The Laplace transformation

Laplace transformation
Reference book: network analysis “M.E. Van valkenberg ”, 3 r d edition

The Laplace transformation method for solving differential equations offers a

number of advantages over the classical methods. For example:

 The solution of differential equation is routine and progresses systematically

 The method gives the total solution- the particular integral and the
complimentary function-in one operation
 Initial conditions are automatically specified in the transformed equations

1.1 Use of logarithm transformation

Logarithm is an example of transformation that can greatly simplify such

operations as multiplication, division, extracting roots and raising quantities to the
powers.

1.1.1 Example #1

Evaluate the expression 𝑦 = 14370.1328 using table of logarithm

𝑦 = 14370.1328
log10 𝑦 = 0.1328 log10 1437
log10 𝑦 = 0.1328 ∗ log10 103 ∗ 1.437
log10 𝑦 = 0.1328 ∗ log10 103 + log10 1.437

From the logarithmic tables we can find log10 1.437 = 0.157456

log10 𝑦 = 0.1328 ∗ 3 + 0.157456

log10 𝑦 = 0.4193

Taking the anti logarithm (using logarithm table) for 𝑦 we get

𝑦 = 100.4193 = 2.626

1
The Laplace transformation

The individual steps followed in above solution process are

 Use the properties of logarithms

 Find the logarithm of each separate number
 Add or subtract the numbers to obtain the sum of logarithms
 Take the anti logarithm to obtain the product

The same idea can be used to illustrate what we will do in using Laplace transform
to solve a differential equation. General steps followed in this process are

 Start with the integro differential equation and find the corresponding
Laplace transform
 The transform is manipulated algebraically after the initial conditions are
inserted
 Perform an inverse Laplace transform to get the actual result

In this process, we will also use table of transforms, just as we use the table of
logarithms at appropriate places

1.2 The Laplace transformation

 The laplace transform of a time domain signal is given by

ℒ𝑓 𝑡 =𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0−

Where

𝑠 is a complex number given by 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔

 The lower limit of integration 𝑡 = 0− is considered for including the impulses

at 𝑡 = 0. Networks in which continuity conditions 𝑓(0−) = 𝑓(0+) is satisfied,
the choice of 0− or 0+is not important.

2
The Laplace transformation

∞
 In order that 𝑓 𝑡 be transformable, it is sufficient that 0−
𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝜎1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞

for a real, positive , 𝜎1

o The above restriction is satisfied by most 𝑓 𝑡 encountered in
engineering, since 𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 is a powerful reducing factor as a multiplier of
𝑓 𝑡 . Thus we may show by using l’Hospital rule that

lim 𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 = 0 , 𝜎>0

𝑡→∞

Such that the integral of the product, for 𝑛 = 1, is

∞
1
𝑡𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = , 𝜎>0
𝜎2
0−

And the integral for other values of n similarly remains finite for
𝜎≠0

2
 An example of a function that does not satisfy convergence condition is 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝑛
or, in general𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . There is no value of 𝜎 for which the convergence integral is
finite
 But the driving functions arise in engineering problems such as

2
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0
𝑣=
𝑘, 𝑡 > 𝑡0

Does, of course, satisfy convergence integral, hence transform exists

Example #2

 Consider the unit step function described by the equation

1, 𝑡≥0
𝑢 𝑡 =
0, 𝑡<0

Such a notation is convenient for representing the closing of the switch at

𝑡 = 0.

3
The Laplace transformation

∞
∞
−𝑠𝑡
1 1
ℒ𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 = , 𝜎>0
𝑠 0 𝑠
0−

U(t)
1

0 t

Figure 1: Unit step function

𝑉0
ℒ 𝑉0 𝑢 𝑡 =
𝑠

Example#3

 Consider

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 , Where 𝑎 is constant
∞

ℒ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0−
∞

= 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0−
1
= , 𝜎>𝑎
𝑠−𝑎
Table I: Table of Transform Pairs

𝑓 𝑡 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑢 𝑡 1
𝑠
𝑒𝑎𝑡 1
𝑠−𝑎

1.3 Inverse Laplace Transform

 Inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹(𝑠) is 𝑓(𝑡), given by the integral

4
The Laplace transformation

−𝜎1 +𝑗 ∞
1
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗
−𝜎1 −𝑗 ∞

For proper evaluation of inverse integral, we require that

𝜎1 > 𝜎𝑐

Where

𝜎𝑐 represents abscissa of convergence

 However, another property of the Laplace transformation makes it

unnecessary for us to use the inversion integral in most cases. This property
is the uniqueness of the Laplace transformation: There cannot be two
different functions having the same Laplace transformation, 𝐹 𝑠 .
 That being the case, we may use the table of transform pairs to find 𝑓 𝑡
provided we can find the necessary form of 𝐹 𝑠 in the table.

j
Abscissa of convergence

Path of integration of inversion

integral
  c 
1 

 j

Figure 2: Abscissa of convergence which relates to inverse Laplace transformation

1.4 Some basic theorems for the Laplace Transformations *

5
The Laplace transformation

Name Property
∞
Definition
ℒ𝑓 𝑡 =𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0−

Linearity ℒ 𝑎𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑓2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝐹1 𝑠 + 𝑏𝐹2 (𝑠)

Time differentiation 𝑑
ℒ 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓(0− )
𝑑𝑡
Time integration 𝑡
1
ℒ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠
0
*see reference book for related derivations

Example#4

Find the Laplace transform of cos 𝜔𝑡 and sin 𝜔𝑡

Solution: =

From the Euler’s identity which is, 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡, we have

𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡
cos 𝜔𝑡 =
2
𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡
sin 𝜔𝑡 =
2𝑗

We know that the transform of the exponential function is

1
ℒ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 = , 𝜎>0
𝑠−𝑎

Using the linearity property, we can write

1 1 1 𝑠
ℒ cos 𝜔𝑡 = + = 2 , 𝜎>0
2 𝑠 − 𝑗𝜔 𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑠 + 𝜔2

Similarly,

1 1 1 𝜔
ℒ sin 𝜔𝑡 = − = 2 , 𝜎>0
2𝑗 𝑠 − 𝑗𝜔 𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑠 + 𝜔2

1.3 Examples for the solution of problems with the Laplace

transformation

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The Laplace transformation

Example #5: RC series network

k R

t=0
+
C q(0 - )
V

i(t)

The voltage equation of the network is given by

𝑡
1
𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝑢(𝑡)
𝐶
−∞

The transform of the above equation is given by

1 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑞(0−) 𝑉
+ + 𝑅𝐼 𝑠 =
𝐶 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Assuming 𝑞(0−) = 0 (i.e. capacitor is uncharged initially), we get current expression

as

𝑉/𝑅
𝐼 𝑆 =
𝑠 + 1 𝑅𝐶

From the table of Laplace transform pairs, we get 𝑖(𝑡) as

𝑉 −𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 , 𝑡≥0
𝑅
= 0, 𝑡<0
𝑉
The arbitrary constant emerges evaluated (and has the magnitude )
𝑅

1.4 Table of Laplace transforms

𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹 𝑠
1. u(t) 1
𝑠
2. t 1
𝑠2

7
The Laplace transformation

𝑡 𝑛 −1 1
3. , 𝑛=integer
𝑛−1 !
𝑠𝑛
4. 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 1
𝑠−𝑎
5.
1
𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 1
𝑛−1 !
𝑠−𝑎 𝑛
6.
1
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑏𝑡 1
𝑎−𝑏
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑏
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 1
7. 𝑏−𝑎 𝑐−𝑎
+ 𝑎−𝑏 𝑐−𝑏
+ 𝑎−𝑐 𝑏−𝑐 𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑏 𝑠+𝑐
8. 1 − 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 −𝑎
𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)
9. sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜔
𝑠 + 𝜔2
2
10. cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑠
𝑠 + 𝜔2
2
11. 1 − cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜔2
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 𝜔 2 )
12. sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑠 sin 𝜃 + 𝜔 cos 𝜃
𝑠2 + 𝜔2
13. cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑠 cos 𝜃 − 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝑠2 + 𝜔2
14. 𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 1
𝑠−𝑎 2
15. 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜔
𝑠 + 𝛼 2 + 𝜔2
16. 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑠
𝑠 + 𝛼 2 + 𝜔2
17. sinh 𝛼𝑡 𝛼
𝑠 − 𝛼2
2
18. cosh 𝛼𝑡 𝑠
𝑠 − 𝛼2
2

*all 𝑓(𝑡) should be thought of as being multiplied by 𝑢(𝑡), i.e., 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 for 𝑡 < 0

1.5 Partial fraction expansion

 A differential equation of the general form

𝑑𝑛 𝑖 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑖
𝑎0 + 𝑎1 + … … … . +𝑎𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 −1

Becomes, as a result of the laplace transformation, an algebraic equation

which may be solved for the unknown as

ℒ 𝑣(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝐼 𝑠 =
𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛−1 + … … … . . +𝑎𝑛

8
The Laplace transformation

 The general form of this equation is quotient of polynomials in 𝑠. Let the

numerator and denominator polynomials be designated 𝑃(𝑠) and
𝑄 𝑠 , respectively,as

𝑃(𝑠)
𝐼 𝑠 =
𝑄 𝑠

𝑄 𝑠 = 0 is the characteristic equation. If the transform term 𝑃(𝑠)/𝑄(𝑠) can

now be found in a table of transform pairs, the solution for 𝑖(𝑡) can be written
directly. In general, however, the transform for 𝐼(𝑠) must be broken into
simpler terms before any practical transform table can be used

 The first step in the expansion of quotient 𝑃(𝑠)/𝑄(𝑠) we check to see that the
order of numerator polynomial 𝑃 is less than that of 𝑄. If this condition is not
satisfied, divide the numerator by the denominator to obtain an expansion in
the form

𝑃(𝑠) 𝑃1 (𝑠)
= 𝐵0 + 𝐵1 𝑠 + 𝐵2 𝑠 2 + … . +𝐵𝑚 −𝑛 𝑠 𝑚 −𝑛 +
𝑄 𝑠 𝑄(𝑠)

Where 𝑚 is the order of the numerator and 𝑛 the order of the denominator.
𝑃1 (𝑠)
The new function has now been “prepared” and the order rule is satisfied
𝑄(𝑠)

Example #6

Consider that the quotient

𝑃(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2
=
𝑄(𝑠) 𝑠+1

By direct division above fraction can be expressed as

𝑃(𝑠) 1
= 1+𝑠+
𝑄(𝑠) 𝑠+1

 Next, we factor the denominator polynomial

𝑄 𝑠 = 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛−1 + … … … . . +𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎0 𝑠 − 𝑠1 𝑠 − 𝑠2 … (𝑠 − 𝑠𝑛 )
𝑛

𝑄 𝑠 = 𝑎0 (𝑠 − 𝑠𝑗 )
𝑗 =1

9
The Laplace transformation

Where, Π indicates a product of factors, and 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , … … 𝑠𝑛 are the 𝑛 roots of the

equation 𝑄 𝑠 = 0. Now, the possible form of the these roots are

 Real and simple (or distinct roots)

 Conjugate complex roots
 Multiple roots

We will consider these possibilities separately

1) If all roots of 𝑄(𝑠)=0 are simple, then the partial fraction expansion is

𝑃1 (𝑠) 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
= + +⋯
𝑠 − 𝑠1 𝑠 − 𝑠2 … (𝑠 − 𝑠𝑛 ) 𝑠 − 𝑠1 𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑛

Where, 𝐾′s are real constants called residues

2) If a root of 𝑄(𝑠)=0 is of multiplicity 𝑟, then the partial fraction expansion is

𝑃1 (𝑠) 𝑘11 𝑘12 𝑘1𝑟

𝑟
= + 2
+⋯ 𝑟
𝑠 − 𝑠1 𝑠 − 𝑠1 𝑠 − 𝑠1 𝑠 − 𝑠1

And there will be similar term for every repeated root.

3) If two roots of 𝑄(𝑠)=0 form a complex conjugate pair, then the partial fraction
expansion is

𝑃1 (𝑠) 𝑘1 𝑘1 ∗
= + +⋯
𝑄 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝛼 + 𝑗𝜔 (𝑠 + 𝛼 − 𝑗𝜔) 𝑠 + 𝛼 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑠 + 𝛼 − 𝑗𝜔

Where 𝑘1 ∗ is the complex conjugate of 𝑘1 . An expansion of the type shown

above is necessary for each pair of complex conjugate roots

Example#7

Consider the quotient of polynomials

2𝑠 + 3
𝐼 𝑠 =
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2

Determine 𝑖(𝑡), using table of laplace transform pairs.

Solution:=

Step#1: Factor the denominator polynomial and then expand by appropriate rule

10
The Laplace transformation

2𝑠 + 3 2𝑠 + 3
=
𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 2)
𝑘1 𝑘2
= +
𝑠+1 𝑠+2

Step#2: Find constants 𝑘𝑖 as follows

−2 + 3
𝑘1 = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑠 + 1 𝑠=−1 ==1
−1 + 2
−4 + 3
𝑘2 = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2 𝑠=−2 = =1
−2 + 1
2𝑠 + 3 1 1
𝐼 𝑠 = 2 = +
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠+1 𝑠+2

Step#3: From the table of Laplace transform pairs and using linearity
property of transforms, 𝑖 𝑡 can be written as

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

Example#8

Consider the quotient of polynomials with repeated denominator roots

𝑠+2
𝐼 𝑠 =
𝑠+1 2

determine 𝑖(𝑡), using table of laplace transform pairs.

Solution :=

Step#1: Factor the denominator polynomial and then expand by appropriate rule

𝑠+2 𝑘11 𝑘12

𝐼 𝑠 = = +
𝑠 + 1 2 (𝑠 + 1) 𝑠+1 2

Step#2: find the constants 𝑘1𝑖 as follows

2
Multiplying by 𝑠 + 1 gives

𝑠 + 2 = 𝑠 + 1 𝑘11 + 𝑘12 …….(1)

When 𝑠 = −1, 𝑘12 can be evaluated readily, and given by

𝑘12 = 1

11
The Laplace transformation

If, we attempt to follow the same pattern to evaluate 𝑘11 , trouble develops. That is,

𝑠+2 𝑘12
= 𝑘11 +
𝑠+1 𝑠+1

If, in this equation, 𝑠 = −1, one term becomes infinite and 𝑘11 cannot be evaluated.
However, the problem can be resolved if we return to equation (1) and differentiate
with respect to 𝑠:

1 + 0 = 𝑘11 + 0 or 𝑘11 = 1

𝑠+2 1 1
𝐼 𝑠 = 2
= + 2
𝑠+1 (𝑠 + 1) 𝑠+1

Step#3: Take inverse Laplace transform using table of Laplace transform pairs

𝑖 𝑡 = (𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡)

Example#9

Consider the quotient of polynomials with complex conjugate pair of roots

1
𝐼 𝑠 =
𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 5

determine 𝑖(𝑡), using table of laplace transform pairs.

Step#1: Factor the denominator polynomial and then expand by appropriate rule

1 1 𝑘1 𝑘1∗
𝐼 𝑠 = 2 = = +
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5 𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗2 𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗2 𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗2 𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗2

Step#2: find the constants 𝑘𝑖 same as in the cased with real and distinct roots case

1 1 𝑗 (−900 )
𝑘1 = 𝐼 𝑠 𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗2 𝑠=−1+𝑗 2 = −𝑗 = 𝑒
4 4
1 1 𝑗 (900 )
𝑘2 = 𝑘1∗ = 𝑗 = 𝑒
4 4

12
The Laplace transformation

1 1
1 −𝑗 4 𝑗4
𝐼 𝑠 = 2 = +
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5 𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗2 𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗2

Step#3: Take inverse Laplace transform using table of Laplace transform pairs

1 𝑗 (−900 ) − 1−𝑗 2 𝑡 1 0
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑗 (90 ) 𝑒 − 1+𝑗 2 𝑡
4 4
1 −𝑡 𝑗 2𝑡−900 1 −𝑡 −𝑗 2𝑡−900
= 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑒
4 4
1 −𝑡 𝑗 2𝑡−900 0
= 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝑡−90
4
2 1 −𝑡 𝑗 2𝑡−900 0
= 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝑡−90
2 4
1 −𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 cos 2𝑡−900 = 0.5𝑒 −𝑡 sin 2t
2
Note:

 To use some transform tables, terms having complex conjugate roots are
some times revised by completing the square. In this example

𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5 = 𝑠 + 1 2
+ 22

So that

1 1
=
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5 𝑠 + 1 2 + 22

2 1
=
2 𝑠 + 1 2 + 22
𝜔
By using the Laplace transform pair ℒ[𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡] → , above equation
𝑠+𝛼 2 +𝜔 2
can be reduced to 0.5𝑒 −𝑡 sin 2t.

Exercise problems

 Solve problems numbered (7-1) to (7-20) from page number 194 and 195 in
reference book
 Find the inverse laplace transform for following s- domain functions using
table of transforms
2𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2
1. 𝐼 𝑠 = 𝑠+1 3

13
The Laplace transformation

𝑠+2
2. 𝐼 𝑠 = 𝑠+1 2 +(𝑠+3)
3. Solve problems (7-29),(7-30),(7-31),(7-32) from page number 196 and
197 in reference book

================================================================
=====

14