CHAPTER-VIII

Syllabus :-
Detail Hours
Constructional details and working principles of turbines and auxiliaries 12
i. Principle of operation, types and characteristics of turbines.
ii Choice, rating and specifications of turbines.
iii Components of turbines and their design.
iv Type of governors - Hydraulic & electronic.
v Guide bearing and shaft seal arrangements.

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 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL AND WORKING PRINCIPLES
OF TURBINE AND AUXILLARIES
8.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION:

Hydraulic (water) turbines are machines that convert hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy. This conversion is possible in a complex harnessing called hydro
power plant (HPP). Usually, the mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy, in the same harnessing, using electrical machines called electrical
generators. The most usual generators are synchronous generators, which are called
hydro generators due to the fact that these are driven by hydraulic turbines.

The power capacity of a hydropower plant is primarily the function of two variables:
(1) flow rate expressed in cubic meters per second (m 3/s), and (2) the hydraulic head,
which is the elevation difference the water falls in passing through the plant.

Figure 8.1

8.2. TYPES OF TURBINE:-

The oldest form of “water turbine” is the water-wheel. The natural head difference in
water level of a stream is utilized to drive it. In its conventional form the water-wheel
is made of wood and is provided with buckets or vanes round the periphery. The
water thrusts against these, causing the wheel to rotate. Traditional water wheels
have been used for centuries, but these large and slow-moving wheels are not
suitable for generating electricity. Water turbines used for electricity generation are

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made from metals, rotate at higher speeds, and are much easier to build and install.
Over the years, many turbine designs have been developed to work best in different
situations.

Water turbines may be classified in different ways. One way of classification is

according to the method of functioning (impulse or reaction turbine). Water turbines
may operate as turbines, as pump turbines or as a combination of both. These may
be of the single regulated or double regulated type. Turbines may also be classified
according to their specific speed. Another way is according to the design (head and
quantity of water available).

8.2.1 Pelton Turbine

In the impulse type of hydraulic turbine, the runner converts the kinetic energy in one
or more jets of high-velocity water into torque in the turbine shaft. The runner consists
of a definite number of buckets, each of double-bowl construction, located on the rim
of a central disc.

The velocity of the water of the jet which enters each bucket is reduced nearly to zero
in the bucket during operation of turbine. The kinetic energy in that portion is thereby
converted into a force acting on the moving bucket, and producing a torque on the
turbine shaft. The force of the jet is applied only during the time that the water is in
the bucket. The impulse of a force is defined as the product of the force and the time
during which it acts.

Pelton turbines are made either with vertical or with horizontal shafts. The vertical-
shaft turbine usually has only one runner and up to six jets. Most horizontal-shaft
units have one or two jets per runner and one or two runners per turbine. Horizontal
turbines usually cover those combinations of power and head for which vertical
turbines are not economical.

Photograph of Pelton runner and jet nozzle cross section is shown in Fig. 8.2 and
Fig. 8.3.

Fig. 8.2

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 Fig.8.3

A typical section through Pelton turbine is given in fig. 8.4.

Fig. 8.4
(1) : Control frame work (2) : Distributor (3) : Brake jet nozzle
(4) : Turbine Chamber (5) : Nozzle body (6) : Turbine Shaft
(7) : Guide Bearing (8) : Runner Bucket (9) : Foundation Concrete Wall

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8.2.2 Francis Turbine

In 1849, James B. Francis, an American engineer, set out to improve upon the design
of the few hydraulic turbines operating at that time in France and the United States.
Most of the earlier turbines were so constructed that the water entered their runners
at the centre and flowed radially outward.

The turbine that Francis built following his investigations allowed the water to enter
the runner from the outside and to flow inward through the radial blades. The Francis
design was subsequently improved by changing the shape of the runner blades so
that the water was turned from a radial to an axial path within the runner, rather than
outside it. During all the changes made of this type of turbine, it was the name of
Francis that became, and remained, associated with it.

Reaction turbines are driven by a combination of velocity and the pressure of the
water; the Francis turbine is in this class. The water passages between the runner
buckets are simultaneously and continuously filled with water. As the water flows
through the runner, its velocity is changed both in magnitude and direction, which
produces a force on the runner blades.

Important developments in Francis turbines followed the introduction of thrust

bearings capable of carrying very heavy loads. Up to that time, hydraulic turbines of
any size had to have horizontal shafts with journal bearings and double runners to
counteract each others hydraulic thrust. The large, high-powered, vertical turbines
that followed the advent of the new thrust bearing were made possible by its ability to
carry the tremendous load of the generator rotor, shaft, turbine runner and hydraulic
thrust.

The distinguishing feature of a Francis runner are:

- A crown at the top,

- Curved blades (usually from eleven to twenty-one in number) attached to it and,

at the bottom, a surrounding band connecting the lower ends of the blades. The
proportions of the runner vary with the head, power, and speed, for which it is
designed.

Francis turbine runners are usually one-piece steel casting, although in certain cases
runners are constructed by welding cast steel or plate steel blades to the crown and
band. Very large runners may be made in sections, to conform to shipping restrictions
or because of their weight.

A photograph of Francis runner and cross section of complete Francis turbine is

shown in Fig. 8.5 and Fig. 8.6 respectively.

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 Fig. 8.5

Fig. 8.6

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Part list of Francis turbine is shown in table 8.1.

Part list of Francis Turbine drawing

1 Turbine lower part 16 Runner/Turbine shaft
arrangement coupling arrangement
2 Upper part 17 Turbine guide bearing
arrangement arrangement
3 Turbine pit & upper 18 Shaft seal arrangement
part arrangement
4 Turbine Distributor 20 Turbine foundation
arrangement
9 Spiral casing 21 Connection for an
arrangement eventual tail water
depression system
11 Draft tube manhole 22 Balancing pipe
arrangement
12 Fix labyrinth 29 Over speed detector
arrangement
13 Servomotor 15 Head cover fix/runner
arrangement rotating labyrinth
arrangement
14 Servomotor
anchoring
arrangement

Table 8.1

8.2.3 Kaplan Turbine

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 Fig 8.7

The Kaplan turbine is generally the most suitable type for low-head and medium-
head installations where large variations of flow and head are encountered.

The distinguishing feature of the Kaplan turbine is the automatic adjustment of the
angle or pitch of the runner blades as water flow or power output varies .

The blades, projecting from and supported in the hub of the runner, move
simultaneously during a change of load. The runner blades are rotated on their
trunnions by levers, links and crosshead, or by some other suitable mechanical
linkage, operated by the vertical motion of a servomotor piston rod.

The blades adopt automatically the most efficient position for the power output of the

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turbine. Also, the angle of the blades may be adjusted automatically for head
variations by adjusting the cams which determine the relative movement of, and the
relationship between, the wicket gates of the turbine and the blades of the runner.

Besides the features already mentioned, a Kaplan turbine is equipped with an oil
head and with vertical, rotating oil pipes housed within the shaft of the generator and
turbine. The oil head conveys the oil from the stationary governor oil pipes to the
rotating pipes which lead to the runner blade servomotor.

Where turbines are required to operate at part-load efficiency generally, Kaplan

turbines are installed. This requirement is most often encountered in run-of-river
plants with limited storage facilities. The Kaplan turbine also allows the runner blades
to be opened to a greater angle during periods of high flow and low head, giving
higher power outputs during those periods than could be had from a fixed blade
turbine of the same size and rated output.

A photograph of Kaplan Runner is shown in Fig. 8.8 and cross section with part
details of Kaplan Turbine is shown in Fig. 8.9 and Table 8.2.

Fig. 8.8

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VERTICAL KAPLAN TURBINE
Fig. 8.9

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 Part list of Kaplan Turbine drawing
1a Runner cone 10 Turbine guide bearing
1e Runner hub 11 Guide vane servomotor
1f Runner blades 12 Servomotor connecting rod
3 Top & bottom plates 13 Guide vane regulating ring
4 Spiral case 14 Guide vane link
5 Stay vane 15 Guide vane arm
6 Guide vane 16 Shaft seal
7 Draft tube 17 Head cover
8 Discharge ring 18 Runner blade servomotor
9 Turbine shaft

Table 8.2

8.2.4 Bulb Turbine

These types of turbines are similar to Kaplan Turbines, except their shaft position
which is not vertical, but either horizontal or inclined. Also there is no spiral case, and
the discharge tube is straight.

Fig. 8.10

Between Kaplan and Bulb turbine some differences are given below.
A Bulb turbine is suitable for lower heads (under 15 meters or 45 feet, down to 2
meters or 6 feet) than a Kaplan turbine.

The maintenance for Kaplan unit is easier because there is more space around the
turbine and the generator. The Bulb unit is like a reversed U-boat (submarine), where
everything is at lower limit.

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At Bulb units, the generator is into the same case with the turbine, meaning that they
are both under the water, with a small access to the generator. At Kaplan units,
around the generator is plenty of space, and the operator can observe certain parts
of the generator.

ARRANGEMENT OF A HYDRO UNIT

A vertical section through a hydro unit is shown on Fig.8.11.

From the upstream basin the water flows into the spiral casing (4). The water flows
from the spiral casing through the stay ring (6), the guide apparatus (2), the runner
and the draft tube (13) into the tail water basin. The generator (7) is arranged above
the turbine, and in most cases above the highest level of the tail water. The axial
thrust bearing (8) is loaded with axial forces from all the rotating parts. In many cases
this bearing is arranged upon the upper turbine cover, which then have to carry all
the axial forces.

Fig 8.11 Vertical section of a Kaplan turbine unit

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8.3 MAIN COMPONENTS OF HYDRO TURBINE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A hydro turbine has the following main components:

-draft tube
- spiral casing and stay ring
- guide apparatus
- covers
- runner
- runner chamber
- runner blade servomotor
- regulating mechanism of the runner blades
- turbine shaft
- turbine bearing
- shaft sleeve and seal box

8.3.1 Draft tube :

The draft tube consists of a draft-tube-cone and a draft-tube-plate-lining through the

bend. The water has a relatively large velocity when it leaves the runner. This kinetic
energy is converted to pressure energy in the draft tube. To obtain this with a
minimum of losses, the outlet velocity at the draft tube outlet has to be as minimum
as possible.

Fig.8.12 Draft Tube

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The draft tube of a Kaplan and Francis turbine has a shape to provide smooth
variation to increase the area of cross section so that water passing through it is
capable of reducing its velocity slowly to have minimum hydraulic losses.

8.3.2 Spiral casing:

For smaller heads (less than 10 meter) and small dimensions of the machines, the
turbines are placed into a concrete pit. This is suitable only for low velocity of water in
the range 0.8 to 1 m/sec.

Turbine, of larger size is placed into a spiral shaped pit. For heads 20 meter and
above spirals are made of steel plate, such spiral form a constructional part of the
turbine. In this case, the spiral completely surrounds the guide wheel and its function
is to supply it with water uniformly along the circumference. In order to prevent
excessive stress on the spiral due to the water pressure which tends to open it up, it
is strengthened around the inner opening by stay blades.

Large spirals, now a days, are made from steel plates of appropriate size. Due to
transport limitation, different sections of spiral casing are shipped from
manufacturer’s work and assembled and welded at site and welded to stay ring
forming stay ring spiral assembly. During welding, care is taken to ensure dimensions
as per drawing. Complete welding seams are radiographed to avoid any defect in
welding process.

Fig. 8.13 shows a spiral casing of Kaplan turbine under erection.

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 Fig. 8.13 Kaplan spiral casing of steel plates

8.3.3 The guide apparatus system

Guide apparatus system consists of following components:-

Guide vane:
Guide vanes are arranged in a circle around the runner. Individual guide vane is
having a bottom trunion and upper trunion and shaft in between two trunions guide
vane rather having aerodynamic profile is located. No. of guide vanes in a typical
turbine vary from 20 to 24.
Regulating ring:
Regulating ring is fabricated steel ring to which guide vanes are connected by lever
& link assembly. Regulating is further connected to servomotors by connecting rod.
By action of servomotor, regulating ring turns the guide vanes in unision for opening
and closing.
Servomotors:
Servomotors are simple piston cylinder assembly which operates by oil pressure and
get command from governing system for opening or closing the guide vanes for
starting, loading and closing the unit as per system requirement.
Guide vane lever, links, and bush housing:

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Individual guide vane is having a bottom trunion and top trunion and a shaft. Bottom
trunion of guide vane is housed in individual bottom bush which is located in bottom
ring at specified P.C.D.(Pitch Circle Diameter). Top shaft of individual guide vane is
having a bush housing fixed in top cover. Bush housing is having adequate sealing
arrangement so that water does not come in the top cover. Individual guide vane at
top also have a guide vane connected to it which in turn is connected to regulating
ring by means of suitable link which is also individually adjustable.

Stay ring under erection

Fig. 8.14

8.3.4 Covers

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The Kaplan turbines are usually provided with an inner cover in addition to an upper
and a lower cover. The inner cover is bolted to the upper cover and forms a shield
from upper flow conducting surface and downwards to the runner. Furthermore, this
serves as a support for the guide vane mechanism with the regulating ring, the
turbine bearing and the shaft seal box with standstill seal. The lower turbine cover is
combined with the runner chamber by a flanged connection.

Fig. 8. 15

8.3.5 Runner

The runner in a Kaplan turbine is a very challenging part to design. The details for
adjusting the blades can be designed in different ways. Increasing blade number for
increasing head may create problems because of lack of space and consequently
high stresses. It is not however, only the head that determines the number of blades.
The blade length and shape as well as the specific blade loading and location in
relation to the downstream water level, are the factors, which are considered as a
general guideline. Four blades can be used up to heads of 25 - 30 meters, five
blades up to 40 meters, six blades up to 50 meters and seven blades up to heads of
60 - 70 meters. Kaplan turbines have also been designed with 8 blades for heads
even higher than 70 meters. This increases the hub diameter and the shape of the
hub becomes more complicated, and the efficiency may suffer.

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 Fig 8.16 Rotating parts of a Kaplan turbine

A small clearance gap is achieved between the adjustable blade ends and the hub for
all operating conditions. With increasing head, the hub diameter is increasing from
approximately 40% to 65 - 70 % of the runner diameter. The torque of the runner is
transferred to the turbine shaft through hub as blades are mounted on it. All the
blades are kept at equal angles, thereby equal spacing is created between the blades
which facilitate the balanced flow of water through all the rotor spacing and thus each
blade generates equal torque giving a smooth rotational system.

Blade profile is checked in manufacturer’s work on special stand designed for the
purpose. In manufacturer’s work complete assembly of hub & blades is also statically
balanced.

8.3.6 Runner chamber

The clearance gap between the outer blade ends and the chamber wall is essential
to keep as small as possible for all blade inclinations. Therefore, the runner chamber
is made spherical below the rotation centre line of the blade trunnions. Ideally the
spherical shape should have been maintained above the blade rotation centre as well

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However, on account of installation and dismantling aspects, this part is being made
cylindrical as shown on fig. 8.17. The gap between the runner blade ends and the
runner chamber wall is approximately 0.1% of the runner diameter.

Fig. 8.17 Runner Chamber

The length of the runner chamber is indicated by H. At the lower end this chamber is
welded to the draft tube via an extruded steel profile. Cavitations, erosion on the
runner chamber may occur during the running time of the turbine. To reduce the
magnitude of such erosion attacks and to ease the subsequent repair, the runner
chamber is normally made of cast or welded stainless chromium nickel steel with
higher cavitation resistance than carbon steel. Existing erosions may then be
repaired by welding on site. The runner chamber is reinforced by external ribs. The
runner chamber is normally completely or partly embedded in concrete. The turbine
shown on fig.18.17 has an access tunnel around the complete circumference,
providing access to the lower guide vane bearings. In combination with this tunnel
there is a manhole access to the runner chamber for inspection of the runner blades.
In the lower part of the runner chamber there is a tap for connection of a vacuum

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meter. In the lower part, holes are plugged by means of removable stainless steel
plugs.

8.3.7 Runner blade servomotor

The servomotor for the rotary motion of the runner blades is either a construction part
of the turbine shaft or located inside the hub. There are however, good reasons for
localizing the servomotor inside the hub. This servomotor may consist of a moving
cylinder and a fixed piston integrated with the hub. The conversion from axial piston
movement to rotating blade movement is carried out by a link and lever construction.
The hub is completely filled with oil to provide reliable lubrication of moving parts. The
oil pressure inside the hub is kept higher than the outside water pressure to prevent
water penetration into the oil.

8.3.8 Regulating mechanism of the runner blades

An example of the regulating system of the runner blade slope is shown on Fig. 8.18.
The slope of the runner blades (1a) are adjusted by the rotary motion activated by the
force from the piston (11a) through the rod (17). The cylindrical extension of the
upper end of the turbine shaft (9) serves as a servomotor cylinder (11) whereas the
lower flange of the generator shaft serves as cover. The rod (17) moves in the two
bearings (20). The oil supply to the servomotor (11) is entered at the upper end of the
generator shaft (10). The oil is conveyed to the respective sides of the servomotor
through two coaxial pipes (22 and 23) inside the hollow generator shaft. The inner
tube (22) conveys oil to and from the lower side of the piston (11a), whereas the
annular opening between the pipes (22) and (23) conveys oil to and from the piston
top side. The oil is supplied through the entrance arrangement (12) with the two
chambers (12a) and (12b) at the top of the unit.

The turbine governor operates directly on servomotor (25) which executes the
movement of the guide vanes (3) shown in Fig. 8.18. There is definite relation ship
between guide vane opening and runner blade opening. This relationship is called α-
β characteristics i.e relationship between guide vane angle (α ) and runner blade
angle (β). Hence for any movement of guide vane there should be corresponding
movement in runner blades. This is carried out by a rod and lever transfer from the
servomotor (25) to the cam (26) which is turned according to the movement of the
servomotor piston (25). In this way the spool valve (27) is moved out of the neutral
position and the servomotor piston (11a) is then put to movement by the oil pressure
supply. The spool valve (27) receives pressure oil either directly from the oil pump or
from the accumulator which is energized by an oil pump.

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 Fig 8.18. Regulating Mechanism

8.3.9 Turbine shaft:

Turbine shaft is usually a forged carbon steel shaft having two coupling flanges.
Diameter of shaft is decided upon rating of the machine for delivering turbine torque
to generator. On the bottom flange turbine runner is coupled and coupling holes are
generally reamed for accommodating fitted bolts of turbine runner.

It also has a integrally forged journal for turbine guide bearing. Below turbine
guide bearing journal there is provision for fixing replaceable stainless steel line for
shaft sealing system.

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 Top flange of turbine shaft also has reamed holes for coupling with generator
shaft.

Shaft has a through hole in centre usually of 100 to 150 mm dia. This hole is
used for air admission while unit is under operation and also facilitates assembly of
components as sealing can be passed through it. During manufacturing non
destructive testing of shaft can be carried out through centre hole by various NDT
techniques.

A typical turbine shaft is shown below in Figure 8.19.

Fig. 8.19

8.3.10 Turbine/Guide Bearing:

Turbine Guide Bearing (TGB) is usually located above the turbine runner. There are
three types of arrangement of TGB.

(i) Pivoted type pads

(ii) Shell type bearing

(iii) Shell type with rotating sump.

(i) Pivoted type :

In this type of arrangement there is a bearing housing which is bolted to top cover
and there is oil chamber/bath also fixed on the top cover with an oil retaining sleeve.
Usually there are 6 to 8 bearing pads depending upon the size of the machine. In a
typical arrangement bearing support ring is having threaded holes in the centre of
support ring. The threaded holes are same in number as number of pads. In certain

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cases instead of threaded hole in the support ring body there can be separate nut
fixed in position. Through these threaded holes a stud with rounded face passes
radially and in the back of pad there is a hardened plate which is in alignment with
the stud described above. By adjusting the studs, bearing pads can be moved closer
to the journal surface and bearing gap can be adjusted. Typical radial gap in TGB
pads is of the order of 0.15 to 0.2 mm depending upon size of the journal.

Initially oil is filled in the bearing up to half the pad height and oil rotation
due to centrifugal force and self pumping action oil level rises and bearing lubrication
is achieved. For extracting the heat generated, some cooling arrangement is
essential.

There are many ways of cooling turbine guide bearing. Some of these arrangements
are briefly described below:-

(a) Pad with water jacket:

In such arrangement pads are having pockets and opening at top cover water inlet
and outlet. All pads are interconnected by suitable piping. Water under suitable
pressure is circulated in the piping and outlet is connected to the drain water.

(b) External water cooler installed in the bearing housing :

In such a case water cooler is installed in the bearing housing itself. Disadvantage is,
bearing housing becomes large.

(c) Oil is pumped through centrifugal action to a cooler located outside:

This type of bearing is in use at Tanakpur HEP. The cross section of pad is shown
below in Fig. 8.20.

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 BABBIT
SURFACE
R 1000

PAD

103.614 CHD

SKETCH SHOWING PIVOT PAD OF GUIDE BEARING

Fig 8.20.

(ii) Shell type :

In such type of bearing instead of pad there is one complete shell usually in two
halves; these halves are joined to form a bearing shell. In such a case inside bore of
the bearing is machined with very fine tolerance, so as to achieve required radial
clearance between journal and bearing. Inside surface of the bearing Babbitt material
is having suitable pumping grooves for self pumping of oil while machine rotating.
Cooling arrangement for this type of bearing can be similar to the pivoted type
bearing. Bearing shell is supported on the bearing housing in the top cover. It has a
flange at top and generally bolted and doweled with the top cover.

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 .
Fig. 8.21
(iii) Shell type with rotating sump:

In this type of arrangement, oil chamber is fixed on the shaft by providing a collar on
it. Obviously the sump also rotates while machine is rotating. In such type of
arrangement, bearing is shell type as described above and cooling arrangement is
similar. This type is in use at Chamera-I power station. The cross section is shown in
Fig. 8.21 and Fig. 8.22.

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 Fig. 8.22

Part details of Shell type with rotating sump is shown in Table 8.3.

1 Guide bearing 8 Instrumentation

2 Bearing support 9 Stud
3 Sump tank cover 10 Nut
4 Sump tank 11 Lock washer
5 Seal felt retainer 12 Dowel pin
6 Bolt 13 Bolt
7 Lock washer 14 Dowel pin
Table 8.3

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8.3.11 Shaft sealing system

Service shaft seal:

The rotating part and the stationary part of the generating unit do have some
clearances. Runner and shaft (both moving parts) and the turbine cover (stationary
part) also has clearance. The high pressure water comes from penstock and falls on
runner to cause rotation. Due to high pressure, water tends to move in all the
directions where opening (clearance) is found. The water also tends to enter in top
cover from runner chamber through clearance between top cover and turbine shaft.
To prevent this water to come out from the top cover/neck, a sealing arrangement is
made between the runner and the turbine top cover. This is generally called shaft
sealing arrangement. Because this seal works during operation, the seal is also
referred as service seal.

Maintenance seal:

In some of the shaft seal system, a seal, below the shaft seal is provided. This is
effected when service-seal is required to be opened for the
maintenance/replacement. Therefore, this seal is called maintenance seal. The
maintenance seal can be engaged or disengaged during the non rotation of the shaft.
By engaging the maintenance seal, the shaft seal (also can be referred as service
seal) can be dismantled /repaired under the pressurized water created by the tail
race water level.

The maintenance seal can be engaged by jacking the rotating parts-assembly of the
generating set and keeps on providing the sealing effect in the jacked position.

This type of maintenance seal is in use at Salal Power Station and shown in Fig.8.23.

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 Fig.8.23 Maintenance seal

There are various types of shaft sealing arrangements:

01. Gland type arrangement:

For small machine with low head, simple gland packing is provided between the
moving shaft surface and gland housing provided/supported at the top cover neck.
The simplest type of gland packing is made of asbestos rope or ribbon of suitable
cross section. Gland sealing is self lubricating in nature. The life of gland sealing is
not very long. Therefore, it requires frequent replacement.

02. Carbon segment type:

In this type of sealing arrangement, soft carbon sectors matching to the shaft circular
profile are provided and housed on the sealing supporting arrangement. The
assembly is placed on the top cover. During the rotation of the shaft, the soft-carbon-
sector parts keep on touching the shaft with the help of the spring whose tension can
be adjusted as per the requirement. This way the pressurized water is stopped to
come out from the top cover and the runner shaft clearance. When the working
pressure of the turbine is very high more than one such soft carbon sectors are used
one above another to achieve the sealing effect. Clean water is used as coolant for
lubrication purposes.

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This type of arrangement is shown in use at Chamera-I HEP and section of seal is as
shown below in Fig. 8.24. It is interesting to note here that replaceable liner is fixed
on shaft coupling and sealing arrangement is done at this point. In some other
arrangements replaceable liner is in space between bearing journal and flange.

Fig. 8.24

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Item No Description Item No Description
3 Intermediate ring 14 ‘O’ ring

4 Upper chamber ring 16 ‘O’ ring

5 Cover ring 18 Inflatable seal assembly
6 Sealing ring L.H 20 Stud
7 Sealing ring R.H 21 Stud
8 Pressure ring 22 Hex. HD. Cap screw
9 Garter ring 23 Hex. Nut
11 Stop 24 Lock washer
12 Double stop 25 Lock washer
13 Lining 26 Cap screw

Table 8.4

03. Rubber (Neoprene) sheet type:

In this kind of sealing arrangement a seal drum (rotating along with shaft) is mounted
on the shaft. At the top cover neck a supporting structure is provided where annular
(the diameter of the inner annular rubber seal is less than the diameter of the seal
drums) rubber seal can be accommodated/fixed. The similar arrangement is again
provided above the previous rubberized seal which forms the integral part of the
sealing arrangement. Between these two rubber seals, the pressurized water (1 to 2
kg/cm2) as clean as possible is provided. At the working pressure, the pressurized
water starts flowing between the labyrinths provided at upper portion of the runner
and at the top cover. The water looses its pressure by the action of the labyrinth and
a residual pressure of 0.5 to 1 kg/cm 2 is supposed to act on the runner seal.
Therefore, the pressure on out side of sealing annular rubber sheet is more in
magnitude which prevents leakage of water from inside turbine chamber system.
Hence the sealing effect is achieved. The pure water is taken from the filtration plant
and this water acts as lubricant and the heat sink for the labyrinth sealing sheet when
rotation of the shaft takes place during operation.

The life of this sealing sheet depends upon the wear and tear as it keeps on pressing
the rotating drum. Hence, during the rainy season when some silt is present in the
filtered water, the seal needs frequent replacement/repair. This type of arrangement
is in use at Salal power station and its cross section is shown in Fig. 8.25 and part
details in Table 8.5.

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 Fig 8.25
Rubber sheet type

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Item No Description Item No Description
1 Rubber sealing 11 Bolt
2 Pressing ring 12 Taper pin
3 Pin 13 Stud
4 Nut 14 Upper ring
5 Supporting ring 15 Bolt
6 Rubber sealing I 16 Nut
7 Sealing support 17 Stud
8 Revolving sleeve 18 Rubber cord
9 Rubber sealing II 19 Stud
10 Nut 20 Rubber cord

Table 8.5

04. Hydro Dynamic type:

In this type of sealing arrangement, water jets are directed to the clearance between
shaft (moving) and turbine top cover (stationary). The pressure of this water jets is so
adjusted that it counters the water pressure coming out through the clearances of
shaft surface and the top cover neck. This type of shaft sealing arrangement does
need a high pressure water pump and homogeneous providing the jet-water around
the place where sealing effect is required. For high head turbine system this method
is more suitable for shaft sealing arrangement. This type is in use at Loktak Power
Station. The cross section is shown in Fig. 8.26 and part details in Table 8.6 .

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 Fig. 8.26

Item No Description Item No Description

1 Hose 11 Sealing cord
2 Pipe joint 12 Bolt
3 Ring (Lower) in 4 parts 13 Bolt
4 Ring (Upper) in 4 parts 14 Bolt
5 Cover in 2 parts 15 Screw
6 Nipple 16 Nut
7 Sealing ring 17 Nut
8 Adopter 18 Spring washer
9 Sealing ring 19 Spring washer
10 Sealing ring

Table 8.6

VIII- 33
8.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A TURBINE

Before dealing with characteristics of a turbine we shall briefly deal with basic
hydraulic gross head, net head, hydraulic similarity, specific speed, etc. so that, we
are better equipped to understand characteristic of a turbine.

Water Pressure:

Both pressure and flow are necessary to produce power. Pressure is generated by
the weight of water due to difference in elevation. If we consider 1m X1m X 1m cube
of water then weight of water is 1000kg and it is exerting a pressure 1000kg on area
1m2, or in other words 1 meter column of water is exerting a pressure of 0.1 kg per
centimeter square so 10 meter column of water shall exert a pressure of 1kg per
centimeter square.

Turbine output:

Out put of the turbine is given by the formula out put = η. γ. 9.81. Q. H. KW
Where η = Overall turbine efficiency
γ = Specific weight of water = 1000kg/m3
Q = Discharge passing through turbine
H = Net head available in the turbine

Substituting value of γ
Out put = η. 9.81. Q. H. MW

In the above formula H is net head available in the turbine and is different from gross
head. Gross head is difference between Head water (Reservoir Level) and Tail water
level.

Net head:

It can be defined as the difference between the energy of the water flowing in the
turbine system and the total energy of the water discharging from it.

In an actual turbine, water at entry has certain pressure energy and kinetic energy;
similarity at outlet also it has certain pressure energy and velocity energy. Difference
of these two converted into meter shall give net head.

Before installation of actual machine, these values are calculated from design
calculation falling into account inlet velocity, outlet velocity losses in water conductor
system.

VIII- 34
After installation of machine, measurement of net head is essential for determining
the turbine efficiency.
Net Head Hn = (Z1 + a1-Zw2) + 10x P1g/r+ (V12-V22)/2g
Where
Z1 = Elevation of spiral casing centre line (Meters)
a1 = Level difference between pressure gauge location and spiral casing centre line
(Meters)
Zw2 = Tail race level (meters)
10x P1g/r = Pressure at spiral case centre line (Meter)
V1 = Velocity at spiral casing inlet m/sec
V2 = Velocity at spiral casing outlet m/sec

Thus by measuring discharge through flow meters V 1 & V2 can be computed, P1 can
be recorded by manometer and by having these values actual net head available in
machine at different operating condition can be compiled.

8.4.1 Hydraulic similarity: - Turbines are geometrically similar when the ratio of their
dimensions in all directions is the same, when the corresponding characteristic
angles are the same. Turbines which are geometrically similar also have hydraulic
similarity.

Where H = Head
Q = Discharge
n = speed
N = out put
D = Diameter

These relations can be studied in two groups.

1. In one and the same turbine, with a variation of the head H the flow velocities
and hence the Q will vary. Since the velocity of the water flow has changed,
the turbine speed, too must change if the same inlet and outlet conditions on
the blades (the same angles) are to be maintained. Since H has changed and
with it Q, there must also be a change in N. The diameter D of the turbine
remaining constant, we have given the relationship between the values H, Q,
n, N. The appropriate relation will, therefore be valid for two individual turbines
of the same size and shape, working under different heads.

VIII- 35
2. For turbine of the same geometric shape and different diameters D, working
under the same head H, we obtain the relationship between, Q, n, and N,
when H= constant.

A. Influence of Head Variation:-

i) Speed variation with head variation

It can be mathematically derived that with same turbine

n’ =√ H’
n √ H

where n’ = speed when Head is H’

n = Original speed, H = Original Head

If H’= 1 meter then

n1 = n = Speed of Turbine under head of 1 meter.

√H

ii) Flow rate variation with Head variation

As above it can be deduced that

Q’ =√ H’
Q √ H

If H’ = 1 meter then

Q1 = = Q = Flow rate of turbine under head of 1 meter.

√H

iii) Out put variation with head variation

For the same turbine it can be deduced that

N’ = ( H’)3/2
N ( H) 3/2
If H’ = 1 m then
N1 = N
√H³

B. Influence of size

VIII- 36
It can be deduced that

D = √N = n’
D’ √ N’ n

8.4.2 Specific speed :

Geometrically similar turbines must have common characteristic.

Such a generally adopted characteristic is given by the so called specific speed,

which we obtain i.e we reduce the dimensions of the turbine in such a way so that its
out put under the head of 1 m is I metric horse power.

The specific speed ns of any turbine, hence equals the speed of a geometrically
similar turbine working under head of 1m, which has such dimensions that it delivers
an out put 1metric Horse power. With out going in mathematical detail it can be
derived that

ns = n √N or n √N
H √H1/2 H5/4

Specific speed is a measure of the speed of turbine under certain conditions (H, Q)
and determines the design of the turbine, and consequently its shape. Turbines are
classified into certain types, accordingly to following table.

ns , Specific speed Turbine type

4 to 35 Pelton wheel with single jet
17 to 50 Pelton wheel with two jet
24 to 70 Pelton wheel with four jet
80 to 120 Francis Turbine, low speed
120 to 430 Francis Turbine, high speed
300 to 1000 Propeller or Kaplan turbine

Table : 8.6

8.4.3 Model Test

In order to ensure that a turbine to be manufactured will be satisfactory as to

maximum flow rate and efficiency, turbine manufacturer pre-determines the
properties of turbine by means of model test utilizing law of hydraulic similarity.

So, turbine manufacturer constructs a geometrically similar turbine of smaller

dimensions (Diameter of runner 200 to 400 mm), a so called model, which is then
tested in the testing station. In the testing station a pump transports the water to a
higher tank from where piping leads to model turbine. The test laboratory is equipped

VIII- 37
with instruments which permit exact measurement of head, flow rate and speed of the
turbine. It is also possible to exactly measure the out put of turbine and hence
efficiency in different operating regime, in the test lab.

VIII- 38
 Fig. 8.27

The results of model test achieved may also be used for other turbines having same
geometrical shape but different diameter.

From the model test, following important characteristics curves of turbine can be
obtained.

1. Constant head curve where head is constant and speed vs discharge is

plotted.

2. Constant speed curve where speed is constant and discharge vs power &
efficiency are plotted.

3. Where efficiency is constant and speed vs discharge for different gate opening
are plotted.

However, from practical point of view Hill chart (Fig. 8.27), which gives turbine out
put, efficiency, flow rate, wicket gate opening at different operating net head is very
important chart which can be obtained from a model test. Similarly same type of
curves (Fig. 8.28) which gives relation between turbine out put and discharge &
efficiency at different net head is very important and can be obtained from model test.

These curves for prototype turbine are even essential in tender bid for evaluation of
turbine performance by purchaser and later on at the site for evaluation of
performance.

VIII- 39
 Fig. 8.28

8.5 CHOICE, RATING AND SPECIFICATIONS OF TURBINES

Based upon the geology, topography of the proposed project site and the hydrology
of the catchment area, the power plant is further categorized in different kinds. These
are given below:

8.5.1. Storage type:

VIII- 40
"Storage type" power plants store the inflow available in the basin behind a dam,
forming a reservoir. The water is stored in the reservoir and is released/utilized
through turbine-generators to produce electricity through out the year. These types of
plants are often used as peak load plant.

8.5.2. Run-of-river plant:

As the name implies, the project is planned as run of the river. Water is diverted from
the river, routed through the project and finally joins to the river at a lower level
downstream. It takes advantage of the drop in elevation that occurs over a distance
in the river and doesn’t involve water storage. Because these plants generally do not
hold water behind storage reservoirs, extra inflow especially in monsoon season has
got to be discharged in with out power generation.

Conceptually these plants are very simple, but the power generation fluctuates with
the river flow and the firm power is considerably low, as it depends upon inflow.

8.5.3. Diurnal-scheme:

A hydro power scheme which has storage capacity in its live-reservoir for a day to a
week is included in this category.

During the high inflow season in the river stream, the excessive inflow is
stored in the reservoir and additional generation during the peak generating time is
done. In this type of scheme the live-reservoir is of smaller capacity as compared to
the storage type of scheme but, machines installed are of slightly higher capacity
which is utilized for supplying the peak requirement of the grid. It is also to note that,
the total energy generated (on the year basis) is less then the storage type of hydro-
project-scheme. Another feature of the diurnal scheme is that during the lean water
season, the scheme works as a purely peaking power station. During high inflow
season power station works as base load station. During intermediate inflow period
power station can work as partly base load and partly peak load station.

Bairasiul power station, Chamera-I power station and Rangit power station of NHPC
are the example of the diurnal type of scheme.

8.5.4 Factors deciding rating of machines and installed capacity:-

Minimum flow available over a period:

The minimum discharge available over the period, based on the ten daily averages
is studied. While deciding the rating of the machine the minimum inflows available
have the consideration.

Maximum flow available over a period:

VIII- 41
The maximum discharge available over the period, based on the ten daily average is
studied. While deciding the rating of the machine the maximum inflow available also
has the consideration.

8.5.5 Economics work out Rating:

In addition to total head available for a particular site, data of minimum flow, its
period and maximum flow and its period for past 25 to 100 years as available is
useful in deciding power station rating and unit size. With basic data as above,
optimization studies are done with different unit size and power station rating to arrive
at most economic and optimal size for unit & power station.

Other considerations for deciding size of individual unit are a) size of equipment b)
transport limitations

8.5.6 Types of turbine:

Main deciding factor in selecting type of turbine is Head available.

Table below gives types of turbine for different Head range.

Head range Type of turbine

Above 400 M Pelton
30 to 400 M Francis
10 to 60 M Kaplan

In some cases where head is even smaller, Bulb turbines are also installed. In case
where discharge & head is almost constant and head is low, propeller type turbines
which are having fixed blade similar to Kaplan machine are also installed as cost of
turbine is less.

Fig. 8.28 illustrates turbine selection for different head and discharge.

VIII- 42
 Fig. 8.28 Head & discharge requirement for hydro turbines

In overlapping zone in mid head range, Kaplan vs Francis and high head range
Francis vs Pelton selection needs detailed analysis. Advantage with Kaplan machine is
its flat efficiency curve for head variation but has complexity in design. Variation runner
blade angles need additional mechanism in the runner assembly.

Similarly, Pelton machines are easy to handle from operation & maintenance
point of view, but we loose draft head which can be gainfully utilized in case of Francis
machines.

VIII- 43
8.6 COMPONENTS OF TURBINES AND THEIR DESIGN FEATURES
8.6.1. Pelton Turbine

Figure 8.29 shows general arrangement for six jet vertical Pelton wheel turbine :

Fig. 8.29

(1) : Runner buckets, (2) : Deflector Plate / Nozzle,

(3) : Nozzle mouth (4) : Nozzle body,

(5) : Spear head, (6) : Distributor outlet,

(7) : Distributor inlet, (8) : connecting piece.

(9) : Deflector link arms

Major component wise design features are discussed below:

VIII- 44
01. Distributor:

Distributor is the part of the Pelton turbine to facilitate pressurized water flow from
MIV (Main Inlet Valve) and to feed to the nozzle-jet assembly, which in turn strikes the
water jet to the runner buckets. In multi-jet turbine system, distributor is surrounding
the runner.

The overall dimensions and shape of the distributor are determined on the basis of
following considerations;-

1. The water should enter in each nozzle-jet assembly at a uniform flow rate.

2. The flow in the distributor should satisfy the equal area of cross-section
through each nozzle-pipe.

Therefore, the overall dimensions of the distributor depend on the discharge and
head for which it is designed or depends on the area of its inlet section and the
pressure of the working fluid.

The cross-sectional area of the distributor reduces after the bifurcation to connect
each jet-assembly-feeding-nozzle. The area of cross-section of a distributor at
various sections are designed in such a manner that, the reduction of the area of
cross-section is equivalent to the area of cross-section of the nozzle feeding cross-
section.

Distributor of a Pelton turbine is the part in which the pressure energy is converted
into a velocity head. In this process-change, distributor ensures smooth hydraulic
variation during the operation. Where ever the cross section changes of the
distributor are there, regular and continuos contour should be followed to minimize
the losses in the distributor.

The foundation of the Servomotors for each nozzles-assembly is provided on the

body of the distributor and forms the integral part of the structure of the distributor.

For small capacity, distributor is made by casting whereas of big capacity it is made in
parts by fabricating the steel plates. Appropriate safety margin of pressure is kept to
bear the maximum water pressure which could be there during the water hammering
under the situation of worst circumstances.

Bigger size of distributor is generally made in parts to facilitate its transportation,

handling and erection.

Figure 8.30 shows four jet distributor arrangements.

VIII- 45
D
D

Layout for typical four-nozzle spiral casing for Pelton turbine

Fig. 8.30

02 Jet Nozzle Assembly:

Jet Nozzle assembly has been shown in the figure 29.

Nozzle

Jet- deflector

Spearhead rod
Nozzle-jet and deflector arrangement used in a Pelton turbine
Fig. 8.31

It is placed between the distributor’s delivery-end and the runner.

VIII- 46
Jet nozzle assembly consists of a spear which is operated by a servomotor which is
fixed on distributor body. Full forward movement of spear blocks the water jet and its
backward movement allows the water jet from distributor to impinge on the runner
bucket. Shape of spear and jet opening is so regulated that in its movement zone it
regulates the water input to the runner.

In multi jet machines all the spears move in unison and controlled by Governing
system.

Tip of the spear is generally a conical precisely machined section and is subjected to
wear from water and silt. This is a replaceable component generally threaded on the
spear rod.

Similarly nozzle from where water jet emerges is also precisely machined component
and subjected to wear from water and silt. This component is also made easily
replaceable.

In modern Pelton turbines, spear of cone and nozzle are made from wear resistant
13/4 stainless steel. Diameter jet and profile of spear and nozzle mouth depends
upon water head and discharge requirement.

03. Deflector:

As the name indicates purpose of deflector is to deflect water jet.

When turbine needs to be stopped, spear should move forward to close the water jet.
However, timing of spear servomotor is slow and for immediate closure of machine
some fast acting mechanism is required which should deflect the water jet from
runner. This is accomplished by deflector which is positioned in between water jet
and runner.
Initially when starting, the turbine deflector moves away from path of the jet and
allows the jet to impinge on runner.
While shutting down the unit, spear servomotor allows movement of spear in forward
direction to shut down the jet with inbuilt timing of spear servomotor. However,
deflector moves much faster and blocks the water jet.
In a multi jet machine there is an individual deflector for each jet and all the deflectors
are connected by lever link mechanism and are operated from a single servomotor
placed in the alcove above turbine casing. As in case of spear, deflectors also
operate in unision by action of single servomotor. Commands for deflector operation
are received from programmable governing system.
Deflector thickness and material depends upon the water head and jet diameter. It
should be very robust construction as it has to take force of water jet.

A typical arrangement of deflector nozzle and spear is shown in figure 8.32.

VIII- 47
 Fig. 8.32

04. Runner:

Buckets are mounted on the periphery of a disc and the disc is coupled with the
turbine-lower-flange. As the center of the shaft and the center of the runner are
arranged in line, the mechanical power generated by the runner is fed to the shaft for
further transmitting. The blade’s / bucket’s profile looks like two concave-surfaces
placed together side by side. At the joint of the concave-surfaces a projected ridge is
formed and the outer end of the ridge is called tip of the blade. During the operation,
the water jet is divided into two parts as it strikes the tip and ridge of the blade. The
bucket’s surface is called the guide-surface. The jet enters the guide-surface, imparts
the mechanical power to the runner and while leaving the surface its angle turned
almost by 1650.

Diameter of the runner depends upon R.P.M. of the machine, head and discharge.

Selection of runner of buckets is calculated on the basis that all water particles are
forced to give off all their kinetic energy to the runner wheel. In a wheel with a wider
spacing of buckets, the energy of some water particles will not be utilized, and, on the
other hand, when the spacing is too narrow, the jet will be superfluously disturbed by
the interfering bucket.

VIII- 48
Some impulse runners are made with individually bolted buckets and others are solid
cast. Double-overhung installations are made with a generator in the center and the
runner positioned on the two overhanging ends of a single shaft in the horizontal
Pelton turbine of big capacity.

Runner made by single casting

Fig.8.33

Sketch for water action on the Pelton wheel buckets

Fig. 8.34

The Pelton runner is generally made from single casting. The material of the runner
used in modern design is 13/4 stainless steel having anti abrasion and anti pitting

VIII- 49
properties. While manufacturing, very thorough inspection of bucket root is essential
as this area faces maximum water impact. With advancement in manufacturing
facilities now a days, many manufacturers are offering Pelton runners in which
buckets profiles are machined from a integral forged disc.

05. Turbine Shaft:

Turbine shaft made of forged carbon steel of appropriate hollow section should be
able to deliver turbine torque to generator. Shaft is provided with two coupling flanges
to couple runner at the lower flange and to couple generator-shaft with the upper
flange. The forged journals for turbine guide bearing are provided around the shaft
near the lower end. The outer diameter of the journal is decided to bring the required
range of the surface velocity suitable to the guide bearing system. Below turbine
guide bearing journal, a sleeve is provided on the shaft and at the neck of the top
cover of the turbine-enclosure, grooved collar is provided. The arrangement stops
splashing of water which intends to come out form the neck of the top cover during
operation of the turbine.

Through hole in center of the shaft is usually of 100 to 150 mm diameter. The hole is
used for air admission while unit is under operation and to facilitate assembly of shaft,
other components and to conduct Non Destructive Testing on the shaft during
manufacturing. A typical turbine shaft has already been shown in figure 8.19.

06. Runner Casing:

Structures around the runner are called the runner casing.

The runner casing for a vertical Pelton type of the turbine is discussed here. The
distributor structure is supported on vertical concrete walls foundation. The shape of
the vertical concrete walls foundation is round or hexagonal and hollow at the center.
Inspection path and maintenance approaches are also made through these
foundation walls from the turbine floor level. The inspection path and maintenance
approaches remain closed during turbine operation. At the foot-level of the concrete
foundation, a passage is kept for water exit-flow leading to the tail race. The entry /
passage at the foot of the foundation also facilitates the erection of the shaft, runner
and other turbine parts. Some design provides the steel lining on the inner walls. At
the top of the runner, casing (top cover) in sectors are provided. At the neck of the top
cover female-groove is provided to match (with certain clearance) the dimensions of
the sleeve provided on the shaft. The arrangement acts as a preventor of the water
splashing beyond the top cover of the turbine.

Certain design provides inspection windows on the top cover with toughened bakelite
sheet.

VIII- 50
 Round and prismatic design of runner casing
Fig. 8.35

07. Turbine Guide Bearing:

Turbine Guide Bearing (TGB) is located near the runner. There are three types of
arrangement of TGB. TGB with Pivoted type pads arrangement, TGB with Shell type
pads arrangement and TGB with Shell type rotating sump type arrangement. Pivot
type arrangement requires more bearing space; therefore, suitable for small and
medium rating machine. Whereas shell type pads arrangement requires less bearing
space and is more suitable for bigger rating machines. In nut shell where space is
limited and the bearing heat generated is also small, shell type bearing construction
is selected. The pivot type construction is opted where space around bearing is more
and the bearing heat generated is also more.

One of the operating factors is, the heat generated in the bearing which is directly
proportion to the throw of the journal surface. At the TGB the chances of the throw
are more (especially in suspension type of shaft rotation system). Therefore, design
of the cooling requirement of the TGB needs more care.

Heat generated by the bearing pads is taken away by the turbine oil bath surrounding
the bearing pads. The oil bath temperature as a result starts rising. To cool the oil,
heat exchangers are either placed in the oil chamber or hot oil is taken outside the oil
chamber and cooled by heat exchanger installed out side the bearing assembly.

08. Hydraulic (Water) Jet Brake:

VIII- 51
At the time of tripping, water jets supplying power to the runner are immediately
deflected by deflector and stopped by the Jet and Nozzle assemblies.

Due to moment of inertia, even after stopping the input, machine takes a long time to
come to a safe speed when brakes can be applied. This is because Pelton
runner rotating in air after water is stopped and where there is very less
resistance. Hence for quickly reducing the speed to a safe level where generator
brakes can be applied, a special feature called braking-jet is used in most
machines.

Braking-jet is a single water jet tapped from the distributor such that it strikes on the
back of the bucket and thus imparting retarding force.

Braking-jet is controlled by a suitable solenoid valve and gets command from

programmable governor.

8.6.2. Francis Turbine :

Parts and sub assemblies of turbines may be divided into four groups, according to
their task during turbine operation and their positions in the overall layout. These are
built in parts, operating mechanisms, equipment used for regulation, and auxiliary
turbine equipment.

The built in (concreted) parts of a vertical Francis turbine are scroll casing, speed
ring, foundation ring, lining of draft tube, turbine pit, and servomotor recesses.

The built-in parts of a vertical Kaplan turbine are upper and lower scroll-casing lining,
lower distributor ring, speed ring, throat ring and lining of draft tube, turbine pit, and
servomotor recesses.

The operating mechanisms of reaction and impulse turbines include runners,

distributor parts with turbine cover plates, distributor servomotor, turbine shafts, and
guide bearings.

The equipment used for automatic regulation includes governor with regulation
mechanism, pressure-oil installation, and oil- and air-pipe systems.

The auxiliary turbine equipment includes vacuum relief valves, idling discharge
outlets, and gate valves upstream of turbines, as well as equipment and instruments
for observing the state, operation, and automatic controls of generating sets.

01. Scroll casing:

The Overall dimensions and shape of the scroll casing are determined on the basis
of following two considerations.

1. The water should enter the turbine at a uniform flow rate over the entire
distributor circumference.

VIII- 52
2. The flow in the scroll casing should satisfy the law of constant circulation,
according to which the peripheral velocity at any point, multiplied by radius of
this point, is constant.

The overall dimensions of the scroll casing depend on the area of its inlet section.

Scroll casing of medium and high head turbine are made of steel. These take up the
water pressure and prevent seepage of water into the concrete. The scroll casings
are concreted in after positioning, so that these also form part of the concrete
structure of the power house.

The scroll casings of medium head turbines have circular sections; these are
fabricated from sheet steel (Figure 8.36). The wall thickness of a welded scroll casing
is determined by allowing only for the load due to the internal water pressure. Sheets
of different thickness are, therefore, used for the various sections. The sheets are
thickest at the inlet section; their thickness thereafter decreases as the cross section
of the scroll casing becomes smaller. The various parts of the scroll casing are made
of steel sheet of standardized thicknesses according to the dimensions of the casing
and transportation requirements.

Fig. 8.36. Welded scroll casing

02. Speed Ring:

The turbine speed ring forms the immediate part of the water passage between the
scroll casing and the distributor. It transmits to the foundation the load due to the
weight of stationary and rotating part of the generating set, the axial hydraulic force

VIII- 53
exerted by the water on the runner and the weight of concrete block above the
generating set. The speed ring stay vane are streamlined in the flow direction.

The speed rings used with steel scroll casings of large Francis turbines are cast and
welded or fabricated (Figure 8.37). The upper and lower bands of such a speed ring
have flanges on the outside, to which the scroll-casing lining is secured (usually by
welding). The speed rings of Francis turbines having runner diameters of less than
3.0 m are sometimes cast integrally.

The stay vanes and the upper and lower bands of a cast and welded speed ring are
cast separately and then welded together to form a single structure. Fabricated
speed rings are welded from parts consisting of plane, bent, and stamped rolled
sections. Speed rings of high head Francis turbines with steel scroll casings are
integral with the latter, forming their exits.

Fig 8.37.Speed ring used with steel scroll casing:

1) speed ring; 2) foundation ring; 3) lining of draft tube cone; 4) lining of
turbine pit

The number and dimensions in plan of the stay vanes, as well as their configuration
and disposition depends on the geometry of the scroll casing, the flow past the stay
vanes, and strength requirements.

03. Distributor/Guide apparatus system:

The distributor of a reaction turbine imparts to the water the required direction at the
entry to the runner blades, and regulates the discharge according to the load and the
rotational speed of the generating set. When closed, the distributor completely stops
the admission of water into the runner and thus forms a shut-off gate ahead of the
turbine.

VIII- 54
The turbine discharge and the runner blade inlet angle are varied by rotating the
guide vanes. Shock less entry of the water into the runner of a Kaplan turbine at all
operating conditions is ensured through simultaneous rotation of runner blades and
guide vanes.

The guide –vane positions during the regulation process are determined by the
distributor opening ao , whose magnitude represents the minimum distance between
the trailing edge of one vane and the surface of the adjacent one as shown in figure
8.38.

Figure 8.38. Profiles of guide vanes

a) Concave; b) symmetric; c) convex.

Profile and dimensions of the guide vanes are chosen in accordance with the overall
dimensions and type of the scroll casing, and the runner type. Above figure shows
three very widely employed guide-vane profiles (convex, concave, and symmetric).

Additional vorticity is imparted to the flow ahead of the runner when convex guide
vanes are used. Such guide vanes are fitted in turbines with open flumes.

However, concave guide vanes reduce the vorticity at the runner inlet. Such guide
vanes are used in Francis turbines with scroll casings.

Kaplan turbines usually have guide vanes of the simplest, symmetric profile.

Figure 8.39 shows the forces acting on a vane when the distributor is closed. The
resultant P of the pressure forces acts at a point located at a distance ε (eccentricity),
downstream of the axis of rotation of the guide vane. The magnitude of the
eccentricity is usually (0.03 to 0.05) L. The eccentricity is considered to be positive if
the hydraulic moment M tends to open the distributor. The distributor tends to
spontaneous closing if the eccentricity is negative.

VIII- 55
 Figure 8.39. Forces acting on guide vane

Most widely used arrangement in conventional Francis/Kaplan turbine is cylindrical

distributor with guide vanes whose axes are parallel to one another and to the turbine
axis, and which are located on a cylindrical surface.

Figures 8.40 shows the cylindrical distributor of a large Kaplan turbine. Guide vanes
(1) are arranged with their axes on a circle of diameter D o directly downstream of the
speed ring at the turbine inlet. The lower pivot of each guide vane is located in
bushing (2) inserted into lower distributor ring (3), while the upper pivot turns in
bearing (4) having two bushings (5) and (6), the bearing is mounted in upper
distributor ring (7) whose outside flange rests on the upper flange of the speed ring.

VIII- 56
 Fig 8.40. Distributor of Kaplan turbine
The inner flange of the upper distributor ring carries turbine cover plate (8). The top
of the guide vane is connected with gate ring (11) via a lever and link (10) which is
adjusted during fitting. The gate ring rests on support (12) and is connected with the
distributor servomotors by rods (13). Displacements of the servomotor pistons causes
rotation of the gate ring, so that the guide vanes are actuated via the links and levers,
thus opening or closing the distributor.

A braking element is provided in each guide-vane actuating mechanism in order to

permit closing of the distributor and shut-down of the turbine when a foreign object
has become wedge between two vanes. The distributor can then be closed, except
for the duct in which the foreign object is wedged.

VIII- 57
The braking element in most modern designs is shearing pin (19) inserted into lever
(16) and lever bushing (9). The lever is secured to the upper guide-vane pivot by
dowel (17). Vane cover (18) is placed on top of the lever and fixed to the upper
guide-vane pivot by a screw. The guide vane is suspended from this screw and thus
rests on the bearing end face via the lever bushing. This makes it possible to adjust
the vane and equalize the clearances at top and bottom.
Leakage of water from the turbine past the guide-vane pivots is prevented by seals
(14) which consist of rubber or leather glands. Any water seeping through the upper-
pivot gland is collected in an annular groove through the bearing and discharged into
the turbine cover plate through pipe (15).

The supporting bushings of bearing and lower pivot are made of bronze or gun metal.
The latter is a laminated wood plastic made of birch plywood; it has good mechanical
and antifriction properties, but tends to swell in water. Both bronze and lignofol
bushings should be lubricated with thick oil or grease.

Fig. 8.41 Rubber seal of distributor

a) rubber seal of clearance between vanes; b) seal with spring strip
1) vane; 2) seal; 3) spring strip

The guide vanes are hollow steel castings integral with their pivots. Welded guide
vanes have recently been introduced in large hydraulic turbines. These guide vanes
consist of forged pivots and vane bodies stamped from sheet metal.

Leakage through the closed distributor of a low-or medium-head turbine is prevented

by means of rubber seals. Such a seal consists of a groove planed into the front of
the vane. The groove has a dovetail cross-section into which a rubber cord is inserted
(Figure 8.41). This rubber cord can be secured in addition by a spring strip. Such
cords are inserted to annular grooves machined into the lower distributor ring. The

VIII- 58
leading edge of each guide vane is forced against the rubber cord in the neighboring
vane when the distributor is closed; the chords in the upper and lower rings seal the
clearances at the vane end faces.

The guide vanes of high-head turbines are usually sealed by fitting them accurately
against one another, so that there is no clearance between them when the distributor
is closed.

The total end clearance between the guide vane and the upper and lower distributor
rings is 0.5 to 0.6 mm in medium-size turbines and up to 1.5 or 2.0 mm in large ones.
When adjusting the required clearances in a turbine having the thrust bearing on the
cover plate it should be remembered that operation of the generating set causes a
certain settlement of the upper distributor ring as a result of the load transmitted to it
by the axial hydraulic force and the weight of the rotating parts. This reduces the end
clearances, so that guide vanes may jam if the gaps are too small.

Faultless and safe operation of the generating set require that leakage of water
through the closed distributor should not cause the rotating parts to move when no
brake is applied, and that the hydraulic turbine can be stopped without braking (by
letting it coast to rest).

The distributor of a Francis turbine does not differ in design from that of a Kaplan
turbine. The only difference is that the upper distributor ring is integral with the turbine
cover plate. Usually no provision is made in a Francis turbine for removing the guide
vanes without lifting the turbine cover plate.

The design of the upper distributor ring and of the turbine cover plate depends on the
dimensions, type, and general layout of the turbine considered. Usually no provision is
made in a Francis turbine for removing the guide vanes without lifting the turbine
cover plate.

The design of the upper distributor ring and the turbine cover plate of recent designs
are usually fabricated from parts having box sections. These components are made in
several parts because of transportation requirements, and are then bolted together.

The gate ring transmits the forces from the servomotors through a lever system
simultaneously to all guide vanes. One or two eyes are provided on top of the gate
ring for the pins of cylindrical hinges connecting it to the servomotor rods. Eyes for
the link, hinges are provided at the bottom the gate ring. The gate ring is made in
several parts if it cannot be transported as a whole; these parts are then bolted
together.

The hollow space in the gate-ring support is filled with oil or thick grease in order to
reduce the force which the servomotors have to exert in order to rotate the gate ring.

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04. Guide vane servomotor:

The guide vanes are rotated by means of one or two servomotors. Actuation by a
single servomotor imposes a non-uniform load on the gate ring and is therefore
employed only in small hydraulic turbines. Two servomotors (Figure 8.42) apply a
couple to the gate ring, so that the load acting on it is more uniform and the force
transmission is simpler.

Fig. 8.42 Distributor servomotor

Actuation by two servomotors is used in modern medium-size and large hydraulic

turbines. The servomotors are in this case usually secured on flanges in recesses in
the steel lining of the turbine pit. One of the servomotors is equipped with a locking
device so that the turbine can be blocked when the distributor is closed.

Figure 8.43 shows a piston-type servomotor mounted on a supporting plate outside

the gate ring. Servomotor cylinder (1) is closed by rear cover (2) and front cover (3).
Piston (4) moves inside the cylinder. Guide-sleeve (5) passes through the front cover
and carries the piston at its end. The piston is connected to servomotor rod (7) by
means of piston pin (6). The servomotor rod forms the connection to the gate ring.
Locking device (8) is mounted on the front cylinder cover. Stuffing box (11) is
mounted on the front cover in order to prevent leakage of oil along the guide sleeve.

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 Fig. 8.43 Cross section of piston type distributor servomotor

The servomotor is locked by stop (9) which descends into the gap between the guide
sleeve and the locking device when the piston is in its extreme left position. The stop
is moved by auxiliary servomotor (10). The position of the piston of the main
servomotor is shown by indicator (12).

The servomotor has two flanges (13) to which the oil pipes are connected. Oil is
delivered into the cylinder on either side of the piston and thus moves the latter from
one position to another. The oil is discharged from the cylinder through ports into
pipes (14) and from there into a tank where it is collected and returned to the oil
installation. The piston is braked at the end of its closing stroke. This prevents
impact of the piston against the rear cylinder cover when the distributor is closed
suddenly. Braking is effected through the closing of a bypass by the piston before it
reaches its end position. The oil can then escape only through a throttling orifice of
small diameter. This increases the oil pressure on the left of the piston and stops its
motion.

05. Runner:

The runner of a Francis turbine (Figure 8.44) consists of three main parts, namely
hub (1), blades (2), and lower band (3).
A feature of Francis runners is that the water enters radially but leaves in an axial
direction. Another design feature is the lower band which surrounds the outer blade
edges.

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High turbine efficiency is achieved through the intricate special shape of the blades.
Their number depends on the specific speed of the turbine; it varies between nine for
low-head turbines (high specific speed) and 21 for high-head turbines (low specific
speed)

Fig. 8.44 runner of Francis turbine

Design and production technology of the runner of a Francis turbine depends on the
overall dimensions of the latter and on the head which it is to utilize. Various runner
designs are at present employed for these turbines. There are runners with stamped
bladed cast into the hub and the lower band, runners cast in one piece, welded
runners with profiled blades only, and composite cast and welded runners.

Runners of medium-head Francis turbines are usually steel castings or cast and
welded. The runners of large turbines may consist of two or more parts due to
transportation requirements. These are assembled when being installed.

The runner of a high-head turbine (Figure 8.45) is mostly a steel casting. Welded
runners have, however, been introduced in recent designs. The surfaces of the
runners of such turbines, which are usually installed on mountain rivers, are not only
subjected to the effects of cavitations but also to intensive abrasive wear. This
necessitates frequent repairs of the damaged surfaces or even replacement of the
runners by new ones. Runners of high-head turbines are, therefore, made of very
hard carbon steel or of stainless steel. The design of such a turbine should also
permit the quick replacement of a worn runner without the need to dismantle the
generating set.

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 Fig. 8.45 Cast and welded runner of Francis turbine

Among the most important and intricate parts of a runner of a high-head Francis
turbine are the seals at the upper and lower bands. The seals reduce leakage of
water past the runner blades, which increases turbine efficiency and reduces the
axial force exerted by the water on the thrust bearing (due to the lower pressure
acting on the runner-hub surface).

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 Fig. 8.46 Cast runner of high head turbines

1) runner; 2) hub extension; 3) upper seal; 4) lower seal; 5) radial seal;

6) turbine shaft; 7) Connecting bolt

The design of the seals depends on the head. A medium-head seal consists of two
rings with a gap 2 to 2.5 mm wide between them (Figure 8.45). Radial and axial
labyrinth or serrated seals (figure 8.46) with approximately 1.0 to 1.5 mm wide gaps
are used at high heads.

The size of the gap in the seal must be determined bearing in mind that a reduction
of this value may lower the volumetric losses but it also increases the losses due to
friction.

06. Shaft :

The shafts of large vertical hydraulic turbines are usually tubular forging and flanges
at ends.

The shaft is subjected mainly to torsional stress by the torque which it requires to
transmit. However, maximum value of torque with fully opened guide vane and
blocked runner may attain approximately double the value which it normally requires
to transmit. In designing the shaft this is to be taken in consideration.

Usually shafts of hydraulic turbines always rotate at lower speed than the critical one,
even in case of governor failure (Runaway speed). In turbines with a higher

VIII- 64
operating speed, design of shaft is done in such a way that critical speed is at least
20% higher than the runaway speed.

Large shafts are forgings with strength of 50 to 65 kg/mm 2 at an elongation of 18%

and with a yield point of at least 28 kg/mm2.

Smooth and reliable operation of a generating set largely depends on the quality of
the connection between the shafts and the neighboring parts, the coincidence of the
centre lines of the shaft surfaces with the geometric shaft axis, the clearances
between shaft and bearings, the alignment of turbine shaft and generator rotor, and
the deviations of the shaft from a straight line at the flanged joints. Attention must be
paid to these factors when shafts are being designed, produced, and installed.

The connection between the turbine shaft and the runner and between the flanges of
the turbine shaft and the generator shaft is effected by accurately fitted bolts
subjected to tension and shear. The central parts of the bolts are accurately
machined and ground; these central parts fit into the bolt holes with clearances not
exceeding 0.02 to 0.04 mm. Reliability of the flanged joints is ensured only when the
flanges of adjacent shafts are accurately centered by spigot and recesses. The spigot
is, therefore, machined with a tolerance corresponding to a push fit, allowance being
made for the actual diameter of the recess. The bolt holes in both mating flanges are
finished jointly by reaming.

The convexity of the shaft flange surfaces in contact, which during installation is
determined with the aid of a feeler gauge and a straight edge, must not exceed 0.03
mm per 1000 mm of the flange diameter. Wobble of the flange end faces must not
exceed 0.02 mm at the circumference for shaft diameters of up to 1500 mm.

07. Bearing:

The bearing of vertical generating sets serve mainly as guides since these are
ordinarily subjected only to loads caused by the dynamic imbalance of the rotating
parts and by asymmetric flow of the water through the turbine. Journal bearings with
lubrication by oil or water are usually employed in large hydraulic turbines.

Figure 8.47 shows a design of an oil lubricated bearing of a vertical hydraulic turbine.
Bearing housing (2) is mounted on the turbine cover plate. Split babbitted shells (3)
are inserted into housing. Bearing cover (4) is located on top of the housing; it has a
gap seal for preventing upward leakage of oil along shaft (1). Oil is supplied to the
bearing through pipe (6). Oil thrower (5) is secured to the shaft beneath the bearing
shells. It diverts used oil escaping from the bearing into receptacle (7) and from there
it is pumped into pipe (8). Penetration of water into the bearing from the interior of the
runner is prevented by seal (9) beneath the bearing.

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The babbitted shells are usually not longer than 0.8 to 1.0 times the shaft diameter.
Data on the clearances between shafts and bearing shells are presented in table 7
for turbines in operation.

Figure. 8.47 Oil-lubricated turbine bearing.

Table 8.7: Clearances in babbitted bearing shells of hydraulic turbines

Shaft Clearance, Shaft Clearance, Shaft Clearance,

diameter, mm diameter, mm diameter, mm
mm mm mm
80-120 0.08-0.12 360-500 0.17-0.25 1000-1250 0.29-0.45
120-180 0.10-0.16 500-630 0.20-0.31 1250-1600 0.32-0.55
180-260 0.12-0.18 630-800 0.23-0.35 >1600 0.40-0.60
260-360 0.14-0.21 800-1000 0.26-0.41

Water-lubricated guide bearings with rubber shells are now widely used in the USSR
for large hydraulic turbines. Shells of laminated-wood plastic (Lignofol) are also used
in small and medium-size turbines. Such bearings are simple in design and more

VIII- 66
convenient in service, since there is no need for intricate seals beneath the bearings.
It is, therefore, possible to locate the runner nearer to the bearing and increase the
operating reliability of the turbine. There is also no need for auxiliary equipment for
bearing lubrication.

08. Draft tube:

The draft tube of a reaction turbine serves to discharge the water from the runner into
the tailrace with the minimum energy losses.

By using a draft tube it is possible to arrange the turbine runner above the tail water
level without incurring a loss of head, and to utilize a considerable part of the kinetic
energy of the water leaving the runner. The draft tube is of particular importance in a
low-head hydraulic turbine where the water downstream of the runner still retains 40
to 50% of its total energy.

A vacuum is created in a draft tube arranged beneath the runner. The total head
acting on the runner blades thus is the sum of the static head, equal to the difference
between the headwater level and the elevation of the runner exit section, and of the
negative head (vacuum) beneath the runner.

The kinetic energy of the water leaving the runner is utilized to create a vacuum
beneath the runner. The draft tube, therefore, has the form of a conical divergent
nozzle (diffuser). This design ensures that the flow velocity in the exit section of the
draft tube is considerably less than in the inlet section, so that the energy losses are
reduced. However, the magnitude of the draft head and the conicity of the draft tube
are subjected to limitations imposed by the need to prevent cavitation.

The optimum shape of the draft tube, which ensures minimum losses, is that of a
straight cone. Such draft tubes, however, can be used only with horizontal turbines
and low power vertical turbines. The reason for this is that the necessary length
L=(4.5 to 5.9) D1 of a straight draft tube would require a very deep power house in the
case of medium size and large vertical turbines. Bent (elbow) draft tubes are,
therefore, used for large vertical turbines.

Fig.8.48 Elbow draft tube of vertical turbine (schematic )

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The elbow draft tube (Fig 8.48) consist of conical divergent flare (1), elbow (2), and
horizontal flare (3). The overall dimensions of an elbow draft tube depend on the
height h and length L when the width of the generating set block is given.

A sufficiently high efficiency can be ensured if the height of the elbow draft tube for a
vertical hydraulic turbine is chosen as follows. For Kaplan turbines: (1.9 to 2.3) D 1 at
heads of up to 30m, and not less than 2.3 D1 at head between 30 and 80 m. For
Francis turbines: (2.3 to 2.6) D1. The height of elbow draft tubes in underground HEPs
should normally be (4.0 to 5.0) D1.
The length L of the draft tube of a vertical turbine should be (4.0 to 5.0) D 1.
The width of the draft tube at its exit section should be (2.5 2.6) D 1 with Kaplan
turbines and (2.7 to 3.0) D1 with Francis turbines.

The upper edge of the exit section of the draft tube should be located not less than
0.5 m below the lowest operational tail water level.

In earlier practice elbow draft tubes were made of concrete. But in recent designs
draft tube with steel lining are in use.

8.6.3 Kaplan Turbine:

Designs of components such as spiral casing, speed ring, guide apparatus system,
bearing, shaft and draft tube are similar to that in Francis turbine. Main design
features of the following components which are different from Francis turbine are
described below:-.

01. Runner :

The runner of a Kaplan turbine (Fig. 8.49) differs from that of a Francis turbine in that
the flow has an axial direction at both blade inlet and exit. The runner also has no
lower band; the number of blades is less and they can be rotated about their axes.
The runner consists of hub (1), blades (2) and hub extension (3).

VIII- 68
 Fig. 8.49 Runner of Kaplan turbine

The number of blades, and thus the diameter of the runner hub, increases with the
head. Four blades are ordinarily used at heads of up to 20 m, while eight blades are
used at heads of between 40 and 80m. The hub diameter d hub depends on the number
of blades and varies between 0.3 D1 (for 4 blades) and 0.6D1 (for 8 blades).

The runner blades of Kaplan turbines are usually made from cavitation resistant
stainless steel, the parts of the blade actuating mechanisms are made of high
strength steel.

The turbine runner is connected to the turbine shaft via an intermediate part of the
hub. This is the runner cover to which the flange of the turbine shaft is connected.
The duties of the runner cover are in some turbine designs performed by the
expanded bottom flange of the turbine shaft.

The blade-actuating mechanism consists of the servomotor (driving motor) and a

lever system connecting the piston rod or directly the servomotor piston with cranks
arranged on the blade pivots. The servomotor piston moves up or down under the
action of the oil pressure and thus actuates the lever system by which the blades are
turned.

Runners may be divided into two groups according to the manner in which the
lever system is connected with the piston, viz. those with crosshead and those
without. The lever system of a runner with crosshead servomotor is connected with
the servomotor via a crosshead fixed to the piston rod. The lever system of a runner
without crosshead is directly connected to the servomotor piston.

Figure 8.50 & 8.51 shows a runner with crosshead, designed for a large Kaplan
turbine. The runner has eight blades (1). The outer surface of hub body (2) is

VIII- 69
machined spherical. This reduces the end clearances between the blades and the
hub body at the various blade-setting angles. Blade pivot (3) is carried in bronze
bushings (4) and (5). Lever (6) is mounted on the pivot inside the hub body, while the
blade is secured to the outside of the pivot. Blade flange, pivot, and lever are held
together by bolts (7) and fixed relative to one another by cylindrical keys.

Figure 8.50 Runner with crosshead for Kaplan turbine

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 Figure 8.51 Section of runner with crosshead for Kaplan turbine

The centrifugal forces acting on the blades, which appear during rotation of the
runner, are taken up by bronze rings (8). The eccentrically arranged lever pins are
connected with crosshead (11) via links (9) and eyes (10). The crosshead is secured
to piston rod (12). The piston rod is guided in bronze bushings (13), (14), and (15)
respectively inserted into internal bosses in the hub and in the shaft flange. The
upper end of piston rod (12) is connected to rod (16) through which oil flows to the
runner servomotor. The servomotor cylinder is formed by the upper part of the hub.
The runner (cylinder) Cover is formed by flange (17) of the turbine shaft. Piston (18)
moves inside the cylinder. The piston is secured to piston rod (12) by split locking ring
(19). Rotation of the crosshead when the links are inclined is prevented by two sliding
keys (20) in the hub body, which engage matching keyways in the crosshead.

Oil is supplied to the servomotor under pressure through rod (16) which consists of
two concentric pipes. Delivery of oil to the cylinder space above the piston causes the
latter to move down. This motion is transmitted to the blades via piston rod,
crosshead and links, and causes the blades to move into the full load position.
Delivery of oil to the cylinder space beneath the piston causes the latter to move up,
so that the blades move into the no load position. The lower part of the hub is always
filled with oil which leaks along the rod. Excess oil is forced into the hollow shaft
through central pipe (21). The hub body is closed from below by bottom (22) which
prevents leakage of oil from the hub. Leakage of oil along the blades and entry of
water into the hub between the latter and the blade flanges is prevented by seals
(23). Hub extension (24) is secured to the hub bottom, it serves to direct the flow
downstream of the runner.

The peripheral blade edges are machined so that the clearances between them and
the throat ring do not exceed one thousandth of the runner diameter.

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 FIGURE 8.52 Detachable runner blade seal.

The runner-blade seals of modern hydraulic turbines are mostly detachable so that
they can be repaired without removing the runner blades. An example of such a seal
is shown in figure 8.52. The seal consists of blade ring (1) bolted to blade flange (2).
Springs (3) are located in cylindrical recesses in the blade ring. These springs rest
against clamping ring (4) secured to blade ring (1) with screws (5). The clamping ring
can move vertically. Leakage of oil through the clearance between the blade ring and
the clamping ring is prevented by one piece rubber diaphragm (6) forced by two split
rings (7) and (8) against blade ring and clamping ring, respectively. All these parts
move together with the blade when it is rotated about its axis. Rubber sealing ring
(11) is forced by supporting ring (10) against the end gap in the opening of runner
hub (9). Clamping ring (4) is pressed against the protruding part of sealing ring (11)
by the oil pressure inside the runner hub and by springs (3) which move together with
the blade. The seal is closed by cover (12). All parts of the seal can be dismantled,
except the blade ring, the clamping ring, the rubber diaphragm, and the sealing ring.

VIII- 72
02. Runner chamber/ Throat ring:

The throat ring of a Kaplan turbine (Figure 8.53) is usually cylindrical above the
runner-blade axes and spherical beneath them. The overall height H th of a
standardized throat ring is (0.5 to 0.53) D 1.

The throat ring usually consists of lower distributor ring (1) and several intermediate
cylindrical sections (2) bolted together. The throat ring is connected to speed ring (3)
by its upper flange, while the lower flange rests on foundation beam (4) and is
connected with lining (5) of the draft-tube cone via joining section(6). The throat ring
has ribs on the out side in order to ensure better fixation in the concrete and greater
rigidity. A removable non concreted segment is usually provided in the central part of
the throat ring opposite the runner blade axis. This makes it possible to remove the
runner blades for repairs or exchange.

FIGURE 8.53. Throat ring.

The throat ring is subjected to variable forces during rotation of the runner, due to
alternating pressure rises and drops. This sometimes results in the throat ring
becoming loosened. Such pressure fluctuations are particularly dangerous in the
case of turbine where, because of transportation requirements, the throat ring

VIII- 73
consists of several parts bolted together along flanges in the horizontal and vertical
planes. The bolts may become slack as a result of the alternating loads, and the
joints may open. Better fixation of the throat ring to the Concrete foundation is
ensured by tie rods (7) and braces (spacer jacks) (8).

03. Oil supply head

Oil is delivered under pressure to the runner servomotor of a Kaplan turbine by

means of an oil supply head which is usually located on the generator exciter. It
surrounds the rotating tubular rod inside the shaft of the generating set. Figure 8.54
shows the layout of the oil-supply system for the runner servomotor

FIGURE 8.54
Oil supply system for runner servomotor.

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The oil supply head consists of conical casing (1) which is divided into several oil
chambers. Rod guides (2) are located inside the casing; crosspiece (3) is located
above the rod end and connects the rod via a cable with the governor-slide valve.
The drive of the governor pilot generator is also arranged there. The rod consists of
outer steel pipe (4) and inner steel pipe (5) welded to flanges (6), Cylindrical guides
(7) are welded to the outer pipe of the rod. These guides slide in bronze bushings (8)
arranged near the planes of the generating set shaft joints.

Three separate oil spaces a, b, and c are formed when the rod is inserted into the
shaft. Space ‘a’ between the shaft and the outer pipe is not under pressure. It is
connected with the discharge chamber of the oil supply head and serves to collect
the oil leaking from the runner hub. Space ‘b’ between the outer and inner pipes of
the rod serves to supply oil under pressure to the cylinder beneath the servomotor
piston, while oil under pressure reaches the cylinder above the piston through space
‘c’ formed by the inner pipe. Spaces a and b communicate on top with the respective
pressure chambers of the oil supply head.

Figure 8.55 shows the present standardized design of an oil supply head for a large
hydraulic turbine with hydro mechanical governor. The governor pilot generator is
mounted on the oil supply head and is directly coupled with the shaft of the
generating set. This oil supply head consists of lower tank (1) communicating via an
oil pipe with the discharge reservoir of the pressure oil installation, and casing (2) with
pipe connection (3) between the pressure oil pipe and pressure chambers b and c.
Pressure gage (4) is mounted on the pipe connection. The lower tank has a neck
surrounded by oil thrower (5). This forms a labyrinth seal preventing leakage of oil
from the tank.

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 FIGURE 8.55 Standardized oil supply head with hydromechaflical turbine
governor.

Rod end (6) is guided inside the casing by bushings (7), crosspiece (8) is secured to
the rod end via two ball bearings. The crosspiece moves together with the rod and
actuates the governor slide valve. The drive is affected by cable transmission (9).
Transmission roller (10) is secured on an arm inside the casing of the supply head.
The crosspiece also carries a runner blade position indicator. Splined shaft (11) is
inserted into the head of the crosspiece and carries the rotor of the governor pilot
generator driving the hydro mechanical governor. The rotating rod entrains the
splined shaft with the generator rotor, which thus reproduces all speed fluctuations of
the turbine runner. The splined connection permits free vertical movement of the rod
end along the shaft during motion of the servomotor piston.

The bushings of the oil supply head not only guide the rod end, but also form seals
and prevent excessive leakage of oil from the pressure chambers into the discharge
chamber. These bushings, therefore, should not have large clearances.
Oil supply head, rod, and oil pipes form a closed circuit for the currents flowing
through the bearings, which cause corrosion of the metal. This circuit is broken by
insulating gaskets at the outside connections of the oil supply head.

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Hydraulic turbines with electro hydraulic governors energized from auxiliary
generators mounted on the shafts of the main generators have lately been equipped
with oil supply heads of a new design (Figure 8.56). The operating principle of such
an oil supply head does not differ from that of a standardized one. The difference in
the design is that the rotating part of the oil supply head is on top secured to the
generator shaft or to its extension; the stationary part of the oil supply head is
secured to the exciter or to some other part at the generator top. Such an oil supply
head is lower, since there is no drive for the governor pilot-generator rotor above it.

FIGURE 8.56 Oil supply head of hydraulic turbine with electro hydraulic governor:
2) Base, (2) casing, (3) cover, (4) oil thrower, (5) inner
rod, (6) sleeve (7) outer rod (8) crosspiece, ((9) cable transmission (10)
arm (11) insulating gasket (12) insulating bushing.

8.7. CAVITATION IN HYDRAULIC TURBINES:

The surfaces of the water passages of hydraulic turbines very often undergo a
peculiar kind of sponge-like destruction during operation (Fig 53). This damage is
caused by cavitation, which is a very complicated physical phenomenon appearing in
a rapidly flowing liquid.

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Damage due to cavitation is especially severe at the backs of the runner blades and
at the throat rings of axial turbines, at the runners and foundation rings of Francis
turbines, and at the buckets and nozzles of Pelton turbines.

Cavitation is accompanied by noise, shocks, and strong vibrations of the set. The
efficiency decreases abruptly, as do the discharge capacity and the power developed
by the turbine.

One of the main causes of cavitation are considered to be sharp local pressure
pulsations in the water. The continuity of the flow breaks down at very high velocities.
Voids or cavities are formed in the zone of maximum velocity; these voids are filled
with vapour of the liquid, whose pressure depends on the temperature of the
surroundings. These voids and cavities are entrained by the current to regions of
higher pressure, where the vapour condenses in the voids and the latter collapse. A
surface adjacent to such collapsing voids (bubbles) is gradually destroyed. Physical
phenomena are observed during cavitation and these cause luminescence of the
cavities; chemical reactions also commence and cause oxidation (corrosion) of the
metal.

One method of countering the destructive action of cavitation is to use cavitation-

resistant materials for the parts of the turbine water passages. At present only
stainless steel containing chromium is used.

The most promising way of preventing such damage is to ensure cavitation-free

turbine operation. Such conditions can be created by matching the turbine type to the
head, by correctly choosing the vertical position of the turbine in relation to the
tailrace, and through restrictions imposed on the operating conditions of the
generating set.

Cavitation in reaction turbine can be prevented or reduced by arranging the runner

above the tail water level or below it at a vertical distance not exceeding the
permissible value for cavitation-free turbine operation.

Figure 8.57 Runner-blade surfaces destroyed by cavitation

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 A criterion of the suitability of a certain turbine for operation at a given head is
the turbine cavitation coefficient σT. It depends on the form and dimensions of the
water passages and on the turbine operating conditions. The turbine cavitation
coefficient is determined by means of test of model turbines. It is a uniquely defined
magnitude for every runner and is plotted on the universal turbine characterstic.

Figure 8.58(a)

Figure 8.58(b)

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 Figure 8.58(C) : Determination of draft head of turbines of different types

The cavitation coefficient σT varies in practice between 0.4 and 2.0 for modern axial
turbines and between 0.3 and 0.35 for modern Francis turbines.

For cavitation to be prevented it must be borne in mind during design of the

hydropower plant that the turbine coefficient must be slightly less than the cavitation
coefficient of the power plant. This can be achieved by employing turbines with a low
σT – values or by increasing σ pl. The latter procedure involves a reduction of the draft
head Hs. This, however, usually leads to a considerable increase of the turbine depth
and thus to a greater volume of construction work. One, therefore, mostly tries to use
with a turbine with a low σT – value, i.e., with good cavitation properties.

The draft head of a vertical propeller or Kaplan turbine is measured from the axes of
rotation of the runner blades to the tail water level H s (Figure 8.58a). The
corresponding magnitude of a Francis turbine is reckoned to be the vertical distance
between the plane of the lower speed ring and the tail water level (Figure 8.58b). The
draft head of a horizontal turbine (with scroll casing or of bulb type) is the distance
between the highest point of the runner blades and the tail water level (Figure 8.58c).
The draft head is considered to be positive if the tail water level is located beneath
the above-mentioned reference elevations, while it is considered to be negative if the
runner is located below the tail water level.

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8.8 GOVERNOR

8.8.1 Governing Principle

Introduction
Turbine governors are equipment for the control and adjustment of the turbine power
output and evening out deviations between power and the grid load as fast as
possible.

The turbine governors have to comply with two major purposes:

1. To keep the rotational speed stable and constant of the turbine-generator unit at
any grid load and prevailing conditions in the water conduit.
2. At load rejections or emergency stops the turbine admission have to be closed
down according to acceptable limits of the rotational speed rise of the unit and the
pressure rise in the water conduit.

To keep the rise of the rotational speed below a prescribed limit at load rejections, the
admission closing rate must be equal to or higher than a certain value. For the
pressure rise in the water conduit the condition is opposite, e.g., the closing rate of
the admission must be equal to or lower than a certain value to keep the pressure
rise as low as prescribed.

For power plants where these two demands are not fulfilled by one single control, the
governors are provided with dual control functions, one for controlling the rotational
speed rise and the other for controlling the pressure rise. This is normal for governors
of high head Pelton and Francis turbines.

For Pelton turbines the principle is:

- To set the closing rate of the needle control of the nozzles to a value, this satisfies
the prescribed pressure rise

- To bend the jet flow temporarily away from the runner by a deflector so the speed
rise does not exceed the accepted level.

For Francis turbines the principle is:

- To set the closing rate of the guide vane opening to a value, this satisfies the
rotational speed rise limits
- To divert as much of the discharge through a controlled by-pass valve that the
pressure rise in the conduit is kept below the prescribed level.

8.8.2 Feedback control system

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The governor function for a turbine with water conduit is shown in the block diagram
on Fig. 8.59.

The input reference signal is compared with the speed feedback signal. By a
momentary change in the load, a deviation between the generator power output and
the load occurs. This deviation causes the unit inertia masses either to accelerate or
to decelerate. The output of this process is the speed, which again is compared with
the reference.

Fig.8.59 Block diagram of a turbine closed loop system

Fig. 8.60 A hydraulic governor with a direct acting pendulum

A simple but classic example of a turbine governor is shown schematically in fig.
8.60. This is a governor with a belt driven centrifugal pendulum. For explaining the

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governor actions it is chosen to start at a moment of stable equilibrium between
power and load. In this condition the control valve is closed by the spool, which is in
the neutral position.

When a decrease in the grid load occurs, the rotational speed starts increasing and
the pendulum sleeve and the connected end of the floating lever moves upwards.
The lever moves the spool accordingly upward out of the neutral position and opens
the hydraulic conduits to the servomotor.

High-pressure oil flows to the piston topside. The piston moves downwards and
reduces the gate opening and the turbine power. At the moment when the power is
equal to the load, the rotational speed culminates as indicated on Fig. 8.61.

Fig 8.61 Time response of power output and rotational speed after a load reduction step

At this moment however, the spool valve is still open. The piston movement continues
and the power output decreases even more. Consequently the speed decreases and
the pendulum sleeve and the spool are moving downwards again.

During this movement the spool valve passes the neutral position and opens then for
high-pressure oil flow to the opposite side of the piston. The piston movement is
thereby returned and the power output increasing. Next time the rotational speed
culminates the power again is equal to the load and, therefore, a succeeding swing in
the speed and power output take place as previously described.

As fig. 8.61 indicates, the swings are strongly damped because of the feedback
system. This feed-back is arranged by a linkage connection between the servomotor

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rod and the end of the floating lever that is opposite to the sleeve as shown on the
fig. 8.60. When the piston moves in the closing direction, the floating lever moves the
spool accordingly in the same direction towards the neutral position. In this way a
stable control process is obtained.

A governor of a type as shown in fig. 8.60 has a one-stage amplifier. Water turbine
governors have normally several stages of amplifiers. The governors in use are of
various designs, e.g., as mechanical-hydraulic and electro-hydraulic products.

8.8.3 Governor adjustment facilities

01. Proportional-integral-derivative functions (PID)

In governor systems as shown in Fig. 8.60 the rotational speed is dependent on the
load for power/load equilibrium conditions. That means higher rotational speed at
zero loads than at maximum load and this dependency are linear. This type of
governor function is designated as proportional control and denoted by the label P.

For units delivering the power to a grid system the frequency has to be constant at
any load. Governors for these units, therefore, have adjustment means also for
automatically recovering of the speed according to the grid frequency during
regulation processes. This type of governor function is designated as integral control
and denoted by the label I.

Groups of governors are provided also with a derivative function in addition to the
above functions. It may be utilised for improvement of the phase angle of the
frequency response for the governor system. This type of governor function is
designated as derivative control and denoted by the label D.

Mechanical hydraulic governors are provided with PI functions only while electro-
hydraulic governors are designed with PID functions. Governors with PID-functions
have large ranges for adjustment of each of the PID function parameters.

8.8.4 Permanent speed droop

A special and major property of a turbine governor is the permanent droop. It is

defined as the percentage change in the frequency for a 100 % change of the power
output from the unit.
For example a unit with a set value of the permanent droop at 5 % will respond with
40 % power increase for a change in frequency from 50 Hz to 49 Hz. The permanent
droop is adjustable and in practice it is chosen in the range 0 - 6 %.
In connection with the permanent droop another notion also plays a certain role. That
is the strength of regulation, which is defined as
Strength of Regulation = - ΔP/ ΔF
Where Δ.P is power change & Δ F is frequency change as illustrated in Fig 8.62.

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 Fig.8.62 Permanent droop and strength of regulation

The load distribution between turbine-generator units connected to the same grid is
dependent on the permanent droop setting of these units. In Fig. 8.63 two units with
different permanent droop are shown where the load distribution for a given
frequency change is indicated.

Fig.8.63 Load distribution for different permanent droop of two units connected
to the same grid

8.8.5 Turbine governing requirements

01. Frequency and load regulation
The governor shall be able to maintain stability of the generating unit when running
on an isolated grid. Generally the units are designed for stable operation up to full
load. In this mode of operation the governor shall keep the frequency within certain
limits of deviation.

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Load regulation on a rigid system is the most common operation mode. Each unit has
little influence on the grid system frequency. The governor controls the load to the
desired value. The variation of the load as function of the change in frequency is
dependent on the permanent droop setting.

A special mode of operation is the manual mode where the guide vane openings are
controlled manually by means of a mechanical hydraulic load limiter. In this mode
only the load can be controlled.

02. Start and stop sequence control

During the period of start, the unit shall be run up to nominal speed as quickly and
smoothly as possible. A start can be carried out both manually and automatically. The
admission must be opened only when permitted by all overriding start conditions.
In shut down mode, the admission shall be closed as quickly as possible but limited
by the magnitude of the pressure rise in the tunnel and pressure shaft system. Due to
safety reasons, the shut down signal will be given simultaneously to different stages
in the governor, e.g. closing of the load limiter or the emergency operated shut down
valve. The shut down valve is also functioning if the ordinary voltage supply has
failed. The stop command can be given both manually and automatically.

03. Disconnection, load rejection

Disconnection means to open the generator main circuit switch. The generator is
thereby separated from grid and the turbine power output results in a speed rise of
the unit. The function of the governor is then to shut down the turbine not faster than
the caused pressure rise is kept below the guaranteed level.

04. Load limiting

Load limiting must be possible according to external conditions. The load limiter
device may be operated both manually and automatically.

8.8.6 Regulation requirements of water power plants

In the preceding section, governing principle, feedback control systems, governor

adjustment facilities and turbine governing demands has been briefly described In a
typical hydro electric installation, governing system should also take care of speed
rise, pressure rise and system stability. These parameters need to be guaranteed
when designing a governing system for which detailed study / parameters of water
conductor system, generator mass inertia,etc,are required.

01. Simplified analysis of pressure rise from water hammer

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During shut down of the unit a fast closure of the guide vanes (or needles of Pelton
turbines) is required to avoid high speed rise. A fast closure however, causes a high
pressure rise in the penstock and the speed rise has influence on the flow through
reaction turbines. For Pelton turbines the speed rise problem is normally solved by jet
deflectors which deflect the jets quickly away from the runner and thus allowing for a
slow closure of the needles. The corresponding solution of the speed rise problem of
Francis turbines is to bypass the discharge through an energy dissipater with a valve
controlled by the governor (pressure relief valve).

Generally in all the governing systems there is provision for adjustment of closing
time and opening time of guide vanes ( needles of Pelton Turbine ) and by suitably
adjusting closing time pressure rise and speed rise can be kept with in permissible
limit.

8.8.7 Types of governor :-

There are basically three type of governors for hydraulic machines which have
evolved over a period of time.
1. Mechanical Governor
2. Electro Hydraulic Governor
3. Digital Governor

8.8.8 Mechanical Governor

Different manufacturers have used different mechanisms in a typical mechanical

governor also called actuator. In following section two typical actuator arrangements
and its functioning are described.

01. Design A

A small-capacity combined actuator and main servomotor is shown in fig. 8.64 so that
the complete process of regulation can be followed.

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 Fig 8.64 Schematic arrangement of actuator , design A

The larger turbines, with which this type of actuator is used, incorporate a smaller
servomotor which is connected mechanically to another regulating valve placed
above and controlling the movement of the guide-vane servomotor.

An electric motor is shown driving the pendulum, although a belt drive can be used.
To the other end of the pendulum the pilot-valve pin is so attached that it is free to

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rotate. During load changes the pull of the pendulum is balanced by the pendulum
spring and also by the damping spring. The damping piston also rotates, but at a
much slower speed, thus ensuring that friction does not diminish the sensitivity.

Movement of the pilot valve, corresponding to changes in the balance between

pendulum and pendulum spring, is transmitted by the oil and mechanical connections
to the regulating valve. The pilot valve sleeve moves relative both to the body and the
pin: its position is determined by that of the regulating valve by means of the lever
pivoted between the two valves. This lever gives the basic return- motion to the
actuator.

The regulating-valve piston, movement of which controls the flow of oil to the main
servomotor, is combined with a load limiting device and an adjustable stroke control
to permit the opening and closing times of the main servomotor to be set as required.

A cam is provided on the piston rod of the main servomotor, and oscillation of the
actuator shaft is thereby obtained. The actuator shaft moves the damping cylinder
and gives the return motion to the load-limiter valve pm and permanent speed drop.

The pendulum spring is attached at one end to a ring which can pivot in a forked
lever. Movement of either end of this lever enables the tension of the pendulum
spring to be varied. This alters the response of the actuator to changes in frequency.

If an actuator is so adjusted that the turbine gives a speed drop, the frequency/load
characteristic may be shown as in Fig 8.64 For a normal value of permanent speed
drop, say three per cent, a drop in frequency of three per cent will cause the actuator
to increase the guide-vane or spear opening so that the output is increased from no-
load to- full-load.

If the upper end of the lever, to which the fixed end of the pendulum is attached, is
held in any given position, the permanent speed drop is obtained through rotation of
the actuator shaft which alters slightly the tension of the spring. In the closed position
of the main servomotor, the governor shaft is in its maximum counter-clockwise
position The spring is then under maximum tension and requires, say, a system
frequency of 50 c./s. to keep the pilot-valve pin in the central position. If the frequency
drops, the pendulum will exert less pull on its spring and the pilot-valve pin will move
to the left. According to the value of permanent speed drop selected and the drop in
frequency which occurs, the actuator will cause the main servomotor to move
towards the open position until balance is restored between the pull of the pendulum
and the tension exerted by the pendulum spring. Similarly a rise in frequency will
cause a reduction in the turbine output.

From fig 8.64 it will be seen that vertical displacement of the frequency/load
characteristic will meet the requirement of altered output without change of frequency.
This vertical displacement is obtained by operation of the speeder gear, either
manually at the actuator or remotely by electric motor. Movement to the left of the

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upper end of the lever carrying the fixed end of the pendulum spring will increase the
spring tension, and the pilot-valve pin will move to the left. The main servomotor will
then open until balance is again restored. To reduce output the upper end of the lever
is moved to the right.

The movement of the upper end of the lever is controlled by hand or through a
reversing split-field electric motor driving a nut on a threaded rod. The lever slotted at
its upper end is engaged by two pins on the traveling nut.

The damping mechanism, which acts directly on the pendulum movement, ensures
that stable a periodic speed regulation is obtained during frequency changes. By
alteration of the effective speed range of the damping-spring assembly to suit various
ratios of water-column inertia to that of the associated rotating masses, stable
governing can be ensured even under adverse hydraulic conditions.

An understanding of the whole mechanism is facilitated by considering the parts

which individual items fulfill during a change of load. The immediate result of full-load
rejection, due to opening of the circuit-breaker under fault conditions, is an increase
in speed. The pull of the pendulum overcomes the tension in both the pendulum and
the transient damping springs, and the pilot-valve pin moves to the right. Port C is
uncovered and oil, under constant pressure on the small side of the regulating-valve
piston, forces oil on the large side through the pipe to the pilot valve, via ports E, D,
B, and C, to the sump. The regulating valve is of the differential type, which has a
constant pressure on the smaller side; the piston thus moves in either direction
according to the oil pressure on the large side.

The movement of the regulating valve to the left uncovers port F, and the pressure on
both sides of the main servomotor piston becomes equal. Owing to the difference in
area, the piston moves towards the closed position until the turbine output is equal to
the power required to drive the generator.

When output is increased by operation of the speeder gear or by drop in frequency,

the movement of various valves is reversed. But the maximum output (actually the
maximum guide-vane opening) which can be obtained is restricted by the load-limiter
gear. This comprises a pin moving inside the bore of the regulating-valve piston and
controlling the flow of oil through ports D and E. Assuming that a load increase is
taking place, i.e. the actuator shaft is moving in the clockwise direction, movement of
the load-limiter lever is caused by the link between the eccentrically placed pin on the
actuator shaft and the top of the lever, causing the latter to pivot at its set position.
The load-limiter pin thus moves to the left, until port E is uncovered, permitting oil in
the larger side of the regulating-valve piston to escape to the right into the sump. Any
further opening movement of the main servomotor is thus impossible. An increase in
frequency or reduction in load by the speeder gear is, however, not effected, and the
main servomotor closes in the normal manner.

02. Design B

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 Fig 8.65 Schematic arrangement of design B actuator

The rotation of the turbine shaft is transmitted by a permanent- magnet generator and
the synchronous motor (1) to the pendulum casing (2) (alternatively by belt or direct
drive). This contains the fly- balls (3) attached by guide springs (4) inside the rotating
casing (2).

The centrifugal forces to which (3) are subjected are opposed by the main spring (5)
in such a way that with variations in the speed of rotation of the casing (2) the flyballs
(3) assume positions such as those indicated by the dotted lines.

Oil under pressure is admitted at (6) and through diaphragm (7) reaches the relay
chamber (8) and escapes through the nozzles (9). The nozzles (9) are very close to
the flyballs (3). The discharge of oil through them is controlled by the closeness of the
surface of the fly balls (3). With an increase in speed of rotation of the casing (2) the
fly balls (3) move away from the nozzles (9) and permit an increase in oil discharge
which immediately causes a drop of pressure in chamber (8). The pendulum spindle
(10) moves to the left with the piston (11) because of the oil pressure in the back
chamber (12). The spindle (10) thus follows any variation in speed of rotation of the

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turbines, as indicated diagrammatically by the scale (13) shown above it, graduated
in r.p.m. The lever (14) pivoted at point (15) moves the regulating valve (17) by the
rod (16). Oil under pressure is admitted to or released from the servomotor cylinder
chambers (18) and (19) according to whether the speed increases or decreases. The
servomotor piston rod (20) operates the turbine gates.

The servomotor piston (21) is connected to the return-motion piston (22) which
displaces oil in the cylinder (23) of the dashpot (24). The piston of the dashpot (24)
operates the lever (25) which displaces the pivot point (15) of the lever (14) and
returns the control valve (17) to the neutral position after each movement of the
servomotor (21). The piston of the dashpot (24) is placed between springs (26) which
tend to bring it back to its middle position as oil escapes through the control
diaphragm (27), for in this way the displacement of piston (22) has only a temporary
influence on the return motion.

The roller (28) rests at the end of lever (25) against cam (29) which follows the
movements of the servomotor piston (21). In this way the pivot point (15) of lever (14)
is displaced, causing a permanent change in speed. For simplicity, the rod (16) is
shown attached directly to the pilot-valve piston (17), whereas in actual construction a
hydraulic relay is interposed between the rod end (16) in contact with the lever (14)
and the valve piston (17).

The rate of travel of the servomotor piston is controlled by:

(a) the adjustable stroke of pilot valve (17) limited at the stop (30) which
determines the closing time,

(b) the adjustable area of holes (31) in the end of (17) which determines the
opening time.

By means of the worm wheel (33) the reversible electric motor (32) rotates the mod
(16) which engages in the valve (17) by a screw thread. This gives a relative
displacement of the end of the rod (16) in contact with lever (14) to the pilot valve
(17) and alters the setting of the steady speed at which the governor operates. This
permits synchronizing by remote control from the switchboard and loading the set to
the required amount. The speeder gear is designed for a standard range of speeds
from —-5 to +5 per cent. This setting can also be done by hand.

The gear for permanent speed drop can be adjusted from zero to 4 per cent by
rotation of hand wheel (34). This causes the conical cam (29) to present the desired
slope to the roller (28) on the lever (25).

The actuator is provided with hand controls for starting and stopping, which operate
on the lever (14). Remote control can also be arranged for automatic unattended
stations. The servomotor is provided with hand gear, locking device, and stroke

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limiter. The latter operates as load limiter, with maximum servomotor stroke fixed by
the position of the adjustable nut (35) on the servomotor piston rod.

The size of the return-motion cylinder and piston (22) is determined by the required
amount of feed-back by the return motion to ensure a periodic speed change with
any variation of load. Factors which determine this feed-back are the velocity and
length of the water column in the pipeline compared with the head and the kinetic
energy stored in the rotating masses of the turbo-generator.

8.8.9 Electro Hydraulic Governor

A typical Electro hydraulic governor Type G40 supplied by M/s BHEL in many of
NHPC power Stations is described below:-

01 Principle of operation

“BHEL” make Electro-Hydraulic Governor Type G-40 is capable of accepting, in

addition to speed, a variety of signals and combine these to achieve the desired
operation.

The governor is basically designed for speed control, however devices are provided
to satisfy operation of hydro-set under the following conditions:

* Steady State
* Small Transients
* Large Transients
* Blocked Gate

The governor type G-40 is of PID control type. The speed Measuring Unit and other
electronic circuits together with the transducer and Main Slide Valve controls the
movement of the main servomotor. The feed back mechanism makes it possible to
obtain steady-state operation of the servomotor.

Temporary speed droop circuit, receiving an electrical input from the feedback
potentiometer which is operated by the main servomotor, sends a signal for
controlling the movement of the system without any oscillation. The two governor
parameters – temporary speed droop percent and its decay time constant are set to
allow stable operation of hydro set. The stability of the governed hydro set is
influenced by the penstock, generator inertia, turbine characteristics and the grid.

Introduction of the feedback system in the form of temporary droop, influences the
response of hydro set to frequency or command signal. The response can be
improved by the addition of Phase Advance Circuit ( D). This circuit adds a rate of
change of speed error in addition to the speed error. This anticipatory signal greatly
improves the performance of the hydro set.

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Permanent speed droop circuit derives its input from the feedback potentiometer.
Frequency versus gate servomotor relationship can be altered by changing the
permanent speed droop for the desired regulation.

Speed setting device is provided to allow synchronizing, manual load control and
frequency control of the hydro set. These circuits are suitably designed to accept
signal from auto synchroniser also.

8.8.10 Governor parameters and their settings

01 Temporary droop setting

Temporary speed droop circuits have been provided in the Governor to allow stable
operation of the hydro-set under all conditions.

The magnitude of temporary speed droop percent (bt) and its decay time constant
(Td) are dependent on the stability Index (Ratio of water time constant (Tw) to
machine time constant (Ta).
However, the optimum setting of bt and Td can be visualized from figure 8.66.The
setting is generally desired to be in the shaded zone. It is obvious that higher the
stability Index, the higher are the settings required for bt and Td. Increase in the
settings of bt and Td results in sluggish response as basically the circuit is based on
adding negative signal which decays.

Fig 8.66 Limits of stability fro governor hydro set

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A grid which is predominantly resistive has unstable influence on the governed hydro-
set. Therefore, higher values of bt and Td are required. On the contrary a grid which
is predominantly inductive, helps the hydro-set to stabilise and may require even
lower settings of bt and Td.

The advantage of a predominantly inductive grid together with a grid whose stiffness
(MW/HZ relationship) is high, is analogous to increase in the value of Ta.

02 Permanent Speed Droop setting

Permanent Speed Droop (bp) is set to the desired value for regulation of a Hydro-set
in a given system (Grid). Generally the setting is between 3 to 5%.

A higher permanent droop is provided for base load operation as compared to the
other generating sets in the grid. This helps, at times, to carry out optimum utilisation
of river flows and short duration storage. On the other hand a lower droop is selected
in case the Hydro-set has to carryout frequency control of the system.

03 Dead Band, Sensitivity, Damping Limits

Devices in the circuit like damping limit, dead band and sensitivity have been
provided in the governor for specific operation and response as explained below:

Dead Band

A potentiometer has been provided for frequency dead band setting at around 50 Hz
operation. Utilisation of this feature ensures, that the governor will not make any gate
change for frequencies within the dead band. Dead band can be set to zero to allow
the governor to regulate the hydro-set even for small frequency changes. The
operation depends also on the dead bands of the Main Slide Valve & Control valve.
Frequency Dead Band can be set between 0 and ± 0.5 Hz.

Sensitivity

The electrical signal fed to the transducers can be varied by sensitivity setting from 5
mA/Hz to 20 mA/Hz. This setting is dependent upon the closing and opening times,
mechanical amplification of the Hydraulic Amplifier output and the desired response.
This should be set along with sensitivity of electro- Hydraulic transducer to obtain
stable operation of hydro-set.

Damping Limits

The influence of temporary speed droop is to stabilise the governed hydro-set by

utilising a negative signal in relation to the command signal (system frequency and
speed setting). However, temporary speed droop is a hindrance for large changes of

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load. Therefore, damping limit circuits have been added to limit the temporary droop
signal being fed to the summing point of control amplifier. Opening and closing
damping limits (both adjustable) can be set to suit the requirements. These settings
must be checked in relation to the opening and closing times and the temporary
droop settings, otherwise damping limit may not be of much help.

8.8.11 Stability of Governor

A simplified graphical representation of stability of a governed hydro-set is shown in

the figure 8.66. This figure shows the limits of stability. The influence of permanent
speed droop, Grid and Turbine characteristics have been neglected. Generally point
A defines the thumb rule method of calculating the values of bt and Td. However, the
shaded zone has been shown and the temporary droop may be set within this zone.
The limit of stability curve L shifts towards M or N depending upon the turbine
characteristics and grid. Oscillations (magnitude v/s time) have been shown at
various points of operation. Point “X” outside the limit of stability is unstable and is of
divergent nature. Point “Y” outside the stability curve is oscillating sinusoidally
(mathematically just stable). Point “Z” within the stable zone shows quick stabilizing
of any oscillation. Point C is critically damped i.e. although the oscillation dies down, it
still takes long time to achieve steady state operation. Thus optimum setting is
necessary for achieving the desired response.

8.8.12 Electronic Cubicle:

The governor is basically speed sensing type, sensitive to speed deviation from a set
value of speed. Temporary droop stabilizing technique has been employed.

The speed signal is derived from a permanent magnet generator directly coupled to
the turbine-generator shaft. Frequency of the PMG output is directly proportional to
the rotational speed of the turbine-generator set. The PMG frequency representing
the machine speed is measured in a speed measuring unit which is so designed that
at the nominal speed its output is zero and varies by ± O.8V/Hz depending on
whether the speed is above or below nominal.

The SMU (Speed Measuring Unit) output is fed to a control amplifier which comprises
a phase advance amplifier (for derivative control) and a multi-input summing
amplifier. The phase advance amplifier has a resistive-capacitive feed-back and its
gain varies with the rate of change of input signal. Thus it provides speed error signal
and its rate of change for faster governor action. In the summing amplifier the
modified speed error signal is summed up with speed setting signal, permanent
droop signal and temporary droop signal. The signal levels and input resistors are so
co-ordinated that under the steady state, output of the summing amplifier is zero volt.

The droop signals are derived by comparing the gate setting command signal with
the gate feed-back signal. The resultant signal directly applied to the summing
amplifier through a potentiometer is called permanent droop signal, whereas

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differentiation of the resultant signal with a variable time constant RC network
provides the temporary droop signal. The temporary droop signal also known as
damping signal transiently opposes the gate movement and thus it provides main
stabilisation to the speed control loop, which is otherwise highly unstable because of
large inertia of the hydraulic system. Both time constant and percentage of the
temporary droop signal are adjustable.

The summing amplifier output is amplified in a Booster Amplifier and then applied to
an electro-magnetic transducer (EMT) located in the hydro-mechanical cabinet. It is
the linking device between electrical and hydro-mechanical sections. The EMT,
actuating on the hydraulic amplifier converts the electrical signal into the proportional
mechanical movement of the pilot rod. The movement is then imparted to a lever
drive of the main slide valve feeding oil to either chambers of the gate apparatus
servomotor, which in turn controls the main servo-motors controlling the gate position.

Under steady state conditions, the electronic cabinet provides balance current of 0
milliamp to the EMT. In the event of frequency rising or a lower command, it provides
proportional negative current for closing of the gate and in the event of frequency
falling or a raise command it provides proportional positive current for opening of the
gate. Once the gate acquires new steady position the output current resets to 0
milliamp (balance current) under action of the permanent droop signal. Under the
dynamic conditions, output current can vary in the range of - 100 to + 100 millamps.

The relay control circuit enables the turbine to be started, synchronised, loaded,
unloaded and stopped.

8.8.13 Regulating Rack

This rack contains circuits related with speed sensing, closed loop control,
stabilisation and amplification of final speed control signal to a level compatible to the
electro transducer. These are:
a. Speed measuring unit
b. Control Amplifier
c. Droop unit
d. Booster amplifier
e. Zero speed detector
f. Reed relay module

In addition the rack has the following adjustments:

1. Gate feedback signal range
2. Speed trim
3. Closing damping limit
4. Opening damping limit
5. No load gate limit
6. Dead band

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7. Dither current
8. Phase advance gain
9. Permanent droop
10. Off line damping time constant
11. Off line damping percentage
12. On line damping time constant
13. On line damping percentage

A. Speed Measuring Unit

The speed measuring unit produces the d.c. control signal such that it is zero at
nominal speed and varies by ± 0.8V/Hz to a maximum of ± 13V/Hz depending on
whether the machine speed is higher or lower than the nominal.

B. Control Amplifier
In control amplifier, speed signal (SMU’s output) is modified as accelerometric signal
(signal + its rate of change) and compared with command and feedback signals to
produce a resultant corrective signal.

Functionally control amplifier can be divided into four parts:

1. Phase advance amplifier

2. Dead band unit
3. Summing amplifier
4. Inverter.

1. Phase Advance Amplifier

In the phase advance amplifier the speed signal is modified as accelerometric signal
(signal + its rate of change) for improving the governor response and stability of the
speed control loop.

02. Dead Band Unit

The dead band unit prevents governor action over a small selected band of speed. In
a measuring system, such as the turbine speed measurement in the governor, there
is bound to be a certain level of noise/pick up superimposed on the legitimate signal.
This noise may be caused by mains hum pick up, switching spikes, non uniformity of
cycles from the PMG (Permanent Magnet Generator), etc. It is desirable that the
governor only respond to the legitimate signal changes and not to the noise signals. A
dead band amplifier included in the signal path achieves this if the dead band width
can be set wide enough to exclude the noise without putting an unacceptable offset
error into the system.

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For inputs within the selected dead-band, the amplifier produces a linear output
signal, and for inputs beyond the selected dead band the amplifier output remains
clamped at a constant value. The dead band signal and speed error signals are both
applied to a summing amplifier where the former cancels out the latter. This means
that the machine will maintain constant power for system frequency variation of (fn ±
DB) Hz, where fn is the nominal frequency and DB the selected dead band.

03 Summing Amplifier

The summing amplifier mixes up modified speed error signal received from the phase
advance amplifier at pin b8 with the following signals to produce the final speed
control signal applied to the output amplifier.

1. Speed setting signal

2. Permanent droop signal
3. Temporary droop (damping) signal
4. Speed trim signal at pin
5. No load gate limit signal at pin
6. Dead band signal

04. Inverter

Unity gain inverting amplifier has been provided for signal inversion.

C. Droop Unit

The droop unit in conjunction with the external potentiometers provides permanent &
temporary droop (damping) signals to the summing (control) amplifier for the purpose
of speed regulation & stabilisation of the turbine. The unit also contains no load gate
limit amplifier which opposes opening of the gate beyond the set reference.

D. Booster Amplifier

Booster amplifier boosts the input control signal to a level sufficient to operate the
Electro Maqnatic Transducer located in the hydro-mechanical cabinet.

E. Zero Speed Detector

Function of this circuit is to automatically disengage the generator brakes when the
machine comes to almost dead halt. This prevents creeping of the machine and also
eliminates manual intervention for removal of the brakes.
The circuit design is such that as long as frequency of the input speed signal (derived
from the PMG) is more than 0.1 Hz (i.e. 0.2% speed) the relay connected remains
energized and it drops out with time delay, for frequency equal to or less than 0.1 Hz.

F. Reed Relay Module

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Reed relay module is fitted with miniature reed relays. The normal coil voltage of all
the reed relays is 15 V DC & relay operating current is about 15 mA. The module is
employed for the purpose of switching control signals.

8.8.14 Power Supply Rack

The power supply rack contains the regulating circuits which provide +15V and -15V
stablised voltages for operation of the various electronic circuits in the EHG. Input AC
supply to the rack is derived from the PMG through a transformer. Both the lies are
capable of delivering 1 amp DC current with regulation better than 1% and output
ripple less than 10mV peak to peak. The output remains stable at ±15V for -30% to
+100% voltage variation on input side. The supplies are protected against short
circuit and over voltage on output side.

The contents of the rack are :-

a. Power supply rectifier card
b. Power supply card ( for positive & negative supplies)
c. Power supply over voltage protection card
d. Power transistor card
e. Filtering capacitor
f. Power supply voltmeter
g. Power supply selector switch measurement
h. Fuses

8.8.15 Gate limit adjustment according to head

Gate limit adjustment according to head feature prevents the machine operation at
non-rated (over-rated) duties whenever high head causes the machine power to
exceed the permissible value.

8.8.16 Motor operated potentiometer

In order to facilitate smooth synchronizing and faster loading/unloading of the

machine, separate motor operated potentiometers have been used. The motor drive
makes the governor suitable for remote operation control and auto synchronization.
The potentiometer used for synchronization is called Speed Setting potentiometer
and the one used for loading is called Gate setting potentiometer.

Both the potentiometers are double ganged. One of the pots provides the command
signal and the other facilitates display of the command signal. Ohmic value of the
potentiometer is same and these are mounted inside dust proof enclosures.

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8.8.17 Relay control circuit

The relay circuit is intended for switching on the governor circuits during changing
governor operating conditions, viz starting, synchronizing, loading, unloading, load
rejection stopping, etc. Shutdown of the turbine is performed by means of gate limiter
‘OLG’ through relays.

When starting the turbine with auto operation of the gate limiter, the relay section
raises the gate limiter OLG to starting opening position. The opening for starting can
be varied by turning a cam in the track of micro switch in the hydro mechanical
cabinet.

Micro switch contact which actuates relay, closes when the gate limiter begins to
move in the direction of opening. Signal for opening is passed to the coil of Electro
Magnetic Transducer which results in the gate servomotor displacement to the
position adjusted by the gate limiter. After the speed reaches 80% of its rated value,
the governor changes over to automatic control.

Synchronization of the generating set is carried out with the help of speed setting
potentiometer, the electric motor of the latter being controlled by means of control
switches. After synchronization, the unit control is automatically transferred to Gate
setting potentiometer which changes the load. Motor is now operated by the
switches.

In case of load throw consequent to the generator breaker tripping, relay gets
deenergized. This relay lowers the gate setting to the minimum position.

8.8.18 HYDRO MECHANICAL CABINET

Components

a) Electromagnetic transducer with hydraulic amplifier

b) Main slide valve
C) Gate limiter
d) Feed-back mechanism
e) Double oil filter
f) Over speed protection device
g) Control and measuring instruments.
h) Gate limiter according to head.
i) Auto manual changeover solenoid valve for Electro-Hydraulic Transducer.
j) Emergency solenoid valve.
k) Rotary Cam Limit Switch Assembly (Master Controller).

The above listed mechanism and devices are mounted on the bed covered with light
metal casing. The following instruments/devices are provided on the front panel of
hydro mechanical cabinet.

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a) Electro tachometer
b) Gate opening and limiter position indicator
c) Balance Indicator
d) Oil Pressure Gauge
e) Speed setting Indicator
f) Output setting Indicator
q) Speed/output raise/lower switch
h) Handwheel for manual control of gate limiter

The hydro mechanical scheme of a G 40 Francis governor is shown in figure 8.67

and 8.68.

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Figure 8.67

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The list of components as shown in figure 8.67 are

ITEM DESCRIPTION ITEM DESCRIPTION

01 Sector 02 Weight in two halves

03 Pulley block 04 Main feed back potentiometer
05 Electro tachometer 07 Balance indicator
08 Electric motor for gate limiter 09 Gate limiter
10 Hand wheel 11 G. V. limit and position indicator
G.V. position and limit transmitter
12 Limit switch 13
synchros
14 Starting opening micro switch 15 Feed back pot according to head
Hand wheel for gear adjustment
16 17 Motor for limiter according to head
according to head
18 Cam for limiter according to head 20 Friction clutch
21 Stem 22 Lever
23 Lever 24 Lever
25 Screw 28 Thrust rod
29 Starting opening cam 30 Cam
31 Rod 32 Feed back shaft
33 Adjusting nut 34 Holder
35 Switch for over speed protection 36 Support
Nut for limiting stroke of m s v Nut for limiting stroke of m s v
37 38
closing opening
39 Auxiliary servomotor 40 Main slide valve spool
41 Main slide valve body 42 Limiter lever
43 Bolt 44 Throttle
45 Lever 46 Pilot slide valve body
47 Pilot slide valve needle 48 Adjusting nut
49 Eccentric cam 50 Filtering element
51 Double oil filter 52 Knob
53 Change over handle for filter 54 Throttle with in built filter
Knob for adjusting transducer
55 56 Support
sensitivity
57 Lever 58 Piston

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59 Throttle 60 Pressure gauge
Hydraulic amplifier nozzle baffle
61 Piston with needle 62
type
63 Rotatry cam limit switch assy. 64 Nozzle
65 Baffle 66 Emergency solonid valve
67 Permanent magnet 68 Coil
69 Pressure switch 70 Spring
71 Electro magnetic tranducer 72 Nut screw
73 Screw 75 Valve
76 Upper chamber of piston 58 77 Lower chamber of piston 58
78 Needle 82 Spring

83 Coincidence limit switch 130 Speed setting indicator

131 Output setting indicator 134 Sead indicator

Solonide valve auto/manual
135 Bush 136
changeover

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Figure 8.68 Control cabinet of governor

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The list of component is shown below:

Item No. Description Item Description

No.
1 Foundation Frame 14 Main slide valve
2 Oil Filter 15 Installation of over speed
protection device
3 Lever Transmission 16 Gate limiter motor
4 Hydraulic Amplifier 17 Motor for limiter according
to head
5 Contact Device 18 Pilot valve
6 Electro Magnetic Transducer 19 Time adjustment nuts
7 Terminal Block 20 G.V servo lock position
indicating lamps
8 Casing 21 Feedback potentiometer
9 Gate opening and limiter 22 Lifting hooks
indicator
10 Reduction gear for limiter 23 Switch camassy
11 Bed 24 Emergency closing valve
12 Lever transmission for limiter 25 Pr. Switch
according to head
13 Feed back shaft 26 Auto manual solenoid

The description of main components of Hydro-Mechanical Cabinet are :

01 Electro-Hydraulic Transducer

(Refer Figure 8.69 & 8.70)

The Eiectro-Hydraulic Transducer consists of Electro Magnetic Transducer (EMT)

and Hydraulic Amplifier (HA). These assemblies are the linking devices between the
Electronic system and Mechanical- Hydraulic System of the Governor. EMT converts
electrical signal of ± 50 mA into a mechanical movement of ± 2 mm. A Flapper, which
is a part of the moving coil assembly of the EMT, is located between the two nozzles.
Pressure oil continuously impinges on the flapper in the form of a jet. The total gap
between the nozzle and the flapper is approx. 0.35 mm. (The exact gap between the
nozzles is 1.8 mm with flapper thickness of 1.45 mm approx). The purpose of the
Hydraulic Amplifier is to add force to the mechanical movement of the system of EMT
so that control of Rod and control valve is possible. This amplification is, therefore,
necessary as the force developed by the coil and therefore, flapper, is not enough.

Throttle washers control the pressure in the two chambers formed between piston
and needle . These chambers are under the control of the two nozzles. Variation of
pressure in one chamber will create unbalance thereby forcing, the needle to

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displace itself. Needle in turn controls the movement of the piston by controlling the
pressure in upper chamber formed between the Body and the piston. Thus the
combination of Needle and piston together with the nozzles makes the moving
devices of the Hydraulic Amplifier operate quickly under any condition of flapper
movement, be it slow, fast or oscillatory. Thus sensitive and fast response is achieved
by ensuring the correct sizing of the throttle plates, nozzle sizing, gap between nozzle
and flapper and optimum running clearances.

Hydraulic Amplifier operates at oil pressure of 18 Kg/cm 2 to 20 Kg/cm2. This pressure

is controlled by the Pressure Reducer (Throttle) located between the Duplex Filter
and Hydraulic Amplifier.

In case of manual control of the unit, the piston is raised to its top most position under
the action of oil pressure in the bottom chamber, thus giving an opening signal to the
pilot control valve and the opening of the main servomotor is controlled by the gate
unit mechanism.

A lever is attached to the thrust rod using a pin . The thrust rod is rigidly attached to a
piston.

02 Sensitivity Adjustment of Transducer

Sensitivity of Electro-Hydraulic transducer can be varied by moving fulcrum of lever

(Stroke amplification) with the help of hand screw , which should be locked after
commissioning. Sensitivity of the transducer should be adjusted to get the stable
operation of Hydro-set. The stroke amplification of rod is approximately 2 to 5 times.

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 Fig 8.69

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List of components shown below:

Item No. Description Item No. Description Item No. Description

01 Nut 22 - 43 Sealing
02 Spring washer 23 - 44 Sealing
03 Sealing 24 - 45 Pipe
04 Frame 25 - 46 Ring
05 Auto/manual 26 - 47 Pin
solenoid valve
06 Perspex 27 - 48 Nut
07 Bolt 28 - 49 Special Screw
08 Taper pin 29 - 50 Screw
09 Fork 30 - 51 Bolt
10 Bracket 31 Bolt 52 Name plate
11 Cylindrical pin 32 Nozzle 53 Nut
12 Stud 33 Head piece 54 Stud
13 Nut 34 Bolt 55 Sub plate
14 Screw 35 Grub screw 56 Washer
15 Membrane 36 Bolt 57 Conical setting pin
16 Thrust rod 37 Cover 58 Lever
17 Bolt 38 Throttle washer 59 Ring
18 Base 39 Plug 60 Split cotter pin
19 Needle 40 Body 61 Knife edge
20 Piston 41 Packing
21 Grub Screw 42 Washer

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 Fig 8.70

List of components shown below :

Item No. Description Item No. Description

1 Body 16 Nut
2 Screw 17 Flange
3 Spring washer 18 Special screw
4 Core 19 Lower spring
5 Magnet 20 Spindle
6 Coil 21 Strip
7 Screw 22 Washer
8 Spring washer 23 Washer
9 Cover 24 Screw
10 Bush 25 Nut

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11 Spring Washer 26 Laminated sheet
12 Special Bush 27 Dowel
13 Spindle 28 Frame
14 Brace 29 Washer
15 Upper Spring 30 Strip

03. Main Slide Valve

Main Slide Valve of size 100 m has been provided to regulate oil flow to the Main
Servomotors and allow steady state operation. All the devices are located in the main
slide valve body casting. Oil pressure is connected through pipes to this body and
flanged connections are available for the opening and closing chambers of the
servomotor and drain (connected in-turn back to the sump tank of the oil pressure
system). Oil pressure is also connected to the pilot (Control) Valve.

The mechanical signal from the hydraulic transducer moves the floating lever which
in turn operates the Pilot valve needle. For opening sequence this pilot valve needle
moves up and drains the oil pressure from the auxiliary servomotor there by the main
slide valve spool moves upwards due to differential area (the net force acting
upwards). For closing sequence the needle valve is forced down by the floating lever
allowing oil pressure to the auxiliary servomotor. The slide valve spool is forced
down.

Movement of slide valve Spool uncovers the slots in the sleeve thereby allowing oil
pressure in the opening or closing chambers of the servomotors, as the case may be.
The magnitude of slide valve movement is controlled by the floating lever which acts
as feedback for re-setting of the pilot valve needle. For steady operation, the floating
lever is in horizontal position with no signal from the Hydraulic Amplifier. The sizing of
the slots in slide valve sleeve, overlaps, etc. are designed to suit individual
requirements.

The Pilot valve needle, its sleeve are designed for upward force due to oil pressure;
as such it is not rigidly connected to the lever.

Operation of main slide valve

Overlaps on the Pilot valve and Main slide valve ensure steady state operation. Small
signals within this overlap (dead band) do not result in any movement of servomotors.
An a.c ripple (Dither) is super-imposed on the d.c. signal to Electro- magnetic
transducer which results in constant small oscillations of Hydraulic Amplifier and Pilot
slide valve. This is essential to prevent hydraulic lock of the sliding needles. These
oscillations may be around ± 0.05 mm to ± 0.10 mm (approximately) and should be
limited within the overlaps.

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Time Adjusting nuts have been provided for controlling the opening and closing times
of the servomotors and are locked in position after they have been correctly set.

8.8.18 Digital Governor

Introduction

A controller based on digital technique is for example a programmable High Speed

Controller. It is designed to be used normally for all kinds and sizes of water turbines.
It is completely autonomous, and is designed with a high inherent flexibility to enable
individual requirements to the greatest possible extent.

A digital governor generally contains the following main parts:

- power supply
- frequency measurement
- controller, inclusive sequence control and monitoring
- servo interface including proportional valve
- automatic turbine admission control
- runner blade control
- options as minimum-water-level control of the reservoir, etc.

The measurement of frequency (speed) is done by two sensors reading a segment

disc which is attached to the turbine shaft. The measured signals are transformed to
a digital code by the frequency measurement circuit. A linear relation exists between
the measurement value and the cycle time of the unit frequency.

Alternatively, the frequency measurement can also be taken from a permanent

magnet alternator. Except for the measurement signal there is no difference
compared with the analogous controller.

A digital governor unlike electro hydraulic governor is based on a processor system.

The controller hardware is generally built of standard components while the control
functions are realised in a specific program.

The controller program includes the following functions:

- controller algorithm
- sequence control for start, stop, interlocking, etc.
- monitoring, process and self monitoring

Figure 8.71 shows the block diagram for a typical controller of a Francis turbine. The
same block diagram will also be the basic part of a controller for a Pelton and
Kaplan/bulb turbine.

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 Figure 8.71

The controller has a PID function. Each parameter can be set within a wide range.
Adjustment of one parameter makes no influence on the others.
The servo interface is the joint between the electronic part and the hydraulic part of
the governor. It is a part of the electro hydraulic position control of the actuator. The
loop is closed in the processor.

One or several position control loops are provided depending on the version. Each
loop contains a servo interface with a servo amplifier and a transducer for the
actuator position measurement.

Typical governing system of modern hydro units differ from manufacturer to

manufacturer and some special features are now a days available which vastly
improve governor reliability and performance.

As discussed before, G40 Electro hydraulic Governor uses EMT and Slide valves for
the conversion of electrical signal into mechanical hydraulic command. Whereas in
our Uri Power Station, this action is accomplished by proportional valve. The brief
description of Proportional valve is dealt below:-

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Proportional valve

The electric signal from the electronic circuit can also be converted into mechanical
one by means of improved design consisting of Proportional Valve. Proportional valve
is installed in the pressurized oil line and is operated by a solenoid energized by the
electrical signal from governor electronic cubical.

The proportional valve has three positions with infinite proportional action. The valve
is operated from the electronic governor output signal via a pilot pressure amplifier.
Depending upon the electrical signal, proportional valve connects the pressure line to
opening or closing line making the guide vanes open or close.

A linear variable differential transducer is fitted to the valve main spool to monitor the
position of guide vane position. The guide vane position is converted into electrical
voltage of +10 Volt to – 10 Volt depending upon whether it is fully open or close. This
electrical voltage acts as feedback signal.
The valve consists of following components :
• Housing (1) with main spool (2)
• Integrated electronics with inductive transducer (3) of main stage
• Pilot control valve (4) with spool sleeve unit (5), inductive transducer (6) and
pressure return for neutral setting of main spool (2)

Fig 8.72 Proportional Valve Construction

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One or several position control loops are provided depending on the version. Each
loop contains a servo interface with a servo amplifier and a transducer for the
actuator position measurement.

References.

1. http://www.tev.ntnu.no/vk/publikasjoner
2. Hydro Power Engineering – C.C Warnick
3. www. Vannkraftlaboratoriet - Publikasjoner.htm
4. Hydro Power – Prof Dr Ing Joachim Raabe
5. USACE – Engineering Manuals
6. USBR Flip Manuals
6. Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machine – Dr R K Bansal

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