Microprocessor Architecture Tutorials

Microprocessors function as the "brain" of a computer system. As technology has progressed,

microprocessors have become faster, smaller and capable of doing more work per clock cycle.

However, when trying to choose a microprocessor, it is difficult to understand what the

designations mean. Should you choose an x64 processor or an x86 processor? Is a dual-core fast
enough, or do you need a quad-core processor? Understanding the differences in microprocessor
architecture will aid in the decision-making process.

X64 vs. X86

1. A microprocessor may be listed for sale as an "x86 processor" or an "x64 processor." What is the
difference, though?

An "x86" processor is a microprocessor that is capable of processing information in 32-bit pieces

(called "instructions"). Each "bit" is a piece of information that the computer uses to transmit
information, run computations and perform other such processes. A processor using x86
architecture is considered to be a successor technology to the original microprocessors used in
the IBM PC. Since the original processor used in an IBM PC was based upon the Intel 8086
microprocessor, successive microprocessors using the same set of instructions to run have been
named similarly--the 80286, 80386 and 80486, for example.

A microprocessor using x64 architecture is slightly different than the x86 processor. An x64
processor is capable of processing not only 32-bit instructions, but also 64-bit instructions as
well. Because of the increased capability of the x64 microprocessor, a computer that utilizes an
x64 microprocessor is also capable of utilizing more memory (128 GB maximum vs. 4 GB
maximum) than a computer with an x86 microprocessor.

An x64 microprocessor, therefore, would be the better choice if you plan to use the computer
for memory-intensive applications, or if you need better overall performance out of your
computer system.

Dual-Core vs. Quad-Core Architecture

2. Many microprocessors made by Intel and AMD are multi-core processors. What this means is
that within one microprocessor, there are two or more central processing units (cores) within
one integrated circuit package.

As their names imply, "dual-core" multiprocessors have two CPU cores in the multiprocessor
package, and "quad-core" multiprocessors have four CPU cores. Depending upon the software
being used, the operating system the computer system has installed and the amount of memory
available to the computer system, a quad-core system is capable of running more simultaneous
 processes than a dual-core system.

However, some older software or operating systems (such as Windows 95, Windows 98 or
Windows Me) are not capable of utilizing multi-core microprocessors. If the software or
operating system is incapable of utilizing the resources available, using a multi-core
microprocessor is no different than using a single-core microprocessor.

Which Architecture is Right For Me?

3. If you plan on using several applications at once, or you use applications that are memory-
intensive, a quad-core, x64 microprocessor is probably the right one for you. If you use your
computer system for smaller tasks, such as word processing and email, a single- or dual-core x86
microprocessor will most likely suit your needs nicely.

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Microprocessor Tutorials

Microprocessors are electrical devices that utilize binary logic circuitry to process data that is
input to it from other devices. Though the architectural design of a microprocessor is complex in
nature, their overall functionality is not. In its simplest explanation, a microprocessor simply
applies a logical instruction to binary numbers and outputs the result.

Instruction sets

1. All microprocessors come with a pre-programmed set of instructions. These instructions are
hard-wired into the microprocessor's circuitry and provide for one logical binary action such as
incrementing a binary field by one. In fact, microprocessors often come with several instruction
sets for specific purposes. For example, the Intel Pentium processor not only contains the x86
instruction set, but also introduced the MMX instruction set, which added additional
instructions and logical binary actions to assist in the manipulation of multimedia processing.
 These instruction sets define a processor's capabilities and often are a good measure of any
microprocessor's true processing performance.

Registers

2. Registers are small on-die memory locations built into the microprocessor, which are utilized to
store binary data and the currently executing instruction to apply to that data. The size of a
register's memory capacity is dictated by the overall architecture of the microprocessor. For
example, a 16-bit microprocessor would have a register AX and BX, whereas a 32-bit processor
would have a register called EAX and EBX. The E signifies that the register has been extended to
encompass a 32-bit field as opposed to the 16-bit field available to the standard 16-bit register.
Registers are the direct working memory of a microprocessor itself and all input and output data
goes through these registers directly before and after instruction execution has occurred.

Data Flow and Cache Memory

3. Cache memory is the immediately available memory between all other hardware in a computer
and the microprocessor itself. Cache memory is the first step in the data processing procedure.
This is where instructions and requests from all other hardware within a computer are initially
presented to the microprocessor. The microprocessor then utilizes a processing engine such as
the out-of-order core to dictate that instruction needs to be applied in what order to allow for
coherent and efficient processing. It is also during this time in cache memory that a
microprocessor, if designed with such circuitry, will utilize a predication engine in an attempt to
save processing cycles by simply repeating instructions that are already in the cache as opposed
to re-requesting them from the computer's main memory. The data and instructions are moved
from the cache memory into registers to be taken to the execution engine which will apply the
binary instructions to its associated data and output the results back into the cache memory.
Once this is accomplished, the information is then sent to the appropriate requesting device
which sent the original microprocessor interrupt and data to the on-die cache memory.

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Intel 8085 Microprocessor

The Intel 8085 microprocessor was one of the first microprocessors released by Intel in the late
1970s. The Intel 8085 microprocessor was the successor to Intel's 8080 processing unit, whose
most notable features were that of increased compatibility and a much simpler voltage
requirement. The Intel 8085 microprocessor saw its greatest use not as a system processor, but
rather as a microcontroller for many other hardware applications.

Intel 8085 Processing Architecture

1. The Intel 8085 was an 8-bit microprocessor design. This is to say that the largest chunk of
information the 8085 could process at any given time was limited to eight bits. The 8085
microprocessor came in three variants: the 8085A, 8085AH, and M8085AH. The difference
between these three variants is their clock operating speed of 3, 5, and 6 MHz respectively. The
final distinguishing characteristics of the 8085 microprocessor was that of the single +5 Volt rail
requirement and its 6500 transistor count--500 more than its predecessor.

Applications

2. The 8085 microprocessor actually saw very little use as a central processing unit. Rather, it's
most prevalent implementation was that of a microcontroller. The Intel 8085 microcontroller
was most notably used on instrumentation by NASA during physics missions until the early
2000s. Remarkably, the 8085 microcontroller was used in the VT100 video terminal beginning in
the late 1970s, and continued to be utilized by that product family through many iterations of
the product over the course of many years. This fact is remarkable, considering that even today,
microprocessors rarely have an effective life greater than one or two years.

Instructions and Registers

3. The operational instructions of the Intel 8085 were the same as its predecessor, the 8080,
except for two new instructions. The 8085 had seven processing registers. These registers were
eight bits wide and had the capability of performing 16-bit operations if they were paired
together with other registers. This process worked by placing the operating instruction in the
first 8-bit register, and additional instruction or execution data in the subsequent register space.

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About the Microprocessor Industry

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The microprocessor industry makes the chips that run today's technology, including, but not
limited to, computers, calculators, cellular phones, video game consoles, digital cameras and
PDAs. The Intel 8080 was made in April 1974 and is considered the first commercial
microprocessor, according to Richard Birkby's "A Brief History of the Microprocessor." Intel
invented the first microprocessor three years before the 8080, according to Intel. There are
several other active microprocessor manufacturers.

Intel

1. Intel is primarily known for making the "Pentium" brand of microprocessors used in home
computers. The company was founded in 1968 and is notable for its major contributions to the
development of microprocessors. Intel's processors are found in computers, handheld
computing devices, cellular phones, and in the telecommunications industry. In early 2010, Intel
was the leading computer processor manufacturer with a market share of over 80 percent.

AMD

2. Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) is primarily known for making computer microprocessors and
for its lower-cost K6 processor that helped reduce the cost of a consumer PC. The company was
founded in 1969. The company is also known for demonstrating the first dual-core x86
(commercial 32-bit computer) processor and for its early 64-bit processor design. In early 2010,
AMD was the second-largest computer processor manufacturer with a market share of just
under 19 percent.

VIA

3. VIA Technologies is another microprocessor manufacturer, however, the company is better

known for making motherboard (the device that the processor uses to communicate with the
rest of the computer) components. VIA was founded in 1987 and aquired the Cyrix and Centaur
microprocessor manufacturers in 1999. In early 2010, VIA was the third-largest computer
processor manufacturer with a market share of 0.2 percent.
 IBM

4. IBM is known for creating the "IBM-PC" standard and establishing the home computer industry
in 1981 with the IBM Personal Computer. IBM used to manufacture microprocessors for home
computers, notably having a part in the "Power PC" processor used by generations of Apple
computers. But the company has moved into making other types of microprocessors. IBM's
"Cell" processor is used in the PlayStation 3 video game console and may eventually appear in
TV sets, home servers and supercomputers.

ARM

5. ARM is known for designing and licensing microprocessors used in cellular phones and other
mobile devices, as opposed to home computers. ARM does not manufacture its own processors.
The company was formed in 1990 as a result of a joint effort between Apple Computers and
Acorn Computer Group. ARM's manufacturers have shipped more than 15 billion ARM-licensed
chips, as of early 2010.

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How Do Desktop Microprocessors Work?

Basics

1. A microprocessor can be thought of as the brain of your computer. It may also be referred to as
a CPU (central processing unit). The introduction of the microprocessor to the world occurred in
1971 with the first Intel chip. There are several different manufacturers of microprocessors, but
all microprocessors operate under the same basic principles.

Parts of a Microprocessor

2. A microprocessor receives and executes commands. The basic function that the microprocessor
uses to calculate data is referred to as the ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit). It is the part of the
microprocessor that can calculate simple math instructions such as addition, subtraction,
division and multiplication. A microprocessor is also capable of moving a piece of information
from one location in the memory of the computer to another. A microprocessor can also make
its own decisions based on the data it receives and begin a new list of instructions determined
by the decisions it made.
 A microprocessor is composed of a few basic sections that enable it to do its job. The first
section is called the address bus, which directs an address to the computer's memory. The
address would be the same thing as a file you save and the storage place would be the same
thing as a folder on your hard drive. Next is the data bus, which can move data to the memory
or take in data from the memory. A write and a read line instructs the memory to get the
address location and set it in place. There is also the clock line, which is a clock that controls the
timing of the pulse sequence in the processor, which tells the microprocessor when to run a
command. Lastly, there is a reset line, which will, as the name implies, reset the counter for a
program to zero and restart the executable for the program.

ROM and RAM

3. ROM (Read-Only Memory) is pre-programmed with a set of bytes. The ROM is instructed by the
address bus which byte to send and where to send it on the data bus. When the read line is
changed, the ROM chip sends the selected byte to the data bus. The ROM is important to the
function of the microprocessor because it stores the information needed to start the computer
each time you turn it on.

RAM (Random-Access Memory) contains bytes of information that can be written over by the
microprocessor. The microprocessor reads or writes those bytes and that is determined by
whether the read line or the write line is accessed. The RAM is important because it gives the
microprocessor room to make decisions and temporarily save important application data.

Every computer contains at least some amount of ROM. This is because ROM stores its byte
information after a computer is shut down and RAM does not. As soon as a computer starts the
microprocessor starts running commands for the BIOS. The term BIOS (Basic Input/Output
System) is the term that computer manufacturers use to refer to the ROM (Read-Only Memory).
The ROM and the BIOS are the same thing. After the BIOS commands are run the
microprocessor goes to find the boot sector. The boot sector is the part of your hard drive that
contains information for starting programs. After the boot sector is found it will run the boot
sector's RAM instructions. The boot sector will then tell the microprocessor to grab more
commands from the RAM. This continues until all the programs necessary to start the computer
are loaded and running.

AMD Vs. Intel Microprocessor

For many computer enthusiasts, the debate between AMD and Intel microprocessors has been
ongoing. Over the years, however, these processors have changed significantly. Any comparison
between AMD and Intel has to take into consideration the microprocessor platform that supports
it as well as the kind of work the microprocessor is expected to do. By extension, the features
that surround the processor as well as the platforms also determine the performance of the
processor.
 Application Performance

1. Running multimedia applications in a multitasking environment can work a processor to the

edge. Application performance determines how a microprocessor is able to handle day-to-day
standard office applications that require running an Internet application, a graphics program and
a word-processing application at the same time. AMD X2 processors tend to perform better in a
multitasking environment than Intel processors of the same technical features.

Gaming

2. 3D gaming can determine the performance of a microprocessor. Tests are done by turning off
the advanced onboard graphics chip and letting the microprocessor do the heavy lifting. In 3D
gaming, the AMD X2 processor shows much superior 3D gaming performance, making it much
better suited to 3D gaming.

Photo Editing

3. Image conversions are processor-intensive tasks that may consume a lot of processor time. AMD
X2 processors tend to outperform Intel processors by giving better photo-editing performance in
terms of CPU usage.

MP3 Encoding

4. Encoding audio is another processor-intensive activity. Processors have been designed to

support multiple processor threads, which is important in encoding. Dual-core CPUs that
support multiple threading from Intel seem to outperform AMD processors by a margin of 20
percent.

Video Encoding

5. New products such as Microsoft Media Center and other home entertainment applications that
support video encoding are becoming commonplace. Video encoding scores are thus an
important consideration in any comparison between the two processors. The AMD X2 and the
Intel Pentium D processors seem to be statistically tied when it comes to video encoding. AMD
microprocessors have maintained a consistent streak of high performance that competes well
with Intel processors in this area.

Price

6. Price is determined based on the performance per the dollar spent. Generally, AMD
microprocessors tend to be cheaper compared to Intel processors offering the same
performance. However, the difference is minimal, usually due to the way the pricing is done.
While AMD X2 chips are offered at per-individual-unit pricing, Intel processors are provided at a
suggested equivalent price that is based on 1,000-unit lots.
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64 Bit Vs. 32 Bit

Before 2003, most desktop computers used 32-bit processors. But in 2003, AMD (Advanced
Micro Devices) introduced 64-bit extensions to Intel's IA-32 microprocessor architecture. These
advances allowed for an increase in the amount of memory that a computer could use, as well as
sparking a new speed war between AMD and Intel.

Bit size

1. A bit is a piece of information that can be represented by a single electrical switch. It can hold a
binary numerical value of either 1 or 0. Add a second switch, and you have a computer that can
run operations on two electrical switches simultaneously. This allows for values of 0 ("00" in a
two-bit system), 1 ("01"), 2 ("10") or 3 ("11").

A modern processor uses a 64-bit system, which can address values from 0 to
18,446,744,073,709,551,615. A 32-bit system addresses values from 0 to 4,294,967,295, which
is roughly 4 gigabytes, and is a much smaller number.

Memory

2. The biggest difference between a 32-bit processor and a 64-bit processor is the amount of
memory that each can use at one time. The upper limit for a 32-bit processor is 4 gigabytes--64
gigabytes with a 36-bit extension called Physical Address Extension, which is only used by server
versions of Microsoft Windows, as well as most distributions of Linux (Red Hat or Ubuntu, for
instance.) The upper limit for a 64-bit system is 16 exabytes, four billion times as large as the
typical memory size for a consumer level computer.

With many modern computers--as of 2010--shipping with at least four gigabytes of RAM, this
difference has started to become a major advantage of 64-bit processors and operating systems.

Drivers

3. One place in which 32-bit still shines is driver support. While most modern hardware comes with
both 32-bit and 64-bit drivers, many hardware manufacturers are slow to release a 64-bit
driver--like a driver for the LaserJet your office bought back in 1987 and has not yet replaced.
 This has been a major barrier to the adoption of 64-bit operating systems. Because most
manufactures don't want to spend the money on writing a driver for 15-year-old hardware, and
because most people don't want to spend money on replacing a decent piece of kit, the
adoption of 64-bit software and operating systems has been somewhat slow.

Software

4. Besides drivers, another disadvantage to 64-bit computing is that most software does not take
advantage of the larger address size that properly written 64-bit software can use. While
virtually all 64-bit processors and operating systems can run 32-bit software, there is no
particular advantage to it, as far as the software's performance is concerned.

Some software that does come in a 64-bit flavor will perform slower than its 32-bit counterpart.
An example is the 64-bit version of Oracle's Java interpreter. Other software packages will gain
no particular advantage, such as the 64-bit version of Adobe Photoshop. On the other hand, a
few will gain a noticably large performance boost from the switch to 64-bit, simply because a
64-bit system can--within the limits of the system RAM--load entire files into memory, even
when they exceed 4 gigabytes in size.

Conclusion

5. Taking into mind the advantages and disadvantages of 64-bit, there isn't any good reason not to
use it. A 64-bit computer running a 64-bit operating system will still run 32-bit software just as
well as a 32-bit operating system running on the same processor. Most of the disadvantages of
64-bit are transient. As 64-bit systems are becoming increasingly common, software vendors
and hardware manufacturers will be forced to update all of their code to be compatible. This will
eventually result in a future where all 32-bit support has been dropped, and all efforts will be
focused on making 64-bit code as efficient as possible.

6. The Function of a Microprocessor

A microprocessor, also known as the central processing unit (CPU), is the heart of the computer.
Microprocessors function in the same manner whether on a desktop computer, laptop computer,
or a server.

History

1. The first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was made in 1971. It wasn't very fast and it could only
add and subtract.

Size

2. A microprocessor houses all of its computation power on a single chip. A chip is usually a thin
square piece of silicon containing millions of transistors.
 Features

3. A microprocessor performs mathematical functions using its arithmetic logic unit, (ALU).
Modern processors have the ability to perform large arithmetic computations using floating
point processors. Floating point processors allow microprocessors to perform sophisticated
computations quickly and accurately.

Significance

4. A microprocessor helps to move data from one memory location to another. Microprocessors
allow you to transfer information from a USB flash drive to your computer's hard drive in a
matter of seconds, depending on the size of the file being moved.

Benefits

5. Microprocessors make quick decisions and handle multiple instructions based on those quick
decisions. The instruction register and instruction decoder, using the binary system of encoding
and decoding data, allowing the microprocessor to quickly perform user requested tasks.