Model Logic Mathematical

Mathematical logic is a subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of
formal logic to mathematics. It bears close connections to metamathematics,

the foundations of mathematics, and theoretical computer science.[1] The unifying themes in
mathematical logic include the study of the expressive power of formal systems and
the deductive power of formal proof systems.
Mathematical logic is often divided into the fields of set theory, model theory, recursion
theory, and proof theory. These areas share basic results on logic, particularly first-order
logic, and definability. In computer science (particularly in the ACM Classification)
mathematical logic encompasses additional topics not detailed in this article; see Logic in
computer science for those.
Since its inception, mathematical logic has both contributed to, and has been motivated by,
the study of foundations of mathematics. This study began in the late 19th century with the
development of axiomatic frameworks for geometry, arithmetic, and analysis. In the early
20th century it was shaped by David Hilbert's program to prove the consistency of
foundational theories. Results of Kurt Gödel, Gerhard Gentzen, and others provided partial
resolution to the program, and clarified the issues involved in proving consistency. Work in
set theory showed that almost all ordinary mathematics can be formalized in terms of sets,
although there are some theorems that cannot be proven in common axiom systems for set
theory. Contemporary work in the foundations of mathematics often focuses on establishing
which parts of mathematics can be formalized in particular formal systems (as in reverse
mathematics) rather than trying to find theories in which all of mathematics can be
developed.
Contents
 1Subfields and scope

 2History
o 2.1Early history
o 2.219th century
 2.2.1Foundational theories
o 2.320th century
 2.3.1Set theory and paradoxes
 2.3.2Symbolic logic
 2.3.3Beginnings of the other branches
 3Formal logical systems
o 3.1First-order logic
o 3.2Other classical logics
o 3.3Nonclassical and modal logic
o 3.4Algebraic logic
 4Set theory
 5Model theory
 6Recursion theory
o 6.1Algorithmically unsolvable problems
 7Proof theory and constructive mathematics
 8Applications
 9Connections with computer science
 10Foundations of mathematics
 11See also
 12Notes
 13References
o 13.1Undergraduate texts
o 13.2Graduate texts
o 13.3Research papers, monographs, texts, and surveys
o 13.4Classical papers, texts, and collections
 14External links
Subfields and scope[edit]

The Handbook of Mathematical Logic (Barwise 1989) makes a rough division of
contemporary mathematical logic into four areas:
1. set theory
2. model theory
3. recursion theory, and
4. proof theory and constructive mathematics (considered as parts of a single area).
Each area has a distinct focus, although many techniques and results are shared among
multiple areas. The borderlines amongst these fields, and the lines separating
mathematical logic and other fields of mathematics, are not always sharp. Gödel's
incompleteness theorem marks not only a milestone in recursion theory and proof theory,
but has also led to Löb's theorem in modal logic. The method of forcing is employed in set
theory, model theory, and recursion theory, as well as in the study of intuitionistic
mathematics.
The mathematical field of category theory uses many formal axiomatic methods, and
includes the study of categorical logic, but category theory is not ordinarily considered a
subfield of mathematical logic. Because of its applicability in diverse fields of mathematics,
mathematicians including Saunders Mac Lane have proposed category theory as a
foundational system for mathematics, independent of set theory. These foundations
use toposes, which resemble generalized models of set theory that may employ classical or
nonclassical logic.
History[edit]
Mathematical logic emerged in the mid-19th century as a subfield of mathematics,
reflecting the confluence of two traditions: formal philosophical logic and mathematics
(Ferreirós 2001, p. 443). "Mathematical logic, also called 'logistic', 'symbolic logic', the
'algebra of logic', and, more recently, simply 'formal logic', is the set of logical theories
elaborated in the course of the last [nineteenth] century with the aid of an artificial notation
and a rigorously deductive method."[2] Before this emergence, logic was studied
with rhetoric, with calculationes,[3] through the syllogism, and with philosophy. The first half
of the 20th century saw an explosion of fundamental results, accompanied by vigorous
debate over the foundations of mathematics.
Early history[edit]
Further information: History of logic
Theories of logic were developed in many cultures in history,
including China, India, Greece and the Islamic world. In 18th-century Europe, attempts to
treat the operations of formal logic in a symbolic or algebraic way had been made by
philosophical mathematicians including Leibniz and Lambert, but their labors remained
isolated and little known.
19th century[edit]
In the middle of the nineteenth century, George Boole and then Augustus De
Morgan presented systematic mathematical treatments of logic. Their work, building on
work by algebraists such as George Peacock, extended the traditional Aristotelian doctrine
of logic into a sufficient framework for the study of foundations of mathematics (Katz 1998,
p. 686).
Charles Sanders Peirce built upon the work of Boole to develop a logical system for
relations and quantifiers, which he published in several papers from 1870 to 1885. Gottlob
Fregepresented an independent development of logic with quantifiers in his Begriffsschrift,
published in 1879, a work generally considered as marking a turning point in the history of
logic. Frege's work remained obscure, however, until Bertrand Russell began to promote it
near the turn of the century. The two-dimensional notation Frege developed was never
widely adopted and is unused in contemporary texts.
From 1890 to 1905, Ernst Schröder published Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik in
three volumes. This work summarized and extended the work of Boole, De Morgan, and
Peirce, and was a comprehensive reference to symbolic logic as it was understood at the
end of the 19th century.
Foundational theories

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Mathematical logic is a subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of

formal logic to mathematics. It bears close connections to metamathematics,

 1Subfields and scope

Subfields and scope[edit]

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