical energy to mechanical, or
mechanical to electrical. A speaker in a radio converts
electrical energy to a back and forth mechanical movement.
 View “a” below illustrates the “Piezoelectric Effect.” Electrical
energy is applied through two wires connected to a crystal,
causing the crystal to vibrate.
NDT Laboratory

Principles
 Electrical energy causes a piezoelectric crystal to
expand and contract, forming mechanical vibrations.
 A piezoelectric transducer can also convert mechanical
energy to electrical energy. Therefore, a transducer
can both send and receive energy.
 Energy transmitted by a transducer can be either
pulsed or continuous pulsed ultrasound is defined as
short groups of transmitted vibrations before and after
which the transducer can act as a receiver.
NDT Laboratory

Principles
 Steel, water and oil will transmit ultrasound very well, but
air presents a problem.
 Air is a poor transmitter of ultrasound because the particle
density is so low that it is difficult to transmit sound energy
from particle to particle. that is why we put oil or grease
between the transducer and the specimen.
 The particle density of a material helps determine the
velocity of sound. The velocity of sound will change as it
moves from one medium to another The elasticity of the
material is also a factor
NDT Laboratory

Principles
 A wavelength is considered to be the distance between two
successive displacements.
 The wavelength can also be defined as the distance a wave
travels during one complete cycle.
 The symbol λ is used to represent a wavelength and is called
“Lambda”.
NDT Laboratory

Principles
 The illustration below shows a transducer vibrating at a fixed
frequency (f) and transmitting sound waves into the
specimen.

 These sound waves move at a fixed velocity (v) through the

specimen.
 The wavelength can be changed if the frequency of the
transducer vibration changes.

v velocity
 wavelenght 
f frequency
example: you can shorten the wavelength by increasing the frequency
NDT Laboratory

Principles
 Wavelength is a ratio of a fixed value (velocity) divided by a
variable (frequency).
 In practical situations, the smallest discontinuity you can
find with ultrasonic testing is about 1/2 lambda. Therefore,
to detect smaller defects, you will need transducers that
produce higher frequencies.
 Example: what would be the smallest discontinuity that you
could find in a steel specimen with a velocity of 6 km/sec
using a transducer with a frequency of 3 megahertz (MHz).

6 x 105 cm/sec

3 MHz

 If the smallest defect detectable is 1/2 lambda, then the

answer is 1 millimeter or 0.040 inches.
NDT Laboratory

Transmission Types
 Through Transmission Mode

 Reflected (pulse-echo) Transmission Mode

NDT Laboratory

Scan Types
 A-Scan (single pulse - ice pick)
• Received pulse amplitude is represented as a displacement
along one axis and the travel time of the ultrasonic pulse is
represented as a displacement along the other axis.
• A-scan displays are more complex because all reflections are
displayed, so signals (back wall, waterpath) need careful
interpretation.
NDT Laboratory

Scan Types
 B-scan (cross section)
• A two-dimensional graphical presentation, in rectangular
coordinates, in which the travel time of an ultrasonic pulse is
represented as a displacement along one axis, and transducer
movement is represented as a displacement along the other
axis.
NDT Laboratory

Scan Types
 C-scan (defect location map)
• A two-dimensional graphical presentation, in which the
discontinuity echoes are displayed in a top view on the test
surface.
• This method is applied to pulse-echo and through transmission
techniques.
• Usually no indication of depth is given unless the complete scan
represents the time of flight evaluation (D-scan).
NDT Laboratory

Scan Types
 D-scan (defect depth map)
• A two-dimensional graphical presentation, in which the time-of-
flight values are displayed in a top view on the test surface.
This is a modified C-scan in which are amplitudes displayed.
NDT Laboratory

Ultrasonic Equipment

A-Scan types
NDT Laboratory

Ultrasonic Equipment

C-Scan types
NDT Laboratory

Transducers
 The ultrasonic transducer is the heart of the UT
test system.
 The crystal material in an ultrasonic transducer is
made of piezoelectric materials such as quartz,
lithium sulfate and polarized ceramics.
1. Quartz was the first material used. It has very stable
frequency characteristics. However, quartz is a poor
generator or acoustic energy and has generally been
replaced by more efficient materials.
2. Lithium sulfate is a very efficient receiver of acoustic
energy but is fragile, soluble in water and limited to use
at temperatures below 165°f.
3. Polarized ceramics produce the most efficient generators
of acoustic energy but they do have a tendency to wear.
common polarized ceramics include barium titanate,
lead metaniobate, and lead zirconate/titanate.
NDT Laboratory

Transducers

Straight beam transducer Angle beam transducer

 The capability of a transducer is described by three terms:

1. Sensitivity the ability to detect small discontinuities.
2. Resolution - the ability to separate the sound reflection from
two discontinuities close together in depth or time.
3. Efficiency- energy conversion effectiveness.
NDT Laboratory

Transducers
 Transducer materials are usually cut in two
ways:
1. Crystals cut perpendicular to the x-axis produce
longitudinal waves.
2. Crystals cut perpendicular to the y-axis produce shear
waves.
NDT Laboratory

Transducers
 Size is a contributing factor in performance of a transducer.
1. The larger diameter the transducer, the less the sound beam will
spread for a given frequency.
2. The small, high frequency transducers are better able to detect very
small discontinuities.
3. The larger the transducer, the more sound energy it transmits into the
test part. Large low frequency transducers are often used to get more
penetration.
4. Large single crystal transducers are generally limited to the lower
frequencies. High frequency crystals are susceptible to damage
because they are very thin.
NDT Laboratory

Transducers
 The frequency of a transducer is an important factor in its
application.
1. The higher the frequency of a transducer, the less the sound
beam will spread and the greater the sensitivity and
resolution. When the sound beam is spread as shown below,
less sound is likely to be reflected from a small discontinuity.
2. The lower the frequency, the deeper the sound penetration
and the less scatter. The greater beam spread aids in
detecting reflectors which are not perpendicular to the axis of
the sound beam.
3. Crystal thickness is also related to transducer frequency. The
higher the frequency of the transducer, the thinner the crystal
will be.
 Most ultrasonic testing is done between 0.2 MHz and 25
MHz and crystals cut for use above 10 MHz are too thin and
fragile for contact testing. Therefore, transducers with
operating frequencies above 10 MHz are used primarily for
immersion testing.
NDT Laboratory

Transducers
 Transducers for contact testing and immersion testing are
essentially the same but usually are not interchangeable.
 Most contact testing transducers have wear plates in front
of the piezoelectric element to protect it. The exception to
this is a quartz transducer.
 Contact transducers can be either “straight beam” or “angle
beam.”
• Straight beam transducers (normal probe) usually have
a Lucite, ceramic, or quartz wear plate in front of the
crystal.
• Angle beam transducers (angle probe) have the wear
plate wedge-shaped to produce the desired refracted
angle.
• Most angle beam testing is done with shear waves.
NDT Laboratory

Transducers

Angle probe

Normal probe
 NDT Laboratory

Wavelength
Material Longitudinal waves Wavelength, mm Wavelength, mm
velocities, km/s (1 MHz) (10 MHz)
Air 0.33 0.33 0.033
Water(20oC) 1.49 1.49 0.149
Oil (Transformer) 1.38 1.38 0.138
Aluminum 6.35 6.35 0.635
Copper 4.66 4.66 0.466
Magnesium 5.79 5.79 0.579
Steel (mild) 5.85 5.85 0.585
Lucite/plexiglass, 2.67 2.67 0.267
perspex/polyinethyl
methacrylate
Polyethylene 1.95 – 2.40 1.95 – 2.40 0.195 – 0.240

Sound velocities in air, water, oil and metals are virtually constants over the frequency
range 0.1 to l5 MHz. Defects perpendicular to the sound beam as small as λ/4 can be
detected by ultrasonic testing
NDT Laboratory

Frequency

Frequency range Applications

200 kHz - 1 MHz Coarse-grain castings: gray iron, nodular iron, copper,
and stainless steels
400 kHz - 5 MHz Fine-grain castings: steel, aluminum, brass
200 kHz - 2.25 MHz Plastics and plastic like materials
1 - 5 MHz Rolled products: metallic sheet, plate, bars, and billets
2.25 - 10MHz Drawn and extruded products: bars, tubes, and shapes
1 - 10MHz Forgings
2.25 - 10 MHz Glass and ceramics
1 - 2.25 MHz Welds
1 - 10 MHz Fatigue cracks
NDT Laboratory

Test Systems
a) Pulse echo techniques (PE)
(pulse transit time).
b) The transmission method,
pulsed through-transmission
testing, requires two
transducers with access to both
sides of the specimen.
c) Reflection method requires two
transducers (pitch-catch) but
access to one side only of the
specimen.
d) An alternative transmission-
reflection crack tip diffraction
technique compares the time
taken by the surface wave to
the time taken by waves
diffracted from cracks within
the specimen.
Note: T, transmitter transducer; R,
receiver transducer; T/R,
transmitter and receiver
transducer.
NDT Laboratory

Test Systems
 Pulse-Echo is the most widely used ultrasonic system.
• Short evenly timed pulses of ultrasonic waves are
transmitted into the material being tested.
• These pulses reflect from discontinuities in their path, or
from any boundary that they strike.
• The received reflections are then displayed on a cathode
ray tube (CRT).
• The same transducer can be used to transmit and
receive.
 Through Transmission requires the use of two transducers,
one for sending and the other for receiving.
• Either short pulses or continuous waves are transmitted
into the material.
• The quality of the material being tested is measured in
terms of energy lost by a sound beam as it travels
through the material.
NDT Laboratory

Test Methods
 There are two test methods normally used in ultrasonic
testing:
• “Contact Testing” where the transducer is coupled to the
material through a thin layer of couplant.
• “Immersion Testing”• both the material and the transducer are
immersed in a tank of couplant (usually water).
NDT Laboratory

Interpretations of Oscilloscope Display

a. Discontinuity parallel and perpendicular b. flaws not parallel to any surface

NDT Laboratory

Interpretations of Oscilloscope Display

c. Curved Specimens d. specimen with curved back surface

NDT Laboratory

Interpretations of Oscilloscope Display

e. Multiple flaws
NDT Laboratory

Ultrasonic Wave Travel

 Mode conversion takes place when a sound beam hits an
interface between two different media at an angle other
than 90 degrees.
 Mode conversion in the case presented below produces two
reflected beams:
• One beam consists of longitudinal waves.
• The other beam consists of shear waves.
NDT Laboratory

Ultrasonic Wave Travel

 Snell’s law can be used to determine angular relationship

sin 1 vL1 sin 1 vS1

 
sin 2 vL 2 sin  2 vS 2
NDT Laboratory

Ultrasonic Wave Travel

 Example :
calculates the angle of refraction α2 for a longitudinal wave
passing through a water-to-steel interface.
10 degrees = angle of incidence (α1)
1.49 km/sec = longitudinal velocity in water (v1)
5.85 km/sec = longitudinal velocity in steel (v2)

v2 sin 1 1.012
sin 2  sin 2  sin 2  0.6791
v1 1.49

2  42 46' 0
NDT Laboratory

Ultrasonic Wave Travel

 An important application of Snell’s law is in the construction of
angle probes.
 Probes are commercially available for angle from 35 degree to 80
degree for use on steel.
NDT Laboratory

Ultrasonic Wave Travel

 As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction
increases.

 When the refraction angle of a longitudinal wave reaches 90

degrees, the wave emerges from the second medium and travels
parallel to the interface or surface. This is called its first or lower
“critical angle” above approximately 58 degrees with a plastic-to-
steel interface, only shear waves are generated in the part.
NDT Laboratory

Couplants
 The primary purpose of a couplant is to provide a suitable sound
path between the transducer and the test surface.
 A couplant must effectively wet or totally contact both surfaces of
the transducer and test part.
NDT Laboratory

Couplants
 Couplants conditions :
1. The couplant must exclude all air from between the
surfaces as air is a very poor conductor of sound.
2. The couplant fills in and smooth out irregularities on the
surface of the test part.
3. The couplant aids in the movement of the transducer
over the surface in contact testing.
4. A practical couplant must be easy to apply and easy to
remove. it must also be harmless to the part surface.
 Oil or water mixed with glycerine (2 parts water and 1 part
glycerine) are commonly used couplants. Even wallpaper
paste has advantages as a couplant
 Heavier couplants, such as grease or heavy oil can be used
on rough or vertical surfaces
NDT Laboratory

Couplants
 The surface of a test specimen can greatly affect ultrasonic wave
propagation.
 Rough surfaces can cause undesirable effects such as reduction of
discontinuity and back surface amplitudes due to distortion of
wave directivity
NDT Laboratory

Visual Displays
 There are three basic types of visual displays which are
commonly used to evaluate the soundness or quality of a
material being tested:
• A-scan
• B-scan
• C-scan
 A-scan is a “time versus amplitude” display which reveals a
discontinuity using a “pip” on a cathode-ray tube (CRT).
NDT Laboratory

Visual Displays
 B-scan presentation, as shown below, typically uses an
oscilloscope screen to display a cross-sectional view of the
material being tested.
 The image is retained on the CRT long enough to evaluate
the sample and to photograph the screen for a permanent
record.
NDT Laboratory

Visual Displays
 C-scan is a “plan view” presentation similar to an x-ray
picture.
 The advantages of C-scan is the speed and ability to
produce a permanent record. However, the scan shows only
length and width, but not depth. As shown below, the c-
scan shows the shape and location of the discontinuity, but
does not show the depth.
NDT Laboratory

Transducers

 Dual or pitch-catch transducers, neither the transmission or

interface signals reach the receiving transducer and thus
only reflections from within the specimen are displayed.
 Used for corroded or rough surface
NDT Laboratory

Transducers
 T/R Transducers
• uses two crystal elements which are acoustically and
electrically separated from each other in the same housing.
NDT Laboratory

Transducers
 Spherically and cylindrically ground acoustical lenses are
commonly added to immersion type transducers. They are
used to:
1. Improve sensitivity and resolution.
2. Compensate for test part contours.
3. Examine a given depth of the test part more carefully.

Spherical ground

Cylindrically ground
NDT Laboratory

Transducers
 Cylindrical lenses are used in two ways:
1. To increase the sensitivity and resolution of equipment.
2. For contour correction as shown below. the lens can be
ground specially to direct the sound energy normal
(perpendicular) to a curved surface at all points.
 Spherical lenses concentrate the sound energy into a cone
shaped beam.
1. The focusing increases its intensity, but shortens its useful
range.
2. While the cylindrical lens above has a greater width, the
spherical lens has the greatest sensitivity.
3. The spherical lens is often used when immersion testing parts
having a rough surface.
 Focused transducers are described by their focal length.
 The short focal lengths are for examining areas of the
specimen close to the surface. Longer focal lengths are for
increasingly deeper areas.
NDT Laboratory

Transducers

Spherical Cylindrical
NDT Laboratory

Calibration
 Calibration means linear display, from the zero point on the
scale, of a certain distance range of the object to be tested.
 When specifying the calibration range the naming of the
material is also important because the displayed distance of
the echo, sound path s, is always deduced from the time of
flight t of the pulse and the sound velocity c according to
the equation:
NDT Laboratory

Calibration
 The reference piece used for calibration is called the
Calibration Block, or Standard Calibration Block
 In ultrasonic testing, discontinuities are usually
compared to a reference standard.
 Most reference blocks have the following in common:
1. They are made from carefully selected material.
2. The material must have the proper attenuation, grain
size, heat treatment and be free of discontinuities.
3. All dimensions must be precisely machined.
4. All holes must be flat-bottomed and have a specific
diameter to be an ideal reflector.
5. Side drilled hole diameter must be carefully controlled.
NDT Laboratory

Calibration
 Three commonly used sets of standard reference
blocks are:
1. Area amplitude blocks
2. Distance amplitude blocks
3. ASTM basic set of area and distance amplitude blocks.
 Area amplitude blocks provide standards for
discontinuities of different sizes, at the same
depth.
 Distance amplitude blocks provide standards for
discontinuities of the same size at different
depths.
 The standard may be one of many reference
blocks or sets of blocks specified for a given test.
NDT Laboratory

Calibration

IIW Type US-1

IIW Type US-2

NDT Laboratory

Calibration
IIW Type Mini

The Miniature Angle-Beam or

ROMPAS Calibration Block
 NDT Laboratory

Calibration
AWS Shear wave Distance/
Sensitivity Calibration (DSC) Block

AWS Shear wave Distance

Calibration (DC) Block
NDT Laboratory

Calibration
AWS Resolution
Calibration (RC) Block

30 FBH Resolution
Reference Block
NDT Laboratory

Calibration

Miniature Resolution Block

Step and Tapered

Calibration Wedges
 NDT Laboratory

Calibration

Distance/Sensitivity (DS) Block

Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks
NDT Laboratory

Calibration
IIW Type US-1
NDT Laboratory

Calibration
 IIW Type US-1 provide to :
• Verifies Beam exit point
• Verifies transducer angle
• Known distance & angular relationship
• Check transducer resolution

Verifies Beam exit point

NDT Laboratory

Calibration
Verifies transducer angle

 From the position shown above, the transducer is moved back and forth
until the reflection from the 2 inch hole shows maximum amplitude on the
CRT
 The angle of sound beam can then be read from where the exit point on
the transducer matches the degrees stamped on the side of the block.
 The transducer sound beam exit point should always be checked first. if
the exit point marking is not correct, then the angle check will not be
accurate.
NDT Laboratory

Calibration
Known distance and Check transducer resolution

 The far field resolving power of the test equipment can be

estimated by placing a normal beam transducer on the IIW
block as shown.
 Good resolution will be indicated if the instrument can
satisfactory separate the pips from all three reflectors.
NDT Laboratory

Preparation
 Before making an ultrasonic test, be sure the instrument is
operating properly, check the instrument on a standard in
accordance with the operating manual.
 Before conducting a test, you should have a clear idea of the kind,
orientation, and quantity of discontinuities you are trying to
detect.
 If the rear surface of the specimen lies at an angle as shown
below, what will be the effect on a normal a-scan display?
NDT Laboratory

Preparation
 Although a discontinuity may be detected, there will not be
a back surface reflection in the situation above.
 Selection of the proper transducer is very important in
obtaining a good ultrasonic test.
 As shown below, a transducer with a plastic wedge may be
necessary to look into a specimen at an angle.
NDT Laboratory

Preparation
 The pulse length used will affect the ability of the
instrument to locate discontinuities near the surface as
shown below.

 A longer pulse may block the receiver during the period of

transmission and obscure reflections from the discontinuity.
The transducer may continue vibrating beyond the time the
discontinuity energy is received.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 When using through transmission, the CRT indication
decreases when more sound energy is intercepted by a
discontinuity.
 Total reflection of sound energy at an internal reflector will
result in no energy being received by the receiving
transducer.
 Through transmission has certain advantages:
1. Better near surface detection - defects that are only a few
thousandths of an inch below the surface can be detected
effectively.
2. Capability of testing thicker test specimens (less attenuation)
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 However, a through transmission technique cannot “see”
the discontinuity, it only shows a loss of sound energy.
 If transmitted pulse and received pulse are of the same
relative height on the CRT, it can be assumed the specimen
is sound and there is no significant attenuation in the
material.
 In contact testing, it is possible to use sound beams that:
1. Are perpendicular to the test surface.
2. Propagate into the specimen at an angle.
3. Propagate along the surface of the specimen.
4. Propagate through the material from one side to the
other.
 The determination of the proper equipment to use depends
on several factors including:
1. Nature, size and orientation of discontinuities.
2. Surface condition and shape of the test specimen.
3. Internal structure (coarse grained or fine grained).
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 It is usually desirable to test at the lowest frequency that
will locate specified minimum-size discontinuities.
 A low test frequency is required to test a specimen that has
a coarse grained internal structure, such as a casting.
 A surface that is rough or pitted with corrosion will also
require low frequencies to give proper sensitivity.
 Sometimes it is possible to sand or grind the surface of the
specimen to obtain better transducer contact.
 A high test frequency is often used for fine grained
materials be cause the lower frequency will not detect
desired discontinuity.
 At higher frequencies, the wavelength is short in relation to
the grain size.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 Considerations:
1. A higher frequency will provide the greatest sensitivity for detecting
small defects.
2. A lower frequency will give greater power to penetrate more deeply.
3. A larger diameter transducer may be required when testing thicker
materials.
4. At any frequency, the larger the crystal, the straighter the beam.
5. For a transducer of a given diameter, there is less beam spread at
higher frequencies.
 If you were inspecting a long bar through its length (8 ft), which
of the following would you select?

The 1” - 2.25 MHZ would be the best choice

NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 The lower range of frequencies are generally used to test
castings since castings usually have a rather coarse grain
structure.
 Many of the very coarse grained castings cannot be tested
with ultrasonics.
 Most forgings are good objects for ultrasonic testing
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 Discontinuities in a forging are most likely to be
detected if the inspection is made at right angles to
the direction that the material was worked. working
will orient discontinuities in the same direction as the
grain of the metal is oriented.
 Rolled sheet and plate materials may be tested with
either a straight beam or angle beam, depending on
the specification requirements.
 Straight beam testing has the advantage of being able
to easily locate laminations.
 However, straight beam testing is time consuming and
may not “see” discontinuities close to the surface,
unless special techniques are used.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 In angle beam contact testing, the transducer is placed
behind a wedge, usually Lucite, so that the sound will be
introduced into the part at an angle.
 As shown below, the angle of incidence of the sound beam
at the surface is determined by the fixed angle of the
wedge.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 The sound beam angle in a test part is determined by the
relationship of the velocity of sound in the test specimen and the
velocity of sound in the wedge. This relationship is known as
“Snell's law.”
 As shown below, when the angle of incidence increases, refraction
of the longitudinal wave increases until there comes a point where
total reflection of this wave occurs, and all that is left is a shear
wave. This point is called the 1st critical angle of incidence.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 To produce a sound beam at a given angle, it is necessary
to know only the following three factors to determine the
proper wedge angle:
1. The angle desired in the test specimen.
2. The longitudinal velocity in the wedge.
3. The velocity in the test material. (shear or longitudinal,
depending on the sound beam desired)
 In angle beam testing, the angle of refraction becomes less
as the velocities of sound in the wedge and test specimen
become more nearly equal.
 Only longitudinal waves will be produced in the wedge, but
it is possible to have either longitudinal or shear waves in
the test part.
 Both modes may be present at the same time depending
on the angle of the wedge.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 The following charts show the relative angle and amplitude
for both longitudinal and shear waves in steel for given
wedge angles in Lucite.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 When choosing a wedge, it is desirable to avoid
angles that produce both longitudinal and shear
waves at the same time and at similar intensities.
 The presence of both waves makes it difficult to
interpret the CRT screen which displays both
reflections.
 EXAMPLE:
1. Assume that you have a Lucite wedge with an angle of
50 degrees, referring to the chart above, what angle
shear waves will be produced in the test specimen?
2. What problem would be encountered using a 50 degree
longitudinal wave?

(#1 = about 65 degrees)(#2 = shear wave also exists)

NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 In angle beam testing, when the wedge angle is increased to the
point that the shear wave is equal to 90 degrees, we have what is
known as the 2nd critical angle.

 However, sound energy still exists parallel to the interface and is

known as “surface waves” or “rayleigh waves” as discussed
previously.
 As shown on the chart on the previous page, a wedge angle of 63
degrees will produce surface waves of the greatest amplitude in
steel.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 The advantage of angle beam testing is that it is a very fast
method of inspecting plate materials.
 Most types of discontinuities found in plate that are
perpendicular to the scan surface will be found with angle
beam testing.
 However, smooth laminations parallel to the surface will
probably not be detected by angle beam testing.
 Before performing an angle beam test, the plate should be
scanned with a straight beam transducer to find any gross
defects or laminations.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 Contact testing of weldments can be accomplished by. Either
straight beam or angle beam techniques, based on the type
of defect to be detected.
 Straight beam testing requires that the surface of the weld
be ground smooth.
 However, lack of fusion, cracks, insufficient penetration are
not easily detected with straight beam techniques.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
 Angle beam testing of weldments is done as shown in
view “b” above.
 To scan the welded seam, it is necessary to move the
transducer forward and backward as shown below.
• At ½ skip distance, the beam strikes the bottom of the plate
and
• At 1 skip distance, the beam will strike the top of the plate
as shown.
NDT Laboratory

Contact Testing
NDT Laboratory

Immersion Testing
 In contact testing, the angle imprinted on the Lucite wedge
used in angle beam testing often indicates the angle of
“refraction” in a given material.
 However, in immersion testing, the angle shown by the
angle indicator on the manipulator is the “angle of
incidence.”
 It is necessary to apply Snell's law and calculate the angle
of refraction in the test specimen.

sin 1 v1

sin 2 v2
 If the angle indicator showed the angle of refraction in the
test specimen, it would be necessary to change the
indicator each time a different material was inspected.
NDT Laboratory

Immersion Testing

 Test frequencies - since the transducer does not come into contact
with the test specimen in immersion testing, it is possible to use
thinner crystals at higher ultrasonic frequencies.
 It is possible to use frequencies as high as 25 MHz and the range
is usually from 2.25 to 25 MHz.
 The higher frequencies give the best resolution of small
discontinuities.
NDT Laboratory

Immersion Testing
 For an immersion testing application where a sharper than
normal sound beam is required, a focused transducer should be
used.
 The proper water path for a focused transducer can be
determined as follows:
• Using a transducer with a focal length of 5 inches in water to focus
the beam to a point 0.25 inches below the surface of a steel part, one
would determine the water path distance by:
a. Dividing the velocity of steel by the velocity of the water.

6.0  105 km/sec

4
1.5 km/sec

b. Multiplying the desired focal depth by the answer.

4 X .25” = 1”
c. Subtracting answer from known focal length in water.
5” - 1”= 4”
d. thus, the water path distance must be 4” to focus the beam
at .25” below the surface.
NDT Laboratory

Immersion Testing
NDT Laboratory

Immersion Testing
 The following show a typical straight beam immersion operation
with the CRT indication that would be received.

 The water path distance from the transducer to the front surface
of the test part is generally set to be longer in time than the
metal part time from the front to rear of the test specimen.
NDT Laboratory

Immersion Testing
 If the transducer is too close to the front surface of the test part
the second front reflection will appear on the CRT between the
front and back surface reflections. This reflection may appear to be
a discontinuity.

 The velocity of sound in water is about 114 that of aluminum or

steel. one inch of water will appear on the CRT in the same time
span on the sweep as 4 inches of steel. therefore, a rule of thumb
is — use at least one inch of water path for each four inches of
metal path, plus 1/4”.
NDT Laboratory

Nonrelevant Indication
 Nonrelevant indications can usually be identified as one of the
following:
1. Electrical interference
2. Interference from the transducer (search unit)
3. Interference from the surface of the specimen
4. Interference caused by mode conversion of the sound beam
5. Interference caused by the shape of the specimen
6. Interference caused by material structure
NDT Laboratory

Nonrelevant Indication
 Electrical interference can be caused by improper electrical
connections, electrical noise or faulty equipment.
 Search unit interference is common and is often caused by the
reflection of sound energy. From the interface between the wedge
and test specimen surface.
 In immersion testing, air bubbles either on the transducer or
specimen can cause reduced signal amplitude from the back
surface and at times also from the front surface.
 a Nonrelevant indication may occur when using a transducer with
a large beam spread, this indication is easily identified as it is
always behind the first back reflection of the part and would
probably be continuous along the surface of the part.
NDT Laboratory

Nonrelevant Indication
 A large grain size may also cause “noise” or “hash” on the
CRT screen.
 Abnormally large grains may result in total loss of back
reflection.
 A lower examination frequency may help alleviate this
problem.
NDT Laboratory

Nonrelevant Indication
 During weld inspection, Nonrelevant indications may result from
reflections from the crown and root of the weld and possibly from
the heat affected zone.
 The reflection from the root and crown of the weld may appear for
the entire length of the weld. If the nonrelevant signal is coming
from the crown of the weld, it can often be identified by placing
your finger wet with couplant over the suspected area. If the
sound beam is striking the crown, it will be dampened by your
finger.