LG1
LG1
LG1
Anryer
1986Sr.
TRANSLATED FROM THE RUSSIAN
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, NE-40
AUGUST 17, 1986
OtTE•S
Introduction
experts employed by the USSR State Commission Commnittee on the Use of Atanic
Energy:
Abagyan, A. A. Mysenkov, A. I.
Asmlov, V. G. Pavlovskiy, 0. A.
Gus'kova, A. K. Petrov, V. N.
Denin, V. F. Pikalov, V. K.
Ii'in, L. A. Protsenko, A. N.
Izrael', Yu. A. Ryazantsev, Ye. P.
Kalugin, A. K. Sivintsev, Yu. V.
Konviz, V. S. Sukhoruchkin, V. K.
Kuz'znin, I. I. Tokarenko, V. F.
Kuntsevich, A. D. Khirulev, A. A.
Soperations were begun for containing and eliminating the consequences of the
accident.
around it.
Ca~inittee of the Cammunist Party of the Soviet Union) for coordinating the
the accident and carrying ou.t the necessary emergency and reconstruction
me~asures. The necessary scientific,. technical and econaomic capabilities and
resources of the country were provided.
They informed the world catuunity about their asses•Tent of the situation.
imagine the future of the world econamy without nuclear power. However, its
further development ruist be accarpanied by still greater efforts on the part
safety.
events of low probability. The Soviet Union draws the proper conclusions
the risk of hiuman diseases and t~he loss of water-and forests due to the '
continuous passage of harmful chemical substances into the biosphere.
The development of the world' s nuclear power resources brings with it,
in addition to gain in the area of the energy supply and the preservation of
radiation accidents, the problem of the spread of nuclear weapons and the
'flie indispitable lesson of (2hernobyl' for us lies in the fact that under
Atomnic Energy."
CHAPTER 1i. DESCRPTION OF THE CHERNOBYL' NUCL.EAR POWqER ST~ATION
"WITH RBK-1OOO REACTORS
The planned poe of the Qiernobyl's Po• Station (ChAES), was 60140,
and cn January 1, 1986, the power of four units of the AES was 4000140. The
third and fourth units belong to the second phase of the ChAES and to the
1) vertical channels with the fuel and the heat-transfer agent, which
penmit local reloading of fuel with a working reactor;
of the reactor and the AES, both advantages and shortcomings. The
controlling of the flow rate for each channel separately, uonitoring of the
the inlet-outlet piping system for the heat-transfer agent of each channel;
equidpped with two identical cooling loops; 840 parallel vertical channels
A cooling loop has four mteain parallel circulation pxrps (three working
pumps feeding 7000 t/h of water each with a head of about 1.5 MWa, and one
back-up pump).
two horizontal. gravity separators. The dry steam (with a mocisture content
less than 0.1%) separated in them passes fram each separator at a pressure
3
of 7 MPa in two steam lines into two turbines with a poer of 500 F•
• (electrical) each (all eight steam lines of the fou.r separators are jointed
by a commo~n "ring"1 ), and the water, after mixing with steam codeste, is
fed by 12 down pipes into the intake collector of the mrain cooling pumps.
pump inlet.
fuel and the heat-transfer mediumn built into cylindric apertures of graphite
column~s, and top and bottczm protective plates. A light cylindric housing
section with cylindric apertures along the axis assembled into columnus. The
block structure rests on the bottomi plate, which transmits the weight of the
down of neutrons and absorption of gamma quanta°. For reducing the thermal
the same time for monitoring the integrity of the channels by mreasuring the
There are spaces under the bottom and over the top plates for placing
~hat carrier pipes on routes f rom the separator drums (BS) and distributing
of the channel, unseals the channel, removes the burned-cat (fuel elemnts
(TVE) and replaces then with a fresh one, seals the channel, uncouples
itself and transports the irradiated TIVS to a holding tank. I•iile the PZM
is connected to the cavity of the channel ('lK), a small flow of pure water
"barrier" to the penetration of the RZM by hot, radioactive water from the
The system for control and protection (SUZ) of the reactor is based on
movement of 211 solid absorber rods in specially isolated channels cooled
functioning of the AZ.* The low rate of mo~vement of the control systn is
caested for by the large number of systems.
5
The SUZ includes subsystans for local automatic control (LAR) and local
emrgency protection (IAZ). Both operate according to signals of ionization
areas. Shortened absorber rods (USP) introduced into the zone fran the
bottom (24 rods) are included for controlling the power fields along "the
energy along the radius (rmore than 100 channels) and the height (12
fission chambers) ;
3) a systsn for mo~nitoring the water flow rate along each channel with
ball flov~reters;
water-stea lines (PVK) at the outlet fran each channel; the activity is
by a special carriage;
nreasuring the humiidity and the tenperature of. the gas flowzing in the
channels.
All the data pass to a cctputer. The information is given out to the
operators in the form of deviation signals, indications (on call) and data
of recorders.
The EB•4-1000 power units operate primarily in a base-load mrode (at
the reactor occurs only if indicators of the poer level, pressure or water
level in the separator pass beyond acceptable limits, in a case of a general.
corresponding to the powr of the equipment which has recai~ned in' operation)
is envisaged.
used as the heat-transfer medJium. The reactor has the following basic
characteristics:
Thermal power 3200 ?4W
The operating reactivity margin me~ans the specific number of SUZ rods
plunged into the active zone which are in a region of high differential
efficiency. It is determined by recalculation for fully suhmerged SUZ rods.
zone. In initial charging of the AZ, which includes abcut 240 boron-
ccitaining additional absorbers (DP), dehydration results in a negative.
reactivity effect.
position of the cut-off and control valves at the inlet to each channel has
been developed for RBJ4K reactors. Thus the possibility of determining the
outlet steam quality or on the margin of the critical power) and also as a
For defining the fields of the release of energy over the active zone
regulating rods, the distribition of water flow rates along channels of the
active zone and readings of gages of the pressure and temperatuire o f the
the form of a cartogram of the active zone, which indicates the type of
loading of the active zone, the arrangement of regulation rods, the network
power levels, water flow rates, reserves up to critical powers and reserves
each fuel channel of the reactor. The station computer also cariputes the
ov'erall thenzal power of the reactor, the distribution of flc• rates of the
the steam content at the outlet fram each TK and other paramreters necessary
irq temperature conditions of the fuel and the graphite and reserves before
a crisis of convective heat transfer at an acceptable level causes no
difficulties.
active zone.
the duct due to removal of steam into a perforated sprayer tank for its
condensation.
The syst~n for protection of the reactor space (RP) is intended for
the steam-gas mixture fraom the RP into the screen of steam-gas discharges of
the sprayer tank and then into the sprayer tank with sinuitaneous
I extinguishing of the chain reaction with the AZ facilities. The SAOR and
12
the system for cooling the reactor space can be used for introducing the•
appropriate neutron absorbers (salts of boron and He).
the PVK pipelines, the top tracts of the operating channels and that part of
the dauwn pipes w~hich is located in the separator drumn compartment, and
-tr•ts
car of separator group collectors (RGK) and bottam water
Electric power users at an ABS are divided into three grouaps, depending
transformrers for system needs, and who require the obligatory presence of a
tens of minutes under the sane conditions and require the obligatory
for syst~n needs and in a normal nodel of operation of the unit can permit
AES autumted control systen and is intended for collection, processing and
0o uOT. xrp eq'. tr7 s~doTS e•;.xns ;tqS-.is i.IaA tq-.r ;arr•' ;2u lar~-r•.2¶a
;o
0S'(Utq 8t4 UO 'U121d TITAnTTV u-I• X){Fi-...t2ssflZOl• •4 52 U~ou'
s~.T~od ToX'4uco • 9 •
16
around the AES anounted to about 100 thcusand people, of whan 49 thousand
protection zone of the AES, while 12.5 thousand lived in the regional
center, the city of Chernobyl', located 15 Jun to the southeast of the AES.
The first phase of the Chernobyl' AES, ccxriposed of t pwer• units with
RB1K-l000 reactors, was bailt in the period of 1970-1977, and construction
of two power units of a second phase was completed at the sane site by the
,end of 1983,
Construction of another t•D power units with reactors of the same kind
(the third phase of the AES) was begun 1.5 Jun southeast of this site in
1981.
To the southeast of the AES site, right in the valley of the Pripyati
2 ; the pond
R~iver, a wrater cooling pond was bailt with an area of 22 kin
first four power units. The nomrmal retaining level of water in the cooling
pond was adopted as 3.5 in below the grading mark of the AES site°
17
To the west and north of the site of the first and Second phases of the
AES is the area of the construction base and the supply department.
There were 176 duty operating personnel and, also, other workers of
various shops and repair services at the site of the first and second phases
the night shift at the site of the third phase of the AES.
commocn to the two units and have special water purification systens ocrmmcn
18
to the two units and auxiliary structures and the industrial site which
The storage for liquid radioactive wastes, built as part of the second
phase of the AES, is intended for collection and temporary storage of liquid
radioactive wastes arriving in operation of the third and fourth units and
for collection of water fram operational flushing and its recovery for
by electric trucks.
the AES with campressed air, hydrogen, helium and argon. Receivers for
diesel generators with a unit power of 5.5 !4 were installed on each RDES of
the third and fourth units. Intermrediate and base diesel fuel dept, pump f ;
19
transfers of fuel, and emrgency fuel and oil drainage tanks are included
for ensuring operation of the PDES.
The source of the technical water supply for the third and fourth units
The water of the circulation pump house, which is unified for the third
and fourth units, is fed into a delivery tank, from which it passes by
Separate water i'rks of the third and fourth units are included for
All four poer units of the first and second phases and auxiliary
systems and industrial area facilities involved with their nrmz~al operation
1983. By the tine of stropping of the plant for a mediumr repair, which was
planned for April 25, 1986, the active zone contained 1659 TVS with an.
average kburnup of 10.*3 14J day/kg, 1 DP and 1 unloaded channel. The main
part of the TVS (75%) were cartridges of the first loading with a burnup of
12-15 •5 day/kg.
was established at that time that the voltage on the generator busses drops
mach before. the nechanical (inertia) energy of the rotor in running down.
In the tests scheduled for April 25, 1986, the use of a special systan to
c•ntrol regulator of the magnetic field of the generator, which was to have
The quality of the program proved low; the section on safety measures
included in it was ca•sed purely as a matter of form. (It pointed out
only that in the process of tests, all switching is done with the
instructions; and just before the beginning of the tests, the test leader -
brief s the watch on duty.) In addition to the fact that the programs
essentially included no additional safety measures, it prescribed
disengaging the system for emergency cooling of the reactor. This meant
that throughout the period of the tests, i.e.*, about 4 hours, the safety of
•the reactor appears to have been lowered significantly.
.• On the strength of the fact that the proper attention was not devoted•
to the safety of these tests, the personnel were not ready for them and did
not kniow about the possible dangers. In addition, as one will be able to
see from what follows, personnel deviated from carrying out the program,
thereby creating the conditions for development of an emergency situation.
The personrel started to reduce the power output of the reactor, which
had been operating at naninal parameters, at 1:00 AMIon April 25, and at
1:05 PM turbogenerator No. 7 (TG No. 7) was discneted from the grid at a
reactor therma1 output of 1600 •. The electric powar supply for the
22
The SAOR was disengaged fran the KMTs at 2:00 PM in accordance with
the test program. However, taking the unit cut of operation was delayed
according to a request from the dispatcher centre. Operation of the plant
regulations.
test program, "the runout of the generator with a load of the plant
operator was not able to eliminate the imbialance of the mreasurement part of
April 26, 1986, did the personnel manage to stabilize it at a level of 200
reactor continued during this period, further raising of the power was
rendered difficult due to the small operating reactivity margin, which was
AM, tw• more main coding pnrps, one f ran each side were engaged in addition
to the six pumps which had been operating, so that after the end of the
experirent, in which focur pumps were to operate to support the runout mo~de
23
.of operation, four purps w•ld remain in the forced circulation loop (1TPT)
reliable cooling -of the active zone..
all the eight pumps were in operation, the total flow rate through the
reactor increased to (56-58) x 10 m/h and the rate in regard to an
SConnection of the additional pumps and the increase in the water flow rate
.other
generation a drop in the steam pressure in the separators and changes in
parameters of the reactor.* The operators tried to maintain the
following basic reactor paramreters manually: the steam pressure and the
*water level in the separators howver, they were not able to accaiplish this
fully. Dips in stea pressure by 0.5-0.6 MdPa and dips in the water level
below the emergency poi.nt were observed in the separators during this
pa~raxeters.
(thermal). The available emrgency protection for closing the SRK of the
two turbogenerators No. 7 had been disengaged during the afternoon of April
25, 1986) was blocked in order to have the possibility of repeating the
test, if the first attemt proved unsuccessful. Thus another departure had
been made from the testing program, which did not envisage blocking the
turbogenerators.
A slow increase in power began some time~ after beginning of the test.
S At 1:23:40 the shift manager of the; plant gave the command to press
pishbatton AZ-5, on a signal fran which all control rods and energency
protection rods are inserted into the active zone.* Tne rods went dron,
although impacts were heard, and the operator saw that the absorber rods
stopped without reaching the bottomi ends.* Then he cut off the servodrive
coupli~ngs, so that the rods fell into the active• zone by their own weight.
bot fragments and sparks flew up above the fourth plant, some of which fell
examined and stored periodically with a specified cycle (the mininumi cycle
timre is 1 s).
which were imp~ortant frum the point of view of analysis of the results of
the tests being perfonrme were recorded with high frequency. Therefore,
reconstruction of the process of development of the accident was performred
by calculation on a mathematical model of the power unit with the use not
mo~del of the power unit accurately describes the behavior of the reactor
and the other equ~ipment and systsns under. just those conditions making up
large time interval under various effects on the reactor installation. The
camparison results proved quite satisfactory, which attests to the adequacy
data beginning fran 1:19:00 AM, i.e., 4 minutes before the beginning of the
test with rundown of the TB (Fig. 4.o). This moment is convenient in that
the operator began one of the operations for replenishment of the separator
dnrums (the second since 1:00), which introduced strong disturbances into
the regulation object. At this Imgment, the DREG program recorded the
positions of rods of all three AR; i.e., the initial conditions for the
As soon as colder water fran the separating dnrums reached the active
zcne, steam generation decreased noticeably, causing a decrease in the
volumretric steam content, which resulted in mzuvement of all the AR rods
u~rard. In about 30 s they ererged at the top ends, and the operator was
forced to "help" them with manual control rods, thereby reducing the
level of 200 • withc~t it.) The operator, having mxuved the manual rods
up, achieved recampensation, and one of the groups of AR rods was l•_red
by 1.8 in.
* The decrease in steam generation led to a sr~all pressure decrease.
through which steam surpluses were released into the condenser, was closed.
This promoted saTe decrease in the rate at which the pressure was dropping.
positions of all the regulation rods was obtained on the "Skala" STsK at
1:22:30. An attex• has been made at "tying together" the calculated and
of energy in the top section of the -active zone. Such a field distribution
is
quite natural for the situation of the reactor: a depleted active zone,
almo~st all the regulation rods up, a volumretric steam content significantly
higher in the top part of the active zone than at the bottom, contamuination
'3;
with Xe higher in the central parts of the reactor than in the peripheral
parts.
%Thisvalue was at lease two time lower than the mnin/mumm acceptable reserve
real neutron fields and the fission characteristics of the active zone.
Numerical analysis indicated high sensitivity of the error in determining
addition that at such lcow p• levels (about 6-7%), the relative field
The reactor paramreters were closest to stable for the time period in
question by 1:23, and the tests began. A minute before this, the cperator
sharply reduced the feedwater flow rate, which occasioned an increase in
the water temperature at the inlet to the reactor with a delay eqal to the
29
W~in~of passage of the heat-transfer mediumi fran the separator drums to the
reactor.
At 1:23:04 the operator closed the SRK of TG No. 8 and began rundmwn of the
turbogenerator. Due to the decrease in the flc• rate of steam from the
kcPa/ s, on the average). The total water flow rate through the reactor
began to drop due to the fact that four of the eight GTsN were working off
The increase in the steam pressure, on the one hand, and the decrease
in the water flawj rate through the reactor and also in the feedwater supply
to the separator drums, on the other, are competing factors which det~erne
the volume~tric steam Content and, consequently, the pow~er of the reactor,
many tines more sharply than at nominal power. The comipetition of these
factors led in the final analysis to a powr increase. Just this situation
the bottan part of the active zone, while the work of personnel with an
situation. Only the Doppler effect partially ccrested for the reactance
The continuing decrease in the water fl• rate through the operating
channels and a thermal explosion, which destroyed the reactor and part of
the structural components of the building and led to the release of active
tine, the pressure in the active zone increased to the extent that a sharp
deraein the water flow rate fran the G~sN occurred (the check valves
closed). This can be seen clearly both fram results obtained on the
.them
reconstruction of the flow rates from-the GTsN, althouigh water passed from
The steam formation and the sharp temperature increase in the active
thexrma! expl.osion in mixing with air oxygen was formed as a result of these
reactions. This mixing could occur after unsealing of °the reactor space.
32
CHAPTER 4. CAUSES OF THE A•CID•T
coefficient of reactance.
~of the equipment and systems of the power unit, and a systen for emergency
Strict rules and an order for conducting the operating process at the
ChAE.
33
Results
No. Violation
1 Decrease in the Attempt to gat cut Emergency protection
operareactance of "iodine pit" of reactor proved
reserve ineffective
significantly below
the acceptable value
The basic motive in the behavior of the personnel was the attempt to
ccznplete the tests more quickly. Violation of the established order in
operating conditions tolerated by personnel of the power unit thus was the
position all rods are inserted into the core to a depth of 1.2 m. This
mreasure increases the response efficiency of protection and precludes the
possibility of the multiplication properties of the core fram increa~ing in
its lower part when the rod mo~ves fram the upper end piece. At the samre
converting RBM reactors to fuel with initial enrichment 2.4% and placing
additional absorbers in the core which ensure that positive coastdcn of
•reactivity nct exceed mrore than one beta for any change in coolant density.
coolant pumps and an automatic system for comiputing reactivity, reserve with
output of an emergency reactor shutdown signal when the reserve drops below
a given level are being installed. These mreasures have a somewhat adverse
Tne primary task after a reactor accident was to control the fire a
section services, the deaerator, stack and turbine roan more than 30 fires
electrical cables and intense thermal radiation fran the reactor fire foci
were formed in the turbine roan above TG No. 7) in the reactor roan and the
At one hour 30 minutes, fire fighting units for nuclear pcwer plant
Due to the direct threat of the fire spreading over the cover of the
turbine roan to the adjacent third unit and its rapid intensification,
Fires arising within ccaarztrents were fought using fire extinguishers and
inside stationary fire cranes. By 2 hours 10 minutes xiost of the fires had
been p.it c~t on the roof of the turbine roan and by 2 hou~rs 30 minutes on
the roof of the reactor building. By 0500 the fire had been pat out.
state of the environment in: the reactor shaft was determined by the
following processes:
- beat release due to different chenical reactions taking place "in the
reactor shaft (hydrogen ccbition, graphite and zirconium oxidation, etc.);
- heat discharge fron the reactor shaft due to its cooling by flcaws of
atiospheric air through holes formed in sealed (before the accident) shells
its consequences, during the first hours after the accident major efforts
were devoted to estimating the fuel state and its possible change as time
passed. To do this, the folluwing analyses had to be done:
forth);
38
Study of the dynamics of PD discharge fram the reactor during the first
few days after the accident she that the fuel terperature change as tine
passed was nonumonotonic. It can be assumed that there were several stages
in the temperature mode of the fuel. The fuel heated up at the instant of
the fuel at a given point in tine) of iodine radionuclides she that the
the explosion was 1600 - 1800 K. During the next several dozen minutes,
fuel temiperature dropped due to release of heat to the graphite 'structure
the fuel.
Here it was considered that the amount of PD discharge fran the reactor
(inert gases, iodine, tellurium, cesium) fran the fuel increased. With the
39
subsequent temperature increase of the fuel leakage of other so-called
r~nnvolatile radionuclides began. By 4 - 5 May, the effective temperature of
the fuel r~nining in the reactor unit stabilized and then began to drop.
fuel and also the temperature change of the fuel with allowance for leakage
Cariputations soe
- the PD &rerges onto the fuel circuits in batches; ,this can lead only
The PD escaping fran the fuel fall on structural and other materials
zenon escape fram the reactors unit almo~st comipletely, the volatile PD
(iodine, cesiumi) to sarae extent and the others remain almost entirely within
reactor unit.
40
As the result of these factors mielting of the medium surrounding the
fuel and fuel mrovement beccame of i• "probability.•
the enviroritent.
- Localize the focus of the accident by filling the reactor shaft with
The first option was taken since in the second the danger of
radioactive damage to considerable areas with the threat to the health of
the popul~ations of large cities arose.
41
A grouip of specialists in military helicopters began to drop boron
ccrp•~d, dolcimite,. sand, clay and lead onto the damiaged reactor.* Fram ..
27 April to 10 May aln~st 5000 tons of materials were dropped, most fram
to several hundred and by the end of the mronth dozens of curies per hour.
At the sane timre,• the problem of reducing fuel heatup was solved. To reduce
(but possible during the first few days after the accident) failure of the
artificial heat discharge horizon under the building foundation in the fonn
of a flat heat exchanger on a concrete slab. By the end of June the planned
Experience shuwed that the decisions made were primarily the right
onles.
Fram early May the situation had largely stabilized. Destroyed parts
of the reactor building were in stable positions. The radiation situation
following decay of the short lived isotopes inproved. The exposure rate was
single roentgens per hour in carqatrents under the reactor, in the turbine
' roan and control panel cauipaxrtents. Escape of radioactivity franthe unit
42
into the atmosph1ere was due mainly to wind entrainmrent of aerosols. The
radioactivity of the releases did not exceed dozens of curies per day.
The lower slab of the reactor shaft had been preserved and fuel was
localized mainly (roughly 96%) in the reactor shaft an in coipartients of
steam water and lcwer steam service lines.
The following mreasures were taken on the first - third blocks after the
accident on the fourth block:.
- The first and second blocks were shut dc~n at 0113 hours and 0213
hours on 27 April;
- The third block which was closely connected to the damaeged fourth
block but hardly suffered at all from the explosion was shut down at 0500
hou~rs on 26 April;
- The nuclear power plant equipment following the accident was shifted
into the cold reserve state.
The first - third blocks and power plant equipmrent ware checked by on-
duty personnel.
43
Considerable radioactiave contamination of equipment and carar~ ts
of the first-third pcwer plant blocks was caused by entry of radioactive
Individual sections of the turbine roan had major radiation levis since
it was contaminated through the destroyed roof of. the third block.
other operations on the first - third units. The objective was to prepare
the units for startup and operation.
10-15. Padiation dose rate for ca•a~ ts of the first and second units
on the nuclear p•e plant grounds and mothballing the damaged unit.
problems:
- estimate scales of damage arnd carry out dosimetry within the unit,
determine the potential for working in undamaged carmpa~rtments;l
Among primary mreasuremnts mo~nitoring of reactor state fran the air was
set up together with estimations of the radiation situation on the plant and
and the chemical canposition of gases discharged from the reactor shaft was
analyzed; a numnber of other measurements were also taken. After it was
established t~hat canpartments and equipmnt had survived in the lowr part
mreasure neutron flux, ganmr radiation dose rt, temperature arid thermal
reasons:
- Readings fran sensors which may have survived were not accessible to
personnel;
At the next stage locations of fuel discharge fran the reactor shaft in
the building had to be determined and its temperature and heat cutpit
conditions estimated.
?.~nitoring and diagnostic methods were refined with a~llowance for this
k information.
46
6.6 Decontamination of the Nuclear Power Plant Site
plant grounds and fell onto the roof of the turbine roan the roof of the
third unit, and metal pipe supports.
The groutnds of the plant, walls, and rooves of the buildings had
turbine roam building and shoulders of roads were treated with different
formation.
the grounds of the nuclear power plant were divided into individual zones.
was due mainly to external sources (damnaged unit). This indicates the
relative efficiency of decontamination of grounds and buildings.
(Figs. 6 - 8):
- inside concrete dividers in the turbine roan between the third and
"C") , and in the deaerator along the turbine roan and on the side
ietal divider in the turbine roan betwen the second and third
m
ounits;
- protective cover over the turbine roan, and in addition the central
ball and other reactor carparbrents should be sealed, the -barrier
near the tank "SAOR" and compartments of the northern GTsN for
ventilation center ;
49
- Closed configuration with heat discharge in a heat exchanger
loc~ated in the upper part of the vented volumre, while mra~intaining a
of air from the upper part of the volurre and its discharge through
1. On the grouLnds adjacent to the unit the surface layer of soilis removed
2. The grounds are concreted with the surface leveled; this allows self-
propelled cranes and other equipment to nove easily.
5. As walls are erected work is done to set up the main structures which
radioactive substances.
The radiation situation within the 30-km zone will continue to change,
population can be posed only after the radiation situation has stabilized
'over the entire territory of the contaminated zone: burial of the fourth
to protect ground water and surface water in the vicinity of the Qhernobyl
The following results were used as raw data for this estimate:
collected above the damaged power plant unit fran 26 April 1986;
In the first stage dispersed fuel from the damaged reactor was
In the second stage, fran 26 April thruigh 2 May 1986, the magnitude
prevent burning of the graphite and to filter the discharge. During this
discharged fram the reactor by, a flow of hot air and by graphite canbustion
products.
The third stage of discharge is characterized by rapid increase in the
uranium oxide fission products leaked fran the fuel matrix and were
26.04 0 12
27.04 1 4.0
28.04 2 3,4
29.04 3 2,6
$0.O4 4 2,0
O1.OS 5 2,0
02.05 6 4,0
03.05 7 5.0
04.05 S 7,0
05.05 9 3,0
06.05 10 0,1
09.05 14 "'0,01
23.05 28 20.10.4
q, Iregacuries**
S* - error in estimating discharge + 50%.* It is determined by the error
car~osition of air and soil sanples, and also by the error caused by
i r5 45 Do3aMouoo,-o 100
e •m Kv 0.15 -
* K-- 0.9 "
p.111I 4.5 7.3 20
S3'~1r 4 1,3 15
0 •€,0.15 0.5 10
I dn• Ha
.
*•(
0.5
0.4
0.45
4.3
2.8
2.4
5.6i
2.3
2.R
*•5 0,25 2.2 4.0
•"'Sr 0.015 0.22 4.0
;"ru 0.l.tO"' O,8.10"' 3.0
'l."O~~l-r O.O'• 3.0
•-r.0,2.10°. 1.10"3,
•• P r 0,02 0.14 3.0
•• 2 ru 0,3.10" 2.10'• 3,0
the emergency plan. As soon as the scale of the accident became clear the
monitoring system, began to expand by enlisting additional groups of
specialists and equipment. During the first few days after the accident
-evacuation of population;
water supply;
western and northern sectors, during the two or three days following the
accident in the northern sector, from 29 April for several days in the
southern sector. The contaminated air m~asses then spread great distances
over the territory of the Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, and the RSFSRo
59
On 27 April the height of. the stream exceed 1200 mn, the radiation level in
Sit at a distance of 5 -. 10 km fram the accident site was 1000 rrR/hr.. The .
near the nuclear power plant exceeded 100 mR/hr, in the western trace
it was ronghly 3.5% ( see section 7.1) of the total activity of the fission
products and activity accumuilated in the reactor (in the near trace roughly
1.5 - 2%).
60
Addition of the activity of radionuclides precipitated in the near
trace and deteniine by taking soil samples yielded a close value, i.e.
zones are not decisive fran the point of view of decontamination efforts
and Teterev rivers and the Dneprovsk water supply. Beginning fram 26 April
1986 water samples ware taken over the entire water area of the Kiev
reservoir.
The highest concentrations of iodine-131 were found in the Kiev
reservoir on 3 May 1986, i.e. 3 x 10-8 curies per liter. It mu/st be 'noted
both inside and outside the 30-kmn zone was set up fram the first few days
10-10 cuxies/l•
the marine eco system can occur only in the coolant pond of the O• Inby
nuclear pow~er plant ware exposed to the greatest radiation burdens, For
saetypes of water plants, dose rate of internal irradiation was 10
61
|rad/hr, and near the bottomn of the cooling pond the level of external
Firradiation was 4 rad/hr (at the end of May 1986).
30-lin zone arouind the Chernobyl nuclear power plant higher irradiation
levels were observed in isolated sections contaminated by radioactive
Irradiation levels outside the 30-lin zone the kilareter, zone around
Treatment.
first few hours after the accident same individuals fran amng plant
personnel received high doses (greater than 100 ..ber) and also burns fram
fighting fires. First aid was rendered to all those affected. By 0600
•hairs on 26 April 1986 108 individuals had been hospitalized and during
that day another 24 fran among those examined. One patient died at 0600
hours on 26 April 1986 f ran severe burns and one individual fran aimong
t~hose working on the damaged unit was not found. His work site may have
Eased on criteria of early diagnosis acdopted in the USSR, byj the start
During the first two days 129 patients were sent to Moscow. Fran
ax~ng then, during the first three days 84 were diagnosed as having OLE of
II - IV degree of severity and 27 as having OLB of degree I. In Kiev, 17
individuals were diagnosed as having OLE of degree II - IV, and 55 with OLE
of degree I.
63
Detailed infonnation on m~ethods and results of treating these patients
*s given in the appendix.
The total number of those whx• died frat, b~rns and OLB among personnelI
at the beginning of July was 28. .Among the population there was no one who
_level for nuclear power plants started before 1975 into agresent with
established requirements.
itniyit.
Theoretical programs for analysis of nuclear pauwer plant safe behavior
in all possible transition and accident mrodes, including those for which it
is not design are being iiproved and the modelling systems and complexes
S developed.
64
The search continues to expDand on the possibility of buiilding reactors
with passive safety systens, so-called reactors .with "internally inherent"
The system of supervision and standard doc.ments which exist in the USSR
encompasses all mai questions of ensuring nuclear power plant safety and
continues to be inproved. Under the aegis of Gosataeergonadzor, a
consolidated list and plan for development of rules and regulations in the
0
field of nuclear power which coordinates and directs the activity of all
safety for t!he nost part do not require re-examination. However their
infoimiation from the site relates to working nuclear power plants with .~4
These measures will ensure safe operation of nuclear power plants with
SAt present it can be. noted with satisfaction that initial steps have
* already been taken to iznplement suggestions relating to estab~is~et of
,•wold be absurd to develop me~ans and mrethod3s of its most dangerous and
USSR. The amount of fuel oil in electric power generation should be cut in
half. The nuclear power will cover most of the increased consumption of
uraniumn-graphite reactor has been operating for 32 years. The program for
building so-called demnstration power reactors for nuclear power plants
to a satisfactory degree.
types VVER, RBM, and EN. The first two are thermoneutron reactors with
cooling water.* N are fast neutrton breeder reactors with sodiumn coolant
:currently being built for industrial trials of designs which have been
adopted and gradual development of a closed fuel cycle with plutonitm~ fuel
increase by a factor of 5 - 7.
This development will allowj nuclear power plants to occupy first place
safe plants with these reactors will make it possible to generate high
AZ - emergency protection
AZ-5 - signal to insert all, regulating rods and emergency
protection rods into the active zone
AN - Academy of Sciences
AR - autma~tic regulator
AS - nuclear station
AES - nuclear power station
~- fast breeder reactor
BRU-K - high-speed reduction device
ES - water-steam separating drumn
BSSR Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
I
-
DP - additional absorber
DREG - diagnostic recording of parameters (program)
KGO - monitoring of seal of shells
RU - reactor installation
ELM - canpter
LIST OF BASIC •UIPMEN OF. THE MAIN' HOUSING OF THE AES
It~n
No. Equyipment or Product Measurement Unit Num~ber
Units Mass per
in Power
Tons Unit
n'LN -m .
1±1 I~~_r • - --
_ _-..J I
.O Fig.
1-
2. Schematic diagram of system for
reactor; 2 - steam separators; 3 -
pump; 5 - pressure header; 6 - suppre/
umps for cooling malfunctioning holf
emergency cooling of the reactor:
suction header; 4*- main circulation
pool; 7 - SAOR v•nssela; 8 - SAOR
ece•9 - hea c.•rhiges; fU
0 0 h ~~~~contaiment zone) . .......
C PI3MK.IO0O
PA."P1L3 110 PF£AKT0PIIOrMY OTJIIfEII~fHII1 A3IC
:JouoinKSuI~IHIE4I
|c€001
_ _ _ _ _ _ .. I _• ____
rLL'LI7-JiJi
_______________________________
L•
3
8"1". IC
I-
0 5 IO
cays
I'HC. 5. IIJMeCItIIHC ;iKI1113l10C1I'I Ii TeMIli'iplIyju 8 r~sIlJilngl
1I0 DJX'MeIII
Fig. 5. Variation of fuel activ'Ity and temperature in time
unit un it unit
|! j•oK Ill 6nox I\" 6uiom
}
p
metal
divider
urial structure
[j•
divider • • 1Co14epyxzzMn
3os b• Zone of
pa~pyw~emu•
conc:r e te Y¥KUMdestruct ion
Sc'robu~ p&at TenwHre~
c1*KSJ OCH1 MNa.-Nm4rp
of foundation
Oc~omH.,a • co~epyxwIM structures
. foundation structure
"71.30
510 35
• 0 001 1.00h.j 34,00 %•0 o,oo0
cooled
waterRBMK graphite moderated reactors and the
experience1.ofChannel
Appendix operating reactors.
type, the water-cooled graphite reactor of the First AES with an electric
power of 5 mW, which as started in June 1954 in the city of Obninsk near
Moscow.
The experience accumulated in building and operating the First AES was
used in designing the Beloyarsk AES (1964, 300 MW).
reactor with an electric power of 1000 MW which, along with the VVER-IO000
reactor, became the basic reactor for high power atomic power engineering
in the USSR.
Ta6:•ua 1.1I
(2) RBMK-1I000
(3) RBMK-1500
(4) Electrical power (MW)
pressure (kgf/cm )
temperature ( C)
-3-
reactors from 1973 through 1985 (four each at the Leningrad (LAES),
Kursk (KAES), and Chernobyl AES (ChAES) and two reactors at the
MW, which in 1983 was placed on line at the Ignalinsk AES and by,
reactor;
- reduction of the danger of the consequences of explosions of
the tubes of the first loop due to an increase in the number of
active zone.
- -3a-
On the other hand, certain specific features inherent to pressure-
tube graphite reactors cooled by boiling water require fundamentally
new solutions in developing safety support systems. The features
primarily include:
-4-
separators;
improvement in the intrabody devices in the drum-separators;
systems;
- introduction of predicting programs for real-time calculations
and programs for emergency recording of the condition of the
presented.
Table 1o2
fli.sen
r w .. ~ (' ~ Ac i~~4
Yc~axoe•s.•eH MO•IOCTh 00 20
Hia 01.01.86 U• 00 00400r0
K•MsaZ985r., %( 84 79 83 76
- 6a -
(4) ChAES
(5) SAES
(6) Installed power on 1 January 1986, MW
(7) Electricity production for 1981-1985, billions of kW hours
The maximal values of KIUM for 1985 were reached at the fourth unit of
the LAES of 91%, at the second unit of the ChAES of 90%, and at the first
the conditions for performing repairs on the reactor 9 and increasing .the
RBMK reactors are: fuel temperature, the temperature of the graphite lining
and the metal structures, and the reserve to heat exchange crisis in the
fuel channels. These parameters in the existing reactors are below the
of 623K (350• C), and a reserve to heat exchange crisis of no less than
1.35. The basic equipment in the machine hall of the energy units with an
RBMK-1O00 reactor (the turbine generators, block transformers, deaerators,
approximately 10%.
The identified reserves made it possible to justify the possibility of
the energy units operating at a high power level and the full-scale tests
control, and protection system, piping, and equipment for the controlled
2.1 Reactor
reactor in which the moderator is graphite, while the heat transfer agent
The reactor's core (1) is shaped like a vertical cylinder 11.8 min
control rods, and monitoring system sensors. Parts of the channels located
in the core are made of zirconium alloy. The graphite block structure
in which the
- la-
process control channels are set. Process channels, are placed in 1661*
square-lattice cells at 250-mm intervals. Control/safety system channels
(211 pc) are arranged in the same way as process channels in the central
2.1a)
* First-generation LAES, KAES, and ChAES reactors have 1, 693 TVS's and
""Ocb peaXTOPaJ'
I.
I 3
oe 0.
2
41D° 41,.
CLD 61~~
S
a S
I.
S Q m • •O e
QoO • I •o •. . . . .• i
-ftc3 2.1.
The graphite block structure is in a hermetically sealed cavity- .
(reactor space RP), formed by cylindrical enclosure (2) and the metal
structure's upper (4) and lower (3) slabs. ro prevent graphite oxidation
and improve heat transfer from the graphite to the process channels, the
helium leak from the RP, the inner cavities of the metal structure and the
The process control channels are set in routes welded onto the metal
structure (5).• The top and bottom metal structures and the circular water-
shield for the areas surrounding the reactor. The heat transfer agent,
water, is carried downward by individual pipes to each individual channel.
Ascending and washing the fuel elements, water is heated and partially
evaporated, and the steam-water mixture is also removed from the top of the
at entry 270
at exit 284
rings.
The cartridge's fuel element consists of can (6), fuel column (7),
The can and end parts are made of zirconium alloy with 1% niobium
(alloy 110). The lock is made of zirconium alloy Ts2M. The fuel element
11.5 num; height -- 15 mm. To reduce thermal expansion in the fuel column,
pellets on the ends have spherical indentations. The average mass of fuel
The fuel elements are sealed by contact butt-welding an end cap onto
one end of the casing tube and a plug on the other end.
The original medium under the can is helium at -1 kg/cm2 (0.1 MPa).
The fuel column is held in the element by a spring lock with a compressive
ۥ2. "
AAe
e
Figure 2.2a
i t1m5
&
I~o
-8-
The framework consists of a central tube 15 mm in diameter with walls
1.25 mm thick, one end lattice (11) and 10 spacer lattices (12). The
central tube and end lattice are made of zirconium alloy with 2.5% niobium
(alloy 125); the spacer lattices, of stainless steel.
prevent axial play in the connection and so that the lattice can turn
relative to the tube. For orientation and to prevent the TVS's from
turning relative to one another, the shell tubes have special grooves.
Spacer lattices are attached every 360 mm on the central tube. Each
lattice is fastened by inserting the projecting end of the central sleeve
into two grooves on the tube so that it can move along the tube if there is
on the outside and 6 on the inside row), a central sleeve and a cover rim.
diameter. The lattice rim has projections which facilitate loading the
cartridge into the channel. The diameter along the rim projections is
Cells are made of tube with 0.35-mm-thick walls; the central sleeve is
a tube with 0.5-mm-thick walls; the rim, a tube with 0.3-mm-thick walls.
-8a -
Fuel elements are attached to the end lattice by clamping rings made
Watre
Supply
1O-
-.
When the cartridge is assembled, an end cap, two TVS's, and shanks•
which are held by a nut are assembled on the central rod. The nut is
locked by a pin.
radius). The latter differs from the working cartridge in the design of
(Figure 2.3)
The process channel is intended to hold TVS's with nuclear fuel and to
organize the flow of heat transfer agent. The channel housing is a welded
zirconium alloy (Zr + 2.5% No) is a tube with inside diameter of 88 tmm and
wall thickness of 4 mm; top (1) and bottom (5) ends are made of corrosion-
made of zirconium
~ ~*:~*
. . . . **
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" "."
T"
d *
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:*
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'-.
, 1•
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.* .':.,,
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:*-*. -'• .
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* *"*•
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~ II I I .
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J m
•.•** .. . 1 .
m• i
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m - * w**•. i *I S
S
IL' U, I I I
• f •v AV jr •
• •
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*". * • 2. *
0.,,
.|l . 4.*O•
6 S * S S.
5•*• a
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- ,' '•,. :.'*;" • ...
:: ..... .:. : .o • .51 * •2. ,
* . "..."* ;.y.- . . °'.*•' .:I
*O ... *.... vjt.-.- C *
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|-4
If-3
-.
12-
alloy; the outer cover is made of corrosion-proof steel. During diffusion
welding, a thin layer of products of mutual diffusion forms on the contact
surface of the parts to be joined. The quality of the diffusion weld *is
process channels, the transition piece undergo helium seal and hydrostatic
testing.
Steel transition piece parts are connected to the top and bottom of
applied to the outer surfaces of steel channel parts to protect them from
corrosi on.
Graphite split rings 20 mm high are set in the middle to improve heat
release from the graphite module to the channel. These rings are set along
the top of the channel tight against one another so that the side of every
other ring is in direct contact either with the tube (7) or with the inside
Minimum gaps between the ring and channel -- 1.3 nmn -- and between the
ring and the block -- 1.5 •are determined to prevent the channel from
becoming wedged in the stack due radial thermal shrinkage during reactor
operation.
-12a-
The channel housing in, the reactor is set in pipe routes (3, 4) welded
to the top and bottom of. the support structure (Figure 2°4)°
PROCESS CHANNEL
compensate for the difference in TK and metal work thermal expansions and
provides reliable reactor space seal. The channel housing is rated for 30
one,
The cartridge with fuel elements (5) is set inside the channel on a
suspension support (6) which keeps it in the core and permits a spent
cartridge to be replaced by the RZM without stopping the reactor.
The channels are intended to hold control rods and energy release
sensors and ionization chambers. The middle of the channel (3) is made of
zirconium alloy (Zr + 2°5% No) and is a tube with outside diameter of 88 nmn
and wal1 thickness of 3 mm. The top (1) and bottom (4) ends are made of
upper tube route by a collar and thin weld; to the lower• route through a
bellows compensator. SUZ channels have caps (5) at the top for attaching
actuators and to feed cooling water to the channel. Graphite sleeves (6)
(Figure 2.1)
filled with water, from which heat is removed by the cooling system.
-14a-
The upper metal structure (4) is a cylinder 17 mnin diameter, 3 mn
high. The upper and lower slabs of the cylinder are made of steel 1OKhNIM
40 mmv thick are welded to the side rim by hermetic welds and to each other
through vertical stiffeners° Pipe routes (5) for the process channels and
control channels are welded into openings drilled in the top and bottom
the circular side biological shielding block, and it absorbs forces from
the weight of the loaded channels, the central hall floor and piping from
the upper steam-water and water lines.
identical to the upper in design. The structure iAs loaded by the graphite
stacking which is set on it along with support assemblies and lower water
lines. The number and arrangement of the lower pipe routes for process and
control channels welded to the upper and lower bottom of the metal
structure are the same as those in the upper metal structure. Its internal
cavity is filled with serpentine. The support structure on which the lower
metal work is set consists of plates with stiffeners 5.3 m high (7) which
expansion. The shell and the lower and upper metal structure form the
The metal structure of the upper span (8) in the central hall has an
provides the the central hail with biological shielding from radiation and
with thermal insulation. The slab floor consists of upper and lower
-16-
slabs and blocks resting on process and control channels routes. Slabs and
blocks constitute the metal works which are filled with iron-barium-
serpentine aggregate (ZhBCTsK).
Air is sucked from the central hall through openings in the floor into
ventilation ducts. The floor cools the air and eliminates the possibility
of radioactive effluence into the central hall from steam-water line areas.
Graphite. block structure (1) is set on the lower metal works inside
columns assembled from graphite blocks with a density of 1.65 g/cm3. The
columns for process and control and monitoring channels. Each graphite
column is set on a steel support plate (1) which in turn rests on a liner
welded to the upper plate of the lower metal works. The graphite block
columns of the side reflector. The bottom of the rod is welded to the
support liner; the top is joined by a flexible connection to the pipe route
welded to the lower plate of the upper metal works. A reflector block
cooling channel is set into the hollow bar, which is made of corrosion-
proof steel 08Khl8NIOT pipe. Heat released in the stacking is removed
primarily
-*17-
to process channels and partially to SUZ channels. The presence of a solid
contact ring in the channels and the fact that the ring-channel and block-
ring spaces are filled with helium-nitrogen mixture ensures that structure
The maximum temperature zones for the graphite blocks are found in the
blocks' ribs; the minimum, on the outside surface of the vertical holes in
which the process and other channels are located. Blocks halfway up the
central hall and service areas adjacent to the reactor shaft does not
exceed 2°8 x 10-2 mSv/hr (2.8'•iw'/hr). During recharging, when a spent
TVS is removed through the flooring of the central hall, the intensity of
gamma radiation near the RZM quickly increases to 0°72 mSv/hro In the
lower waterline area below the reactors, the shielding ensures a reduction
-17a -
in neutron flow density to levels at which there will be no noticeable
Shielding from emissions from the heat transfer agent in the primary
does not exceed 300 oC, which makes it possible to used low-alloyed steel.
The flow of fast neutrons with energy above 0.1 MeV to the reactor
shell and metal works plates close to the core has not exceeded 10
Steel blocks (10) (lower, 200 mm thick; upper, 250 mm thick) are
mounted on each graphite column between the 500-mm-thick end reflectors and
the upper and lower metal works. These steel blocks are intended to reduce
fast neutron flow to the load-bearing metal structure and to reduce energy
release in it,
The space between pipes in the upper and lower metal works is filled
with serpentine (3, 4), which made it possible to reduce the length of
A shield (reactor room floor) is set above the steam-water lines. Its
middle -- floor plate (9) -- is a set of blocks resting on the tops of the
-18a-
pipe routes. These blocks are made~of ZhBCTsK. The-total thickness of
this shield is 890 mm. The upper floor protects the central hall from
radiation from the reactor, from piping with radioactive heat transfer
agent and, together with the RZM container, helps reduce radiation
intensity during
-19-
removal of a spent TVS. The. periphery of the upper span (8) comprises
metal ducts 700 mm high filled with iron grit (86% by mass) with
serpentine.
average thickness of 880 mm. The circular vessel with water (6), located
outside the reactor shell, reduces radiation flow to the walls of the
reactor shaft (11) which are filled with structural concrete (density 2.2
tonne/m3, wall thickness 2,000 mm). The space between the vessel and the
reactor shaft walls is filled with ordinary sand (12)o
materials for the RBMK reactor in primary directions from the core.
Table 2.1
Thickness of Shielding Materials (from the Center of the Core), mm
Ma~ea7I Ea~~1e~ @|
3D, ,!. o3~q i @)n
500 500 880
kEY: (I)Material
(2) Direction
(3) Upward
(4) Downward
(5) Radial
(6) Graphite (reflector) mm
Serpentine fill.
plugs in these channels (Figure 2.5). The annular gap between channels and
item 13).
(Fig. 2.6)
The MPTs loop is intended to supply water to the process channels and
in arrangement and equipment makeup. Each loop remves heat fran half of
the reactor fuel cartridges. The loop includes: two steam drums (10=2,600
ramn), dcwnpipes (325 x 16) , four main circulating pumnps (GTsN), G~sN intake
D
pipes (10=900 rmu); G~sN pressure headers (I•=9O0 rmu); grouped distribution
headers (RGK) (325 x 15 ura) with nulitipurpose valves; waterlines (57 x 3.5
Water fran the intake header (1) travels over four pipes to the main
G]~sNs are running; the fourth is in reserve. After the Gi~sN, water at
270 cC and 82.7 kgf/an2 travels over pressure pipes on which are installed
consecutively a check valve, stop gate valve, and throttle valve, to the
GrsN pressure header (3), fram which it travels over 22 pipes to grouped
distribation header (4) at whose entry check valves are installed,, and then
over individual waterlines (5) to the entry to the process channels (6).
-23-
Flow rate through each process channel is set using mualtipurpose valves on
the basis of flow meter readings. Moving along process channels, water,
washing the fuel elements, is heated to saturation temperature and partially
(14.5% on the average) evaporated. The steam-water mixture at 284.5 cC and
70 kgf/an2 (about 7 1"la) travels over individual steam-water pipes to
moves through steam headers to turbines. Separated water at exit from the
separators is mixed with feed water, and at 270 cC (which ensures the
required margin in terms of GTsN suction head), travels to the intake header
over 12 down pipes (from each separator).
The temperature of the water sent to the intake header depends on the
the amounts of water collected fram the drumns at 284 oC and feed water at
165 cco If reactor output drops, flow rate over the KMPTs loop is adjusted
the difference in the levels of the upper (service) and low~er (circulation)
tanks. Cooling water at 40 oC fram the upper tank travels through the
header over individual pipes to the channel caps, and moving downward,
removes heat from then, itself heating to a tanperature of 65 cC. Then it
the upper tank. Average water flow rate through the control channel equals
4 m3/hr, pressure at the channel heads is 3.5 kgf/ an (excess). Flow rate
through each channel is set with nrualtipurpose valves according to flow mreter
readings.
-25-
integrity monitoring system and special channels which r~mve gas from the
pipe routes of the upper netal works. Then the gas mixture passes through
forming water vapor and CO) is burned to C02, releasing heat. The reaction
Fron the catalytic reactor, the gas, passing through coolers and a
mechanical filters. Through adsorption, C02, H3, C2 and water vapor are
remo~ved from the helium-nitrogen gas, which then goes to deep cleaning. The
channel reactor in which uranium oxide weakly enriched with U235 is used as
fuel; graphite as moderator; and boiling light water as heat transfer agent
(anreactor characteristics appear in table 2.3).
physics:
form of a polynamial
-28-
equation for the relationship between 1urnup and pow~er for varicus average
heat transfer agent density in tenms of reactor height.
threedirnional program.
created for maximum fuel cycle econoay. Psimival of spent fuel and refueling
fuel during reactor operation at the assigned power is accomplished by the
fueling machfine (RZM). When the reactor attains steady-state operating mo~de
characteristics stabilize, and the: fuel. ren~ved fram the reactor's core has
approxlmately constant burnup depth, the magnitude of which is determined by
numnber of control rods introduced into the zone necessary to form the
optimnum energy release field over the radius and height of the reactor. The
because construction materials with lowi absorption sections and a high heat
transfer agent steam content are used, the fuel discharged from the
eliminates the need for further processing for return to the fuel cycle.
When the RBMK-1000 was designed, a great deal of attention was given to
The main parameters which determine the limit thermal load for the
channel and the fuel element are critical channel po~wer Ncrc (when this
"p
and maxixtum permissible linear load on the fuel elemnt (when. this is
N(L
To evaluate the anticipated 'N and •in the reactor, probability
with which overall reactor power is measured and maintained and its
distribution over the core (coefficient for nonuniformity across the core
radius K(t and along the height F•, as well as over the fuel elemnt in the
cartridge J•g, which determine mnaximum design channel power Nm~ and
linear load on the fuel element It was believed that randan.
deviations in maxiimum power fran the miost probable value, Nmcm, follow a
where (J• is the standard error in detrinn and maintaining channel power.
a channel with maxicmum power (freshly fueled channel in the plateau zone)
•j))
whereO3c is the standard error in determining and maintaining linear fuel
element p•°
-31-
core para1eters in stable conditions and reaches 2x10-6 units per percent of
operate from signals fram the ionization chambers inside the reactor. The
LAR autaclatically stabilizes the primary harmo~nics of the radial-azimuthal
other me~ans for. iniproving •the dynamic characteristics of the RBMK reactor' s
core.
-32-
These include:
Increasing replenisher fuel enrich~t to 2.4-3.*0% and,
correspndnly, the depth of fuel 1urnup, which makes it possible to reduce
the steam effect to almost zero;
Increasing the uraniumi charge to reactor channels by using fuel
com~positions with increased U content.
close to zero.
Table 2.3
Main Neutron-Physics Characteristics of the PBMK-1000 Reactor
The main paramreters which define the working capacity and safety of the
and showd that rated parameters for RBMK-1OOO reactor operation lie in the
levels are performe using statistical probability methods, and the status
of the core of these reactors during operation is n~nitored on the basis of
engineering parameters will exceed the limnit values is higher than during
The makeup of the P34K reactor' s core depends on the operating period.
presence in the core of channels with fuel which has a low burnup depth and
Slarge number of additional
-37--
water. The transient period of reactor operation ends after all or a~most
all of the additional absorbers are reioved fran the core and are replaced
fresh one.
depths. At any given nrarent, different channels have different powers, but
the total pcwer of all channels in the "periodicity" cell remiains nearly
constant.
-38-
crisis in the mo~st thermally stressed core channels when the total water
flow rate through the reactor is mo~derate. The flow rate of water through
According to the thiernzra analysis algorithmi for the PBMK reactors, the
distribution of water flowi rates over core fuel channels is calculated by
ordinary iterative method using the total characteristics of circulating
pumps and the dow path• of the circulation loop.
where
G
If the thenma~l power of each fuel channel and the water flow rate
tb•gh it are knw, critical channel power, Ncr, minirmmi margin to heat
1)
w~here @ (a)is the relative distribution of energy release along the channel' s
height;
rate adjustment rates, various adjustment laws (on the basis of exit steam
of core pre-throttling.
The results of the calculation of the effect of channel fl• rate
.with
adjustment rate on the thenrml engineering parameters of an R•4
an electric output of 1,000 •
reactor
(RBMK-1000) with continuous refueling
4325 i4
t ~2 .
9acmo mc pe2•.,,,pOAQ,.,LpaCXO(
adjustment:
1 - GTsN head
2 - Heat transfer agent f1low rate (Gp);
if the rate at which the flow rate of each channel is adjusted increases,
param~eter H, which describes the thermal engineering reliability of the
core, rises, and this increase is mocre noticeable if the rate of adjustrent
doubles over the fuel operating period. A further increase in adjustment
flow rate through each fuel channel over the operating period of a fuel
cartridge.
and margins to heat exchange crisis in core channels with regard for the
subject core status and the position of the control rods or is sent to the
reactors for a given core status and energy, release distribution over
determined°
-45-
the structure.
neutron fuel across the radius and along the height of the core taken
readings, the comiputer also receives data describing the makeup of the core,
the energy output of each fuel Channel, the position of control rods, the
distribution of water flow rates in core channels, and heat transfer agent
the PRIZMAi program perfonmed regularly by the catputer, the operator obtains
type of core fill, the position of control rods, the network of. sensors
elements for each reactor fuel channel. Criticality margins and margins to
methods with regard for error calculating the energy release field along the
reactor height and radius, errors in calculating formulas and the precision
The resident conputer also calculates the reactor' s total thermal p•e, the •..
distribution of steam-and-water mixture flow rates in separators, integral
energy outpat, steam content at exit from each fuel channel and other
raised or lowered, the operator monitors and controls the energy release
field across the radius and along the height of the core, using readings
fram physical monitoring system sensors. If the field deviates fran the
given absolute values for margins to limit permissible thermal loads on fuel
elemrents (Kg). The operator also nunitors and controls distribution of f low
Srates in core fuel channels. Flow rates are distributed on the basis of
750 oc.
Experience operating RBEMK reactors showis that, given the mo~nitoring and
adjustmrent equipzment available on these reactors, there is no difficulty
levels.o
-48-
K pse~ey 2.5.1I.
OcHOmB~ue •aiR~e nO ?TenAo~03Re :pea~ropa
Ycrxo~Mse odo3Ha~euz•
0- pacxo•t, ic/c;
S - nl3Iu•~ nonepe~oro cee, 2
d-.;aeweTp, u;
•-ycxopee~e B UoAe To~emA, -/ceR ;
•- iaacco•o naoco~ep~ e;
/ - mona Na •s Eac~meza;
1/ a Ba J•N Bac~~ ,o
-50-
2.1.0) :
The controlled circulation loop' s heat transfer agent (water) travels
over 325 x 16-nam diameter downpipes fran the lower part of the steam
separator at 265 oC and 69 kgf/sq an to the main circulation pun~s' (GTsN)
1026 x 63 inn diameter intake header. The main circulation pwups send the
water to the 1046 x 73 flir diameter pressure header and then along 325 x 16
itnn diameter pipes to 22 grouped distribution header (tGK). Fran the rGK,
lower waterlines (NVK) 57 inn in diameter individually carry water to reactor
fuel channels.
The steam-and water mixture formed in the reactor travels along steam-
Steam is bled fran the upper part of each separator along 14 steam
bleed tubes 325 x 19 mnn in diameter to two steam headers 426 x 24ramt in
diameter, which are then connected to one header 630 x 25 mmn in dimee.
Fresh steam travels over four pipes 630 x 25 inn in diameter to the
turbines'• main steam gate •valves (GPZ): eight mcain relief valves ((PK) with
a throughput of 725 tonne/hr, fuur fast-action turbine condenser reducers
(BRU-K) with a capacity of 725 tonnes of steam per hour (twQ per turbine
set), and six fast-action reducers for internal needs (BRU-SN). The purpose
and operating mode for these devices is described in section 2.7.
M~rs Loop
The controlled circulation loop is intended for continuous delivery to
the reactor' s fuel channel of heat transfer agent which renoves heat
loop includes:
- 2 steam separators;
- Cofferdamns between steam separators for water and steam2;
-Dcwnpipes;
- Intake header;
- GTsN intake pipes;
- 4 main circulation pumps (3 working, one backup);
- GrsN pressure pipes with fittings;
- Pressurized header;
-Cofferdam between G~sN intake and pressure headers with fitting;
-Group distribution header (iGK);
- Lower waterlines;
- R~eactor fuel channels;
- Steam-and-waterlines.
Drwnpipes, RGK, and water- and steairlines are made of stainless steel
O8KhlSNIlOT. Pressurized and intake collectors and G~sN pipes
S -53-
are made of carbon steel 330E with a surface boildup of steel lCL473N6 fran
Creisot-ILoire of France.
)
-- n- n O - Te..e.....e o n S m o -" . * - .
A relief valve., throttle valve, stop valve with rertote ccntrol electric
drive, and~a measuring memibrane are installed sequentially on the pumps'
pressure piping0 The presence of stop valves ci the pumps' intake aid
pressure pipes makes it possible to sideline a puzp" for repair while the
loop is operating.
The throttle valve makes it possible to keep the GrsN' s capacity in the
stable unit operation zone from 5,500 to 12,000 cu rn/hr in transient nodeso
system operating mo~de and a stop valve which is normally open in all
The outlet branches of the pressure header have flowM l~imiters in case
attached to tbsp. The pipe supplying water to the RSK have mianual stop
valves. In normal conditions, these gate valves are open and sealed and are
closed only during repair of the MPTs system. The IGK has check valves,
past which (in the direction of flowM) waterlines distribuate water fran the
•following:
- In rated mocde -- to cool bluwdon water fram the MPTs system before
cleaning, after which the water is heated before it is returned to the MPTs
systen;
- In shut-down cooling mo~de -- to remo~ve heat fran the KMP~rs;
block structure sleeves are filled with a nitrogen-helium mixture (20 volo
N2 and 80 vol. % He). Impurities are renoved and the nitrogen-helium balance
In nonrmal mode, the gas loop systan operates as followis. The nitrogen-
helium mixture leaving the apparatus passes through the •rsTK systeni, where
the temiperature of each channel is checked and the overall humidity of the
mitue being pumped is monitored.
The condenser and filter unit for the gas loop is intended to condense
water vapor entering the nitrogen-helium mixture when the reactor channels
are depressurized and to r~sve iodine vapors from the gas mixture.
independent subsystens, one of which is the working systen; the other, the
backup.o
In the coluitn, solid particles and iodine aerosol are reimved from the
mixture.
The filtering colu~nm is rated to clean 1,000 cu m per hr of gas
mixture. After the filtering coltmni, the gas mixture, depending on gas loop
Soperating conditions, goes eihrto theinaehdrofteelm
- group monitoring of the humidity, of the gas bled fran the graphite
block structure and piuped through the system;
measuring the temperature of the gas pumed in the spaces betw•n the
water vapor in the gas being pumrped, its temerature is increased, and this
graphite block structure, with the channels permeating it, is divided into
Pulse tubes from channel routes in each zone lead to the correspndn
increased suction headers of the K!sTK system. Both these hedes are
connected to the reactor' s process gas loop, thus closing the KTsTK system
Switching a valve gate can change the anount of gas mpaed through
inpulse tubes leading to a given valve by connecting it either to the
ventilation system or to the increased suction system.
-58-
carbon, forms carbon m~onxide and carbon dioxide gas. Hydrogen, canbining
Nitrogen 20
oxygen 0.3
Methane 0.1
0.07
CArbondioxid
0.02
Carbon dinoxide
0.1
Hydrogen 0.6
Chlorine Trace
Helium IPmn.
-59-
Nitrogen 10
oxyen 0.01i
Methane Trace
Azmmnium Trace
Hydrogen 0.°02
Helium Rein.
%00t x r eq4• peseq sI. u~s~s eu• "sIau•~ sssoord Aq p~ ir; u-eds
uoz• eswsete ;•-i tmnp•s.sz Aq pse'4q s~euumto sseoo.ad pue s~juw. B6~p. cq
-09-
-60a-
- To maintain the assigned tenperature in St]Z, ID, D1E ard KO0 channels in all
unit .operating modes (startu, operation to power, shut-down, distutrbance of
Water fran t~he upper, so-called emergency water supply, tank travels over
piping with a nominal diameter (ND) of 400 nun to the pressure collector and is
distributed to channels.
The capacity of the elergency tank is set to ensure rated flow rate through
Cooling water fran the pressure header enters a channel fran above,
mo~ves down along the central tube and ascends along the annular gap
betwe the center and outer tubes to the KO00 drainge collector. There are
tw• drainage headers (ND=200).
Water from the drainage header travels over piping (ND=400) to the systan' s
heat exchangers. Water fran the KOO drainage header cales to this sane
pipe. (This header is connected to a cat• pipe (ND~=I50) before entry to
the pipe (NI=4 00).) A throttling device which elimiinates the siphon in the KO0
There are six heat exchangers to cool the circulating wrater past the reactor.
Past the heat exchangers, water travels over pipe (ND=400) to the circulation
tank below water level. The flow slows in the circulation tank and conditions
for efficient removal of hydrogen from the water are created., A description
of the method for ensuring safe hydrogen concentration in the tank appears in
section 2.7.
-61a-
betwe.n pumip capacity and SUZ, 1D, DKE, and KOO channel thrcubt. .If two
pums are i•rking in the system, overflow proceeds along piping (ND=150) ; if
th~ree pumps are working, along piping (ND=300)o
-62-
The systen has focur pumps to supply water fram .tbe circulation tank to the
emrgency supply tank. Toof these are working pumps; bwo are backups.Th
first backup pump is activated autma~tically; the second baku purp is
The pumps are poee fran a category lB reliable supply net with diesel
generators.
To maintain the requaired water quality in the loop, there is costant bypass
treatment at 10 cu rn/hr.
fram entering service water fran the heat exchange equipmrent of systems with
exchangers, and stop, safety, and control fittings. The loop's pimps supply
cooling water to the heat exchange equipment in the reactor area systems,
and remove heat from it. This heat is then absorbed by intenite loop heat
loop with special water treatment plants is not necessary. The quality of
content is exceeed or the nimei 's pH exceeds established norms, the water in
the intenrediate loop is purified by exchanging water in the system.
Intermediate loop conswrers are the reactor blowcown and afterheat cooling
systen, the system which organizes leaks fran the fitting equipment, GrsN
sealing water chillers, the helitmi cleaner, and chemical monitoring, samler
heat exchangers.
elemets.
The PBMK uses a neutral water regime withuut suppression of water radiolysis
and withouit introduction of corrective additives to adjust pio
-64-
Quality of the heat transfer agent in the loop by Goct 95743-79 must follow
requirements.
- pH -7.0
At the time of the operation of the nuclear power plant, all the time must be
wh ic h
consists of a number of components. Components can be selected on the main
and support components.
The main components of the special water purification system are:
treatment plant and the bubbling pond water treatment plant are located in
block, "B" on axes 35-41 at elevations 0.00; 6.00; and 12.50, and are
The MPTs loop blowdown water bypass treatment plants are located in
block "A" and block "B". The bubbling pond water treatment plants and the
plant which pre-treats drainage waters with mechanical filters are located
act iv ity
-66-
The plant is rated to treat 200 tonne/hr of loop water. This capacity
is based on the extent of blowdown in terms of products of corrosion and
Reactor
Turbine
The mechanical drive for the TVV-5OO-2U3 AC generator is a
MaiR Design Characteristics for the turbine set appear in the following
table:
Oc~osnue pacqe?1*e XapaKTepI~c!TMxi ?ypoarperaTa npMse~eK•
KoH~emca~ope. /+ • .00
Type of steam distributionu /m abs.
672
"TexJ1Wecxa& xapax~epiic~uxa K~o)eIxca~opa
o.Amount of steam to be condensed (per condenser)
16. KO•_ebCT9~o. ,!ex~c _peai-
ru uapa IfaOI.iE•H tonne /hr 441,105
£•ooling water temp. at condenser entry
f7. Te~cepaTypa oxnaA8•0Se~
DoAld Ha isxo~e a IoH,~eH-
caTop o 18
4!•umberoof cooling water passes
3OAM T 2
•oollngsurf ace
19. I•Oepx~ioCm ox~a•AeH(At 12150
-Hydraulic condenser resiLstance
20. rs~pa~nHec~coe conlpoTXI- o
zieme KoHAenca~opa M.3•.CT.
neenflee ein nfl we - en teeweorn meecee wecen
(•7 b
:68-
Steam Separator
gages 0
•69-
The materials in the primary steam separator assembly units and parts
separator are:
a) Shell and bottom - steel 330E + IC 473 B (clad steel), Creusot-
Loire, France (see section 2 for composition and properties);
- Working - 70
- Rated - 75
- Steam humidity at exit from separator - no more than 0.1%
- Steam temperature, deg C - 284.5
- Feedwater pressure at entry to the steam separator, kgf/sq.cm - 71
- Feedwater temperature, deg C - 165
- Loop water flow rate, tonne/hr - 9,400
- Steam-and-water mixture flow rate, tonne/hr - 9,400
- Average steam content in steam-and-water mixture
going to separator - no more than 15.4%
-69a- •
- Steam separator level adjustment drop from rated, mm, no more .than +/- 50
- Effective water supply in separator with possible level position 100
nun below nominal, at least 51 Cu m.
-70-
Deaerator
The deaeration plant is a deaerator consisting of a deaerator tank and
two deaeration columns. The deaeration tank has three supports; the two
outer supports are sliding rollers which permit for the deaerator to expand
the central part of the deaerator and to permit its vertical movement. The
a double end seal with supply of a small amount of sealing water to keep
The pump tank is welded of steel 15Kh2MFA and is coated inside with
anticorrosive surface coating. It supports the hollow part of the pump and
shaft and rotor, guide, lower hydrostatic bearing, 0 ring and upper thrust-
guide bearing, which are~in the housing. The pump's design permits partial
filtration and cooling from the auxiliary oil system of each pump.
of 2 deg C/mmn.
0 -71a-
Feed Pump
An electric pump assembly is used to ensure supply of feedwater from
end seals and sliding bearings with forced lubrication. Cold condensate
Condensate Pumps
Condensate is carried from the condensor through the low-pressure
with bilateral inlet prerotation propeller. The end seals come in two
interchangeable versions:
Piping
Pressurized and intake collectors for the KMPTS (ND=800) and piping
(ND=800) to and from the GTsN are made of carbon steel 330E with a surface
Fueling Machine
The most important requirement imposed on the RBMK reactor is that it
parameters.
The fueling machine performs five operations per day to refuel process
water from the process channel to the RZM. After removal of the spent
cartridge, the channel is sealed and pressure in the pressure housing
brought to atmospheric. The machine separates from the channel and moves
to the next site to remove spent cartridges.
The RZM has two systems for precise guidance to the process channel:
optical.-TV.(main) and contact (backup) in case visibility is lost due to
steam from the channel.
The RZM is controlled from the operator's area which is behind the end
wall on the reactor side of the central hall.
.75a-
In addition, the RZM's cabin has a crane travel control panel.
The central hall has the following machine service areas: 1. Stopping
point - a zone in the central hall intended to stop the machine during
reactor refueling.
-76-
The control and safety system of an RBMK reactor makes it possible to:
monitor the level of neutron power of the reactor and the period of its
lo2 N nominal;
power
energy release over the active zone and control of reactivity to compensate
Figure 2.11):
neutron flux sensors with devices (mounts) for setting them in the
reactor
S
.5
I Isp.
S
S 9*.a,
S
I r - - - C - a S - - - a -
~I
S
'S
L - a a
~cu
a a - - - -~
. u~iF
T
S S
I -
if 1
msutpgt ..... Ei~
... J
I I
I I
I -I- -
* I
* *,gfmua e
S
* gummum. MS
S
I 'I
I S Aons U,
*
I I
m~u
** S
[
0
I I
I 6
*
I
* a ale
;~~i ::
S
rn
III
Id
2.11
0
"-79-
-the components of the control and safety system's logic system, which
implements specific control and safety algorithms and processes digital
signals from the instrument and actuator components of the system, from
cormmand instruments at the operator control panels, from the automation
system of the generation unit, and other systems; processing generates
commands to shift the control rods under normal and emergency conditions,
adjust the power level, change operating conditions, and trigger alarms and
signals;
4 mounts with KNT-31 fission chambers (KD) are lowered into the
reflector channels during the startup period and are removed after the PIK
in the center holes of the TVS (?) are 24 intrareactor sensors with
All of the system's 211 actuator mechanisms are mounted on control and
are channel type drives. The locations of the control rods are indicated
receiver (rod position indicator) mounted on the control system mimic panel
are indicated by means of limit switches which include upper and lower end
lights built into the corresponding position indicators.
Ts 3 and includes:
a control bay for the LAR (type BA-86) servodrives, which includes
12 sections;
The logic components of the control and safety system are also located
The reactor's alarm system, which includes sound alarms and light
alarms located on the reactor operator's board, involves the use of
uses to control the rods, vary reactor output, change operating modes, and
1111111111
I I I AI I I I I l~I mm
I i - Yi
-"i- --I" i
•
urn. me.....
__I -H ( 11"1,2
li).• !I(,•
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L
4
*- - I ~ I
i
I - I- -4- R I-
J 'I •I I-I i
U- Z-1-
~i~I ;;4~~~
- lin,
-i-f
i ~ ' - - - I
,;ilI
- I . U"- ~
-1*~
- urI-
..
HLII
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". "l!
f___+ ___lw-_4L
" -. -- ' p '-
Ii!~mm
#fz2]
-
! !iI'i * ! I ~d~d-~
iili:lla4l I I ! ill I
a i i ! 1 1 1 I !I lII i : *l I I
-__ - 11_ . • - qpr
-_
. I!. III •q .. l ! i ! i II1! ' i 8.1mi'O
v T• II a I
"".-Iw !
-<
!i i I i I:
,
i • I :
: - --. .
,
:
i! TY i-
. • . :
t -Ii - .
I I! ill* I a i I i i,.i tIi
I - I 5-I-q-y---4---4---~1-t~l1!
a 'U i ! t I t ' I i: '
!II ! i ' ! II I !*
- .
-i :,I
'- " . "
i
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-.
lI i
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I. I I I* I I
-
I i
-i-
- I- --
1. range of power
instrumnts withmonitoring on a logarithmic scale by means of ISS. ZI
KNT-31 chambers
2. range of power monitoring on a logarithmic scale by means of UZS,13
(AZSP) instruments with KNK-56 chambers (with lead)
3. range of power monitoring by means of ARMI instruments with KNK-56
chambers
4. range of power monitoring by means of 1 (2) AR instruments with KNK-53M
chambers
5. r~ange of power monitoring on a logarithmic scale by means of UZS-13
(AZSR) instruments with KNK-53M chambers
6. range of power monitoring on a linear scale by means of a recorder with
a PRU and KN4K-53M chamber
7. range of power monitoring on a linear scale by a KSVP recorder at the
operator's board with. IKK-53M chambers
8. range of power monitoring by LAR channels with KNYo.17 chambers
Digital warning and alarm signals on the reactor rideup period are
processed in the safety logic circuitry.
same.
possible for these sets to operate in different ranges, namely a low power
range of 0.5 to 10% nominal and a working power range of 5 to 100% nominal.
The low power range includes one ARM automatic controller (ZAR);
-84-
in the working power range there are two automatic controllers (lAR and
2AR).
the low power range and eight AZM channels in the working range
respectively.
signal from a ZdM.M5 output set point device which is commron for one set of
discrepancy signal should reach the warning and alarm set points, the
UZMo11 amplifier will generate warning and alarm signals respectively for
The average power deviation signal (from the output of the UJSM.l12
amplifier) and rod deviation signals are used to generate commnands to*
remove and insert automatic control rods into the zone. These signals are
transmitted via BKS.40 power control units to control the servodrive of a
control rod.
The control and safety system provides for identical set point values
from the power set point devices in the working range with an accuracy of
at least 0.5% N nominal. The set point values of the sensor are kept in
sync by means of a BSP.36 unit and a logic circuit on the basis of the
principle of stopping the set point device whose set point value has run
The operator can control the set point values of the set point devices
by means of keys on his control panel. The working rate of change of set
A button on the operator's panel may be used to reduce set point values in
an emergency.
rods. Data from two KTV.17 chambers situated in the active zone of the LAR
rod at a distance of 0.63 meters from the rod are used to control LAR rods.
supply.
-87-
Voltage of the same amplitude and polarity as that applied to the central
collector electrode is applied to the protective electrode. In the process
the protector and collector electrodes are under the same potential and
leakage currents are minimized. The KTV.17 chamber has three sensitive
elements distributed over the height of the active zone.
The LAR is put into an automatic mode in the power generation range
after the required distribution of energy release has been ensured on the
basis of information from the SFKRE system. Prior to activation, the
output signals from the LAR zones are compensated by means of correctors
included in the system. Subsequently, the LAR, by maintaining specific
power values in each of twelve zones prior to activation, stabilizes energy
distribution in the reactor. The LAR system maintains overall power with
an accuracy at least as good as that of a traditional medium power
automatic control system. The LAR system also has significant advantages
in transient modes, because it not only makes it possible to vary and
control overall power, but also eliminates power unbalances caused by local
technical perturbations.
At present, the LAR is the basic automatic power control system in the
10 to 100% N nominal generation range. A automatic average power control
system is used as a backup system which is automatically activated in the
event of failure of the LAR.
-87a-
that several zones malfunction, the system as a whole will remain operable.
the LAZ (local emergency safety system) channel, which generates power
overshoot alarm and warning signals; part of the signals from each of two
chambers of an LAR zone are summed in a USO amplifier, which generates a
deviation exceeds specific levels, the flip flop generates signals to move
the LAR control rod of the zone in question.
-88-
The rate of movement of the LAR control rods has been reduced to 0.2 meters
per second for the purpose of not exceeding the maximum permissible rates
prevented. In the event that power overshoot alarm signals appear in both
channels of an LAZ zone, two LAZ rods are inserted into the active zone
until at least one AZ signal disappears. In the process the average output
The withdrawal of more than eight to ten RR-AZ or USP rods in the
event of any malfunction (operator panel, control and safety system logic,
system. The power lock system automatically determines the number of rods
to whose power control armature circuits has been applied voltage to remove
the rods. If this number Is greater than 8 to 10, the circuit from the
control power source is automatically broken, and no rods may be removed
from the zone. There are three power lock channels which operate on the
24 control and safety rods evenly distributed over the reactor are
selected from the RR-AZ rods and put into an emergency protection mode by
means of a special selection circuitry included in the logic bays. In the
raised to VK; the removal of any other rods from the active zone is
prohibited prior to the raising of the safety rods; and the raising of the
The design of the actuator mechanisms of the control and safety system
ensures automatic insertion of all (except for the USP) rods into the
active zone in the event of power failure. The reliability of emergency
protection is ensured by functional redundancy (redundant monitoring
channels) for each parameter and hardware redundancy (redundant signal
processing channels).
Due to the fact that nuclear power plants with RBMK reactors make such
a great contribution to total power supplies and that down time must be
minimized, the designers of accident safety systems took a differential
approach to emergency situations in the reactor and generation unit. There
are several categories of emergency protection, depending on the nature of
the situation:
-89a-
to safe levels: AZ-3, AZ-2, AZ-l; safe levels of output for different
emergency situations and the rates of preventive output reduction have been
longer inserted in the active zone once the original reasons for the
condition have disappeared (that is, when power has returned to the proper
output. The same applies to transient modes of reactor operation and when
term; if a large number of control rods are inserted into the zone during
condition.
~.91-
that:
shuts down
DRK is thrown
system.
.-91a-
parameter takes place when two or more sensors of the four installed
switches. for each parameter are installed to take off the protection during
SKALA STsK. The safety system includes alarms which announce the operation
of the system, the reasons for its activation, and safety equipment
malfunctions.
Figure 2.13 illustrates the structure of the system on the basis of
process parameters.
level for these situations, and the actuator algorithm for conditions AZ-5,
3
g 2, and 1 are implemented in the control and safety system's logic.
excessive increases in nuclear power plants and reactor power and declaring
condition AZ-5 is ensured by functional redundancy (the presence of. at
least three monitoring channels with its own sensors for each channel) and
hardware redundancy (parallel processing of digital signals by several
independent channels).
nominal;
in the ASZP working range from lOexp-5 to 1.2 N nominal,
the channel at which it is installed (in the startup range) and a KNK-53M
current ionization chamber (in the working range).
.D•z•.te,•ue
tore•aure •,• •,.Ae 1717•
•p•
dOa d t•'dOa-o'/•o.a•t
•,e2e~
ty5/e,
EL?
b~7~75.
C~e'rn~ d%3 -~
Pr2 .13ayaa',
A3
93-
An AZ-5 condition is declared for power overshoot protection: in the
low power range: from 0.005 to 0.1 N nominal, when power exceeds nominal by
0.5% and is recorded by at least two power overshoot protection channels
out -of four; in the working power range: from 0.06 to 1.2 nominal, when the
AZM channel;
A group of four power safety channels has a common ZdM.5 power set
point device; one set point device in the AZMM (low power range and two set
point devices in the AZM (working power range). The ionization chamber,
chamber power supply, chamber current corrector, and power set point device
are at the same time part of the measurement channel of the automatic
p royvide
-.94a-
protection from overall power overshoots and monitor and protect the
reactor from local power overshoots.
A coincidence circuit for signals from two independent groups (of four
the power set point device. In the process dangerous malfunctions of the
emergency safety system are prevented by the fact that the measurement and
in this channel.
-95-
This design makes it possible to replace any unit in a channel for repairs
or maintenance when the reactor is generating power, which is particularly
important for RBMK reactors operating in a continuous fuel transfer mode.
When the set point value of a set point device is reduced, power
unbalance (deviation) signals are generated in the measurement component of
the automatic controller. When an activated automatic controller generates
unbalance signals of plus or minus 1%, the rods of this controller will
move, while the PK-AZ rods will move upon unbalance signals of plus or
minus 2.5%. Initially two groups of six rods will move downward, and then,
when they reach the lower terminus, the corresponding rods of the next two
PK-AZ groups will move downward upon an unbalance signal of plus or minus
2.5%. Only one group of six PK-AZ rods will move up. Plus or minus ?°5%
signals are generated in the KrU.4 unit of the average power automatic
controller upon signals from the sunning amplifier.
.-95a-
generated in the flip flop unit of the local automatic controller will
cause the local safety rods of the appropriate local automatic control zone
to move. Removal of the local safety rods from the zone is permitted only
after the local automatic control rods have been removed to the VK.
the process of reducing power and an alternate has not been activated,
the operation of the reactor and the condition of its parts, namely process
temperature and moisture content of the gas flowing over them on the
outside
The basic error of the flow meters is 1,5%. The flow meters have a
positive systematic error due to temperature, which is determined by a high
temperature flow meter tester and is adjusted for automatically by means of
introducing appropriate correction factors to measurement results in the
Skala system.
If heat transfer agent flow goes outside the limits defined by the set
point values, the computer system will issue a shutoff signal to the.
channel mimic panel and the group shutoff mimic panel; a shutoff notice
will appear on the teletype, and the control and safety system will be
a. regular basis and decisions should be made as to whether they may be used
amplitude and period ratios, and comparing the values of the ratios with
transducers.
while 5 bizonal assemblies are used to measure the temperature of the base
millimeters below and 2700 millimeters above the central zone. The
alloy. The cable has four strands with magnesial insulation, and has two
chromel and 2 alumel thermoelectrodes formed into a single working
assemblies may reach 2.2% of measured temperature and is taken into account
S
- - -
#100-•
1. tube
2. rod
3. graphite sleeve
I 4. chromel-alumel
thernmoelIectri c
transducer
2
4
1 -- :Jpy~a, 2 -- cep~@Wb.
3 - rpaQKTOaroa laryrma.
4 -. xp;oMentbu-anroMeJ~eau~f
tepHonfeopSOlo&a5AO
100O
-101-
In the upper and lower metal structures, which are very complex
structures which include a large number of structural members under high
temperature stresses, there may be as many as 30 checkpoints. The outside
surfaces of the process and control channels, the edges of the structural
members, roller supports, expansion joints, and upper and lower plates are
monitored.
monitoredat six points on a single radius. The bottom sides of the beams
in the ceiling of the central room are monitored at eight points.
aI
8 a
J
0.
gQ
0
W,
£
0.
60 S
.
drain.
approximately 60 seconds.
system and any parameter may be called for by code on the SKALA's digital
display and backup group instruments.
-105-
problems:
in Figure 2.39.
collectively monitored.
- o6- ""
a •
I
41 .!
° O
0 U.8"
o* ,j l
- . . • -° •
K rpynno30o~r
IJ~au8Ey
Figure 2.39.
installation of The
the process
chromel channel integrity monitoring
copel thermoelectric system
transducer (a) and
(b) Key: 1.
reactor 2. process channel 3. pulse tubes 4. panel 5. transducer 6. call
device 7. digital reader 8. Skala system 9. channel mimic panel 10.
moisture panel 11. moisture alarm 12. group valve 13. moisture sensor 14.
gas blower
-107-
Relative humidity can be set at intervals of 5%. When the moisture alarm
operates, it transmits signals to the SK.ALA system, which displays them on
The bellow cavities of the control and safety system channels are
integrity.
The moisture which appears in the reactor space during a leak will
partially settle in the bellow .cavity and later run down into the drainage
piping. In the process the temperature of the drainage piping, which runs
through the bottom water line room and has the same temperature if there
agents) determine the structure of the system for identifying and locating
zone.
total gamma activity of the heat transfer agent in each steam and water
of the metal of the BS, the surge tanks, the flow and pressure of the main
circulation pumps, and the flow of steam from the drum and feed water into
the drum.
structure of the system and its ties to other systems (the control and
forth).
from the system by means of a set of input and output devices. The system
thermoelectric
platinum and copper resistance thermometers
milliamp
output, synchro sensors, flip flop sensors, the SFKRE independent
system,
and signals of the average position of the control rods
2. Monitoring periods:
Functions:
reception channels and upon calls from staff to collective, individual, and
parameters and outputting the results to data displays and recording them.
Periodic process calculations at the request of the staff;
-112a-
emergency.
release detectors and comparing them with preset limit values, the SFKRE
control. The light and sound alarms issued by the SFKRE are used tO
balance energy release distribution. The interface between the SFKRE and
of energy release. The computer uses signals from the energy release
factors for each fuel element canister and to calculate a number of other
the thermal output of a reactor from the minimum monitorable level to ...
nominal. The potentiometer records the total current from the energy
release detectors over the radius of the reactor and has a scale calibrated
in megawatts (a scale of 0 to 4000 megawatts). A backup instrument is used
With respect to functional purpose the SFKRE may be divided into three
systems: a system for physical monitoring of the distribution of energy
release over the radius of the reactor, a system for physical monitoring of
the distribution of energy release over the height of the reactor, and an
The SFKREV .is designed to measure and record signals from 12 intrazone
seven section detectors for monitoring energy release over the height of
the reactor, for preliminary processing of these signals, transmitting them
to the SKALA computer, comparing the signals with three set levels, and
providing light and sound alarms when local energy release levels in
canisters adjacent to the detectors go off limits. Limit signal values for.
individual sections are determined by the SKALA computer so as to stabilize
axial distributions of energy release and ensure the safe operation of the
canisters without going over maximum permissible local heat loads.
The instruments are modular in design and are serviced by one commnon
signal values exceeding limit values, overshoot time, and the coordinates
of the detectors.
energy release detectors and control and safety system rods used to-monitor
and control energy release in the reactor. For the purpose of monitoring
in their centers. 130 of them are designed to hold radial energy release
system detectors, and at least 130 are left free (power scanning
detectors. These containers are placed next to the containers with the
radial detectors.
control board. The energy release light alarms are located on .the
SUZ-SFKRE mimic panel on the operator's board. A unit which activates the
-l15a-
light alarms on the mimic panel on commuands from the energy release
monitoring instruments is included in the SKALA system°
-116-
6.5 millimeters located along the axis of a container (over their entire
length). The design of a radial detector is illustrated in Figure 2.4.1. A
radial detector consists of a sensitive element in a sealed housing 4 made
of corrosion resistant steel with an outside diameter of 6 millimeters, a
sealed connector assembly, a cable line in a sealed protective housing, and
biological shielding components. The housing of the detector is filled
with an inert gas (argon) to protect the casing of the sensitive element
from corrosion.
A-A
a
4K3P.
--118-
The total length of the detector is 16167 millimeters and the length
of the sensitive element is 8500 millimeters.
square centimeter per second per neutron per meter of length. The maximum
The average ratio of the power of an un-burnt out can with an energy
megawatts per microampere. The variations of this ratio for each detector
due to its individual sensitivity and neutron spectrum are taken into
account by means of periodic calibrations of the detectors during the
on the basis of the power of each fuel can and scanning containers with
formula
where Ktp• is the individual calibration factor of the ith detector and Ji
differences in the neutron spectrum among different cans with radial energy
release detectors.
-11ga-
detector stored in the computer's memory. Calculations have shown that the
error associated with the use of formula 1 in replacing a burnt out
detector with a fresh one does not exceed 1%. In general the experience of
operating RBMK reactors has shown that the aforementioned allowance for the
burnout of detectors and cans does not lead to errors greater than 1% in
determining energy release in the reactor.
-120-
The detector is designed to have the same service life as the fuel
connector
-- the readings of the detector are rejected by the SKALA computer when
emission detectors with silver emitters made in the form of KDMS(S) cable
like those of-the radial energy release detectors. These detectors are
total length of cable in the coil is 2.6 meters. The centers of the upper
and lower sections are offset from the boundaries of the active zone
Figure 2.42. Seven sensitive elements are enclosed in a dry sealed sleeve
made of corrosion resistant steel and mounted in a channel similar to that
S designed to hold the control rods. On the outside the sleeve is codled
more than 70C when it leaves the reactor. Along the axis of the sleeve is
the detector. In the idle position the fission chamber may be left in the
center tube of the detector, because its sensitive space will lie below the
cables to sealed connectors located at the outlet from the sleeve into the
central room. The same cable, which is enclosed in a protective sheath
The inside of the sleeve is filled with a mixture of argon and helium
in order to reduce radiation heating of the detector; as a result, the
-S
In order to shield the space above the reactor from the ionizing
radiation of the active zone and the steam and water lines of the reactor,
the detector is equipped with two steel shielding plugs situated in the top
top part of the detector which at the same time serves to protect the
replace a detector when the reactor is running or shut down. Detectors are
replaced by remote control by means of the central room's crane, Cables
must be laid during the construction of the reactor and can be replaced
During the operation of the reactor, signals from each section of the
detector are used to calculate neutron flux density at the place where it
is installed:
integral current of the ith section of the jth detector lij and is
identical to that used for a radial energy release detector, and Jij is the
current of the ith section of the jth height energy release detector.
-124-
The service life of a height energy release detector is assumed to be
two and a half years. The experience of operating RBMK reactors has shown
that these detectors are satisfactory in terms of reliability. The average
form of four bays which contain basic functional units and control and
instrument for monitoring the thermal power of the reactor, a control panel
for alarm set points, switching equipment, and digital indicators of the
coordinates of a detector called by the display, and equipment for testing
functional units of the groups differ in design: the first group includes
which exceed safe limits, excess time, and the coordinates of the detector.
data signals and online monitoring of- energy release distribution in the
reactor. These functions are performed separately for each radial and'
lines). SFKRER instruments can process signals from 130 radial detectors
detector signal averaging device, to the inputs of the SKALA computer, and,
-1 25a -
recorder.
The alarm device compares the output signals of detectors with the
signals deviate from the aforementioned levels, the appropriate alarms will
be activated in the energy release monitoring instruments and on the
low" level. The absence of light means that a detector signal is above the
"too low" level but below the "warning" level, that is, is normal. A red
light means that the detector signals are equal to or higher than the
"warning" level, but have not yet reached the "alarm" level, while a
blinking red light means that the signals have reached or surpassed the
"alarm" level. In this case, a sound alarm will be activated in addition
mimic panel is made in the form of a model of the horizontal section of the
reactor, where the control rod position indicators and detector alarm
elements are installed. The location of the position indicators and alarm
elements on the mimic panel corresponds to the location of the control rods
and detectors in the radial plane of the reactor. The SFKRE displays make
it possible for an operator to get a clear view of the area where a
detector signal deviation occurred, use the signal to determine whether to
which makes it possible for the operator to determine areas where energy
of the radial detectors with fixed thresholds for all three levels.
In the first mode, the "too low" and "warning" levels for each
power, while the "alarm" level will be fixed at a level chosen on the basis
of the height detector sections with floating thresholds for all three
alarm levels, that is, carry out only relative monitoring of energy release
where U is the output signal of the detector prior to the connection of the
resistor and U' is the output signal of the detector after the resistor has
A A
been connected.
The maximum capacitance of the detector and the cable line should not
exceed 0.05 microfarads,
detector.
-129-
allow for the absence of signals at the inputs of some of the amplifiers.
The instruments generate four power signals, one for each quarter of the
reactor, equal to the mean arithmetic value of the output signals of the
instruments.
made to the mean arithmetic values to account for the absence of signals at
V - "U
power:
wh~ere Kphii is the gain factor of the amplifier of the comparison unit of
the ith instrument line which can be adjusted continuously from 0.6 to 2.5
deltaab is the gain factor of the "alarm level %" divider, which can be
adjusted discretely in percentage points from the nominal level from 0 to
range of 0.65 to 1.25, deltaza•¶ is the relative "too low" level, which can
is the mean arithmetic value of the output signals of the radial energy
release detectors.
-131-
(lgJrr-= *=i'op.,t..
The limit levels Uogr.np and Uogr.zan (warning and two low) can be
adjusted continuously within a range of 1 to 5 volts.
t00 low" where Kphiij is the gain factor of the amplifier of the
--...
comparison unit of the ith instrument line of the jth height energy release
b~e~taab, bJs~tnp, and..b•-t-ezan are the respective alarm levels and can be
adjusted continuously within a range of 0.75 to 1.85
U~overhead bar)j is the mean arithmetic value of the output signals of
The gain factors Kphii and Kphiij are calculated to set alarm
online run performed with the Prizma program. The other parameters in
formulas (5-7) and (10-12), which define alarm operation thresholds, are
all cases where set values and newly calculated values vary by 5% or more
relative alarm operation error does not exceed plus or minus 2 percent.
six years.
-133-
2.9.8. Special Operating Software for the Reactors at the Chernobyl Plant
the power safety factor standing between a critical heat removal situation
in each can -- calculate the temperature of the graphite in the active zone
of the reactor -- calculate the energy output of each can and the reactor
-- calculate settings for the energy release detectors in the active zone of
This last job is done by an outside computer center and the results
The other functions are performed by the plant's SKALA computer using
-- the signals of the energy release detectors inside the reactor's active
zone -- signals from the control rod position indicators -- signals from the
collectors, pressure in the drum separators, feed water flow, and so forth;
distribution
Basic calculations are performed with the Prizma program once every
five to ten minutes. The energy output of each can and the change in the
once a day.
(Ntvk is the number of fuel cans in the reactor) are adjusted when fuel
}7(., )
in which the correction factors ~t, which differ for different types of
channel in question and the channel where the transfer is underway and the
energy output of the can being unloaded and the can being loaded (E and E'
f"j 11
-.136-
where the coefficients •pc defined in the table depend on the distance Rik
between the ith can and the kth rod and the depth of insertion of the kth
rod at the moment the calculation was made (h'kc) and the moment
corresponding to the time when neutron physical calculations were made.
The correction factors were obtained on the basis of a mathematical
analysis of the effect of rod movement on can power using the neutron
physical analysis program.
quantities
the burnout of the emitter of the detector and fuel in the channel
containing the detector.
...j e. o/,/,
-.137-
for all cans in the reactor. In this formula Zi and Yi are the coordinates
of the ith can, j•(Zi •f) is a system of radial azimuthal functions.
The readings of the jth detector or the position indicator of the control
rod located in the vicinity of this detector are considered unreliable if
oz
=jv/( -y.
- -13 7a -
jRI:
Sunuation is carried out over the four detectors closes to the ith can,
The weighting factors f•are determined by means of solving a system of
these coefficients depend on the distance between the can and the detector,
At the same time that the power Wi of each can is calculated, the
situation will reach a certain value which will be constant over time and
identical for all cans. According to this definition, the power safet
where Wi is can power, Wkrihis the can power at which a heat removal crisis
will occur. Wkri is determined from tables on the basis of water flow
through the channel, pressure in the separator drum, and water temperature
•Ca: - w~ {x. ;
.Th,,)- )r•
-139-
power, data on the height distribution of energy release, and signals from
thermocouples installed in the graphite stacking.
where .. ~t'is the average temperature of the heat transfer agent in the
reactor'
--140-
Wi(k) is the power of the can in the channel adjacent to the kth joint
fo rmul1a:
-IWE
-140a-
where is the signal of the jth detector, Wi is the power of the ith can
located in area wj near the jth detector (this area is a square of five by
five reactor cells, at the center of which is the jth detector), and~i
where Ck is the relative "weight" of the rod depending on its type, Npc is
the number of control rods, PKL2) is a quantity proportional to the height
distribution of absolute neutron flux density at the location of the kth
rod calculated using calculated can power values and height monitor
detector readings averaged over the reactor.
-142-
The printer automatically gives the time and the coordinates of a down
detector, the rejection constant, the time and coordinates of the channel,
and power (if out of limits).
The channel mimic panel indicates the channels in which power is above
the set point given by the operator and channels whose safety factors are
below those set by the operator, and so forth.
cooling system and is designed to provide for the removal of residual heat
release (after the chain reaction has been suppressed) by means of the
timely delivery of the required amount of water into the reactor channels
The designers of the emergency cooling system took into account the
•following requirements which the system must meet:
-143a-
,,-u- .,c
34_0Ye " . • V .~V~ a -• •~ l m ,,alaalp l ,=, IPt•
• - •
-
f .IIIO'UShIAM m ~ o *auor,
I- m ozamn-o i m,• a '•,.n o .ano .vpm Z-lo p l -nw i
ico N
Aer
7.O '4,
80
80
45
•X
-
/ keci4~ ,;~
Md? t'~, 96~ - I - I m m u I &ii -i•
I[i
o :O 1,o 60 80 100 120 f80 14,0 160
SnoD/7oO2c1 A'ro~eA'rno~0o ,g %00 p,#
c~ccc/e38- lip! PaJPblSe
O•Pf/enoo £o ,onpv6o, ,4 3O•'O~Mf
o OO•#
!
-146-
collector of the main circulation pump and the steam separators of the
o water to the affected half of the reactor in the event of a maximum design
Semergency should not last longer than 3.5 seconds.
unproductive discharge through the site of the break into the room should
not occur.
7. Nitrogen should be kept from getting into the reactor from the
system's tanks when they are emptied.
Each channel (.subsystem) includes a fast acting part and a long term
cooling part.
The fast acting part delivers the required amount of water to the
channels of the affected half of the reactor during the initial phase of an
accident.
The fast acting parts of two system channels (the tank parts) consist
of a system of tanks (filled with water and nitrogen under pressure of 10.0
megapascals) connected by piping and collectors to the forced multiple
into the affected half of the reactor in 3.5 seconds, is used as a fast
acting valve to activate the tank part of the system. The power supply for
meters each. The total initial volume of water in one tank part is about
least 50% of requirements for at least 100 seconds. The duration of the
Nitrogen is kept from entering the reactor from the tanks by means of
automatic closure of two sequentially installed valves on piping from the
The fast acting part of the third system channel is a unit for
delivering water from the PEN, which provides a flow of at least 50% of
Backup power for the actuators of the fast acting valves is provided
The long term cooling part cools both the affected and unaffected
The long term cooling parts of each channel consist of two groups of
pumps:
The pump part for cooling the affected half of the reactor consists of
two parallel connected pumps and delivers water at a rate of about 500 tons
per hour, that is, no less than 50% of requirements during a maximum design
pumps and are designed to ensure the stable operation of the pumps during
The pump part for cooling the unaffected half of the reactor includes
one pump and provides a flow of about 250 tons per hour, that is, at least
50% of that required for the unaffected half in a maximum design emergency.
Intake water is taken from pure condensate pumps and is fed to the
collectors of the tank part downstream of the fast acting valve through
pressure piping.
The flow limiter inserts in the pressure piping perform the same role
that they do in pumps for cooling the affected half of the reactor.
Backup power for the electric motors of the pumps and the valve
pressure by more than 15%, allowing for a single failure of any active or
-- has highly reliable main safety valves which close promptly once the
accompanying the operation of the main safety valves -- provides for the
entry of steam into the water of the bubbling tank at speeds close to the
speed of sound, even if only one main safety valve operates (This is
required for shock free steam condensation).
The system consists of eight main safety valves with a total capacity
of 5800 tons per hour at nominal pressure in the loop, that is, a capacity
Each main safety valve with a capacity of 725 tons per hour is
controlled by means of a direct action pulse valve (arm plus weight type)
equipped with an solenoid type actuator for opening and closing it.
-150a-
Steam is discharged from the main safety valve into the bubbling tank
below the water -level through submerged nozzles with outlet diameters of 40
millimeters each (1200 nozzles in all).
and as a consequence, the ingress of water into them, and to ensure shock
IL . At,'. 2.45
Fig. 2.45 Steam Dumping system from GPK into pressure suppression pool.
.152-
In the normal operating mode of the unit the GPK are closed and the
The system automatically engages only when the pressure in the MPTs
loop exceeds the following values:
Operating personnel can also force GPK open from BShchU and RShchUo
-152a-
The main components of the system which protects the loop frori-excess
pressure were experimentally checked on test stands during development.
The system as a whole underwent comprehensive testing for agreement with
2.10.1.3. System for protecting reactor space (RP) from excess pressure.
not exceeded in an emergency with rupture of one fuel channel due to escape
of the gas-steam mixture from the RP into the steam-gas dumping compartment
of the pressure suppression poo~l and then into the pressure suppression
pool itself.
system);
Figure 2.46 shows a schematic of the system which protects the reactor
system by eight pipelines Du 300 (four pipes above and four pipes below the
RP which are then combined into two Du 600 pipes).
Each of the Du 600 pipes leads into its own stage of the compartment
and is immersed 2 m below the water level, i.e. in the normal operating
mode of the block the reactor space is cut off from the atmosphere by a
hydraulic seal 2 m high. .
-153a-
The height of the vertical sections of steam dumping pipes Du 600 from
the reactor to the water level in the compartment exceeds 28 mn; for this
reason pipe Du 600 which combines four pipes Du 300 below the RP is
specially raised to mark 28.8 and then drops into the compartment.
1~
_____U - -
- S..
flit
-ill
II. -
-
_ - - -
II;1 - - - -
-
- - - - -
- - 'LI
- -
.. 'a. * piy ~nJ...-.F
T1~F~1.
5'A'1/2
Puc~ 2.46 Cucme#tu 3Cuiumb, ,0f7 0", npe8~vweHuI.' dt?
4
~gure 2.46C System for protecthe RP from excess ~ressure0
-155-
compartment is reliably (by three barriers) cut off from the water volume
When the pressure in the RP rises to 1.2 kgs/cm2 (ABS) the hydraulic
seal in the compartment is forced out and the g~as-steam mixture enters the
compartment through the steam dumping pipes. When the pressure in the
space above the water in the compartment reaches 1.1 kgs/cm2 (ABS) check
(relief) valves open and the gas-steam mixture enters the steam
distribution lane, and from there through steam dumping pipes to below the
compartment in the pressure suppression pool gas from the RP cools and is
kept in the spaces of the accident localization zone from which it is
released into the atmosphere by the hydrogen removal system after required
Maximum pressure in the RP at all accident stages does not exceed 1.~8
kgs/cm2 (ABS),
accidents with failure of the seals of any piping of the reactor cooling
system, except for the piping of the steam-water service lines (PVK), the
upper runs cf the fuel channels and that part of the downcomers of the drum
section:
0.45 MPa;
support
crosspiece with Ieaks of total area 5 m2. In terms of strength
conditions of reactor structural elements these compartments
prevent pressure from rising above 0.08 MPa and are designed for
this quantity. All components of the reactor loop are concentrated
Ao 1O 9 166 q
7f Nc
-• - ' ' '•F -- 4 --
types:
which separate the air space of the pressure relief tank and the
sealed volumes;
- check valve panels (item 11) mounted in barriers which separate the
The compartments of the sealed volumes and steam distributing lane are
mode.
-158a-
boiling coolant begins to enter it. Steam formation leads to pressure rise
in the accident compartment. The check valves of the panels which connect
the accident half of the sealed volume to the steam distributing lane (item
11) open when the pressure in them changes to exceed 0.002 MPa. When the
a value sufficient to discharge the liquid column from the steam discharge
channels, a steam-air mixture begins to enter both stages of the
condensation device at the same time. As it boils through the water layer.
the steam condenses and air collects in the air volume of the condensation
device compartment; when the pressure there exceeds 5 kPa, relief valves
open which connect the air space of the condensation device compartment to
the nonaccident sealed volume, and some of the air flows into this volume.
remain closed.
If the seal of the reactor loop fails in the "RGK-NVK" compartment the
pressure rise in it leads to opening of the check valves which connect the
RGK-NVK compartments and the steam distributing lane (for pressure change
exceeding 0.02 MPa). The steam-air mixture front he lane travels through
the steam dumping channels into the water volume of the center part of the
pressure raise in the air space of the condensation device causes the
relief valves to open which connect the air space of the condensation
the spaces of the two sealed volumes are used to reduce pressure in the
accident compartment, and the valves of the panels (item 11) remain closed0
-159a-
All sealed compartments of the system except for the BKU are .lined with a
shell of steel VSTZKP2 4 mm thick and are checked for local and integral
seal. The BKU is lined with a shell of steel O8Khl8NIOT 4 nmm thick.
Results
-160-
volume and in an accident with rupture of distributing group header ('Du 300
mm) in the RGK-NVK compartment are shown in Figs. 2.48 and 2°49
the accident sealed volume does not exceed thernaximum allowable value 0.25
*MPa, and the gauge pressure in the accident RGK-NVK compartment does not
passive element with moving parts (no active elements in the system).
not violated.
integrity
-'160a-
d
!•.!.'7.
i I
•/.. r
•1,//. !. I•.
'V
I I i
44
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.- / I I -'_
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7.ff(Q¶
\ \ I•I II Il1 '
B
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\1 II I
III II ilI m m
i
.. I BIJ /l1/
+1~1~121~ r A I IL LL•
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-I- t1 t
I I II l71//K,,,..- J-
-Ir +- t -f I*~1
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g . . .
-I
. • .
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.; . . =
'141
-, --
t
F 1 T 1-1 I - • - .- t-- • -.. - -I - -_4-
A ~vI I~
I
AV
w " ,| .. ..
I I I
-,.- -
..
- . - . -
I
$ -0 $0. fO0I eso c;c
Figure 2.49. Pressure change in compartments of block 2 of the SAES and
four blocks of the Ku AES and Chernobyl plant with rupture of RGK.
-163-
The sealed doors of the BKU ensure the required seal and operating
- all service lines which intersect the sealing loop and which should
be closed at the time of the accident to prevent escape of
and the RShchU from which they are remote controlled of necessary
by the operator;
supply system.
localization compartments.
manufacturer's.
operation only with the unit shut down. All isolating valves are
checked. Tests include checking serviceability and integrity.
that any single failure in the system not lead to disruption of its
functions.
4
164a-
suppr'ession pool have the necessary openings for water and air. The lowr
part of each story of the condensation device is filled with water. The
thickness of the water layer on each story is 100 ram. The total water
volume on both stories is 3200 m3, the volume of the air space 3700 m3.
Steanm enters the water volume~ of the condensation device through steam
du~mping channels arranged uniformly over the entire area of the sealed
volumres and a steam distributing lane. Each steam dumping chanx~l is built
in the form of a block of the pipe-in pipe type which ensures simrultaneous
The number, diameter, and spacing of the steam distribution pipes and
distance under the water surface were determ~ined by tests on a large scale
nmodel and ensure comp~lete steam condensation in the water volume of the
condensation device, uniform heating of it and rapid pressure drop in the
emergency sealed ccarpar mnt during accidents with loss of integrity of the
reactor loop.
-165a-
The upper story of the condensation device is equipped with the
necessary number of special vertical overflcw pipes with a diameter of 800
nmm (Fig. 2.47, item 28). The overflow pipes are designed to maintain the
necessary level on the upper story and equalize pressure in the air spaces
purification unit.
fran the BKU and sealed canpartmnts and a hydrogen removal system.
- cool alA purify water in sealed volumes and the air space of the
condensation device both during nomnal operation and in an accident;
over three legs. of piping (each of which, ensures 50% .of-systan capacity) to
heat exchangers (item 15) where it is cooled by service water and
- to nozzles (itemn 13) located in the air volumre on both stories of the
condensation device.
-167-
Air is collected fram the upper (bottest) part of the sealed volum~es,
cooled by water jets, and sent to the lower part of the volumes. After
contact with the air the cooling water is returned to the condensation
device. The ejection coolers wrork continuously both during normal
The nozzles of the sprinkler system located in the air space of the
condensation device, spray the cooling water, mix and cool the air.* The
pressure gradient on the nozzles is achieved by installing choke washers on
cooling water feed headers. The nozzles operate continuously both during
steam entering the steam distributing lane. Service water is the cooling
medium. During normal operation the surface type condensers operate in the
waiting mocde and are engaged on MPA signal.
-16 7a-
The serviceability of the system is tested on a large scale model
during developmrent.
mnay enter these caripartirnts with uncontrolled leaks from the KMPTs, and
also under condlitions of dump~ing steam fram the GPK( and during accidents
is found.
caratiets w;ith coolant leaks with a magnitude of 2 t per hour and with
possible steam leaks through closed safetyj valves.
steam when the GPK triggers and under piping rupture conditions.
The largest amo~unt of hydrogen can enter the caprtrets under 1V•A
conditions (hydrogen which has accumsalated in the coolant and also formed
Fig. 2.50.
-168Sa-
in air - 4% (by" volume), 0.2% (by volune) was adopted in the design as the
flow rate was also adopted for all other operating conditions of the block.
The SUV (Fig. 2.*51) includes the following: electric heater, contact
iiii
,'T
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/
- S
° •0"
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*" "s-,•,yJ'm,•,ue -
A• .jw €v*e,,, o;ou,'#•]•
I!
!
!
S
o
I
0
3Dt T
i I 7, I-
*1. !0 I
o
!
0
II I I
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O
i
O
I•I
•I 0 0 -
8
*0
0 0
. I ' o
S' .10 I2I4 4*
n I nn u n
--- P~c.2.50 I n • n
Ik °
Figure 2.5O° Influx of 112 into ~~ •r•,cy localization
oaiaincmpr~et c•m•to
-170-
The gas-air mixture in the rated mode passes through the electric
On the DPA signal the protective-cutoff fittings close and the SL'V
fran any SLA car~aartient can be set up by turning on the backup circulator
or backup subsystem.
-170Qa-
- UJFtE~Dflwje ~
~ g4~~IffA4F'1ir
condensers.
2.*10.3.1. Electric power supply system for power plant in-house needs
Power plant in-house consu~mers are divided into the following groups
house needs and which require that power be available after triggering of
reactor AZ;
transfo~rers for in-house needs and during nonrmal block operation which
There are two independent power supply sources which back up one
and backup power fran working and backup transfonLers for in-house needs.
-172-
group;
group.
The consumers of the third group include reactor coolant pumps (GTsN),
feedwater pimps (PN), the first and second condensate extraction pumps
(1•I, IqN2), mechanisms of auxiliary systems of the reactor and turbine roan
pulrpose.
"ePu deo
tebld
Ut
Sml.dd6
r,. ia d
I.!Z -- I
!i H_
*MbeI..|l pa0.BMI
II ' A I! F---J
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,-.- , I _1"_,. II . . j-I
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electricity supply for in-house needs when the block is shut down for
technical reasons, and also for all types of electrical accidents in the
unit above the generator breakers, in particular short circuit in the unit
transformers.
to the reactor zone for the first 45 seconds fram the start of a mnaiinuumi
conceivable accident in case of loss of power for in-house needs from the
The rudw unit is engaged on the mnaxirmum conceivable accident and the
conrresponding sections of the unit transfonrnr for in-house needs and the
consumers of the reactor section and general unit cons-imers are distribated
uniformly between sections of the two unit transformers for in-house needs;
different sections.
-174-
storage batteries with static converters and diesel generators are used as
power supply sources in addition to working and backup transformers.
Consumers of the first and second groups are divided into two
plant needs.
acting valves and gates on lines of the reactor emergency cooling system
There are three independent power supply sources (storage battery with
second group of the NNBS, and when voltage disappears on this section from
The AC 0.4 kV cons~x of the first group are connected to the 0.4 kV
section of the NNAS which is powered fram the DC panl via static inverter
converters.
(ShchPT'S) and the 0.4 kv section (•NNAS)of each subsyst~n, and under
connected, i.e. electric drives of the SAOP slides and valves and emergency
the slides the latter are connected by stages on the MP'A signal.
The general unit constm~rs of the 0.4 kV" emergency power supply network
of the first group include the "SKAIA" system, SUZ, dosinetric rronitoring,
the KIP equipment and autamatic reactor systems, turbines and generator,
and the quick acting reducing valves.
There are two general unit emergency power supply systens to supply
power to const~s of the general unit emergency power supply and DC
-175a-
supply system, of the first group (NNA), the six kV and 0.4 kV in-1~use
supply section.
S
-176-
The DC panel (ShchPT) of each general unit emergency power supply unit
is supplied from a rectifier connected via 6/0.4 kV transfonner to the 6 kV
emergency power supply section of the second group, and when voltage"
morde.
The 0.4 kV consumrers of the first group are connected to the NNA
sections via thyristor switching devices TKYeO. The NNA sections are
Each cons•e of the general unit enegency power supply network hres
two power supply sources. Either the netvwork or another inverter converter
transfer of consumer power supply from one source to another in 10 is. For
conszrrs who allow poe supply interruption up to 100 - 200 ins, relay
Devices with technological backup (feeder "A" and "B", "SKALY", 1000 Hz
converters and 400 Hz "SKALY", AZ panel sets and so forth), are
.- 176a-
the reactor emergency cooling system and the accident localization system.
safety subsystsns.
source for the 6 kV energency power supply sections on the IV unit of the
Chernobyl power plant. The start tine of the diesel generators was 15
seconds.
- 17 7a-
The diesel generators were loaded in stages. The start time~ of- each
stage was 5 seconds. The diesel generators (GD) with1 step load pickup are
started autamatically on the M•A (ma~xiimzm conceivable accident) signal and
- DG start;
- disconnect both section breakers which connect the working 6 kV in-
house needs section to the emergency power supply section;
For 0.4 kV conswmers of the second group there are 0.4 kV sections of
the safety systans (NNBS) and 0.4 kV general unit sections independent of
The numiber of 0.4 kV. NSS sections correspond~s to the number of- plant
safety subsystems.
Ir.1'4.,e'4-
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Figure 2.51.
-179-
Each of the three safety subsyst~r•s has its ow;n imideperident control
safety system (USE).
The USE forms the M2A signal when the pressure rises in the PPB
a drop in the gradient between the pressure header of the GrsN and the BS
to 0.5 i,~a.
another, i *e, each USE has its own equipme~nt arnd power supply, individual
cciar~rets for equipmnt and cable routes.
To form the pressure rise signal there are four transducers each in the
PPB, ES, and NVK ccgTpartments. A signal is formed when two or more
transducers trigger.
The level drop signal in the PS and the signal which indicates a
pressure gradient drop between the pressure header and the BS is forxred
The MPA signal is formed for each half of the reactor indepenidently°
-179a-
Wnen the MPA signal appears the USB generates uc~tpcit actions to- switch
the corresponding valves of the safety systan, and to turn on the diesel
The design provides for the possibility of reuote control of the safety
system; for this reason control switches for each USE are zmunted on panel
EShchU-0.
of instrxment malfunction.
located in the zone of the operational BSchchU loop and on the backup
control parnel.
The •zr control el~nnts of the SAOR, the SLA, the safety system
valves, the devices wtich monitor SAOR water fl1w rate into the reactor and
•C.9OP, C..9.#'
E~-eo0' ~AYuv~'~
le ~jeI
•8.A. ,4••••,.
2.54
Figure 2.54, Structural diagram of the USB
•-182-
The M.PTs loop and its main parts axe described in sections 2.6 and 2.7.°
control channels;
not: operating;
-182a-
*parts.m
Figure 2.55. Schematic of the channel cooling systei• of the SUZ, IKD_,KE,
and~ KOO.
Water fromi the upper emergency reserve tank flows by gravity into the
pressure (distributing) header and is distributed through the channels.
The channels contain camponents of the reactor Protection and control
transducers. Some of the channels are used to set up a flow of water which
As it passes through the SUZ channels, the water of the cooling loop
gives off heat to the service water and the system heat exchanger.
Depending on the service water timperature and the degree of fouling of the
heat exchanger surface. two heat exchangers ensure heat discharge with two
in. reserve.
Following the heat exchangers water flows into .the lower tanks of the
total volume of the lower tanks makes it possible to accept the entire
Fcur pumips are used to feed water fran the lower tanks to the emergency
reserve tank. The outpat of each pum is roughly 700 t/hr with a head of
roughly 0.9 ?~a. Two of themn are working, two are backup°
-184a-
The capacity of the w~orking pu.mps exceeds the capacity of the cooling
system; therefore sara of the water is continually dumped into the lower
tanks of the systemn fran the emrgency reserve tank (the level in the
Hydrogen is released from the water of the SUZ. cooling system due to
radioilysis in the reactor core.
n:...-185-
TO preclude formation of an explosive -hydrogen concentration the space
above the water- in the upper and lower tanks is constantly vented with
monitoring of hydrogen content of the water in the SUZ cooling systeim and
ir, the comipressed air feed system, the space above the water is vented by
the emtergency reserve tank into the lower tanks through an overfl• pipe.
When the system stops all water f ran the emrergency reserve tank drains into
The l~r tanks of the system are constantly flushed with comipressed
air; air ejected f ran the erergency reserve tank also flows into then. In
addition since the tan is under a slight vacuum, air from. the compartment
flows into them through a special line with a valve. Negative pressure in
the tanks and discharge of air supplied for flushing are acconplished by a
When any of the flushing (vent systems) fail, those still in operation
When failures occur in the cooling system (drop in the level in the
emergency reserve tank, decrease of water flow rate), signals for emergency
The system was fully checked during startup operations and unit
operation.
The purge and shutdown cooling system (SPiR), Fig. 2.56, is designed to
cool the KMP~s purge water collected for purification with subsequent
heating before returning to the KMPrs under nominal conditions; and for
reducing the temerature of the KMPrs water to the required level in the
In the nanin'al mode KM'~PTs coolant at a rate of 200 t/hr (100 t/hr fram
each KMP'Ts loop) under the GTsN head is sent to the regenerative heat
to the cold backf low, and then further cooled by water of the closed cooling
water system in a purge supercooler down to 50cC and is sent to the loop
In the unit shutdown cooling mocde the SPiR reduces the water
temperature in the KMPTs fran 180oC to the value required by unit repair
also be used to discharge residual reactor heat when power to satisfy in-
house unit needs fails. The operating configuration in this mode is the
flHn'Q?!,AqM loAf
0? iIJ~i
!
i
I
!
! pT
°•
S
i
IQ| "9
'8
AlrO3Wfl*.ml mIAm 9• 1
- nc.?.5 6 . uoaaewtOps
orIanopnoro npiinj~int~iq
syopoll cOic~lmu10O111
cxE)nonoemnw hU'oItYBlO . t PACXOJIA•1BA1HI •m'o~r Kom', ?Y"" -
/o,,7,,
I - pearrp; "2 - cenflpaTopu nape; 3 - ucac,,namtnN boaaeht'p: 4 - rM~aN• tw~pwynmi'o'uwN
JHacoc; 5 - Haanoptail wozaewrop; 6 - pere~eparop; 7 - Hacocil paexo~aamna~mnh; 8 - Aoox~a-
AwTreN nlPORyUN; 9 - yCTSHOUKa O'UCTWH803
•OU ttpRyRNHoHHoro RoH-ypa peRWop8 JO - ce
CMeJIU npo~ueo'tnoNl Nflrae'ren,.oH uOAu
'-188-
system which nnnitors the integrityT of the fuel channels (KTsTK) where the
As it passes through the KrsTK system the mixture travels through the
oxygen, mrethane, carbon dioxide gas, carbon monoxide and anionia are renoved
fram the mixture down to the concentration which allowqs normial reactor
operation.
I6
I ; l i:Ii, .- . . •
• 2
•P*. .5 ,p, uc/* ,, 2dT01T/o O pd.,,,,
, Co
1Y•,• iw •I .
-190-
¢eext
ut•£Z Radioactive argon-41 is removed in holding tanks.
To reduce heliumn leaks from the reactor masonry into the reactor
The gas loop system is capable of purging the reactor masonry with
system.
mreasured and radiation is imonitored. All readings appear on the gas loop
panel.
Valves and• equipmnt are controlled fram the gas loop panel.
-190a-
conditions of the water heated by residual heat release fram spent fuel in
the ponds under all conditions, including caomplete loss of power to in-
house consu~mers of the unit. The system keeps water temperature in the
ponds:
greater than roughly 80oC in 20 hours from the start of termination of heat
dissipation)
pu~rificatiorn system.
Measures are also provided to vent the air space above the basins.
The ponds are cooled over a closed loop. Water heated in basins by,
residual heat release travels from the upper parts of the pond to the heat
exchangers where it gives up its heat to the service water. Required heat
one of two pum~ps with a capacity of roughly 160 m3/hr with a head of roughly
Tne cooling water return and collecting pipes are designed such that
when they fail the level in the ponds does not drop below a nnrm
allowble value.
F:
,,ICuete,,,a
% o.r/a t'dwus 6aeeed/,,o &vd. .,OWKUiBm
JooBw cueu,,v•, 8
u #G~•'mr•ter•,4i, n,v.-,wmn -A, 3,0o.,1'7gO . .~
fje mw.
8o3&UOaW
OV~.vueMO
4
.A4otd
rdur•
I.
Ao
,I•om.tbv•I, ,-'• ch, •
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MlO oQUuen~rI/
%~j
. 193-
flowi section of the openings which connect the cooling ponds to the central
The ejection-cooling unit for each of the two sealed volumes consists
of four groups of coolers mocunted at the 5.0 mark in the GPsN tank
water the coolers arc divided into two independent subsystems of eight
coolers each and are connected to the different pump systems of ithe SOS.
U-
C•IEMA YICTAH08K,14 9KEI•LI, 1OHHbl X OX^AAHfTE.AE1
29.300
"V "11"
"•o000
2.59 V~
IcI ~ I
-195-
to each group of coolers where is cooled using water jets in summrer to 35CC,
in winter to 18cC, and is sent to GTsN tank ccapartment. The cooled air
dissipates heat from plant equipment and accidental coolant leaks. To
the cooler outpat. Ejection coolers not only cool air and rexrove excess
moisture fram it, but also rexrove aerosols, including radioactive iodine.
part (subsystem) of the automiated control system of the power plant and is
ccznprtments of the power plant and in the external environmrent, the status
the radiation profess monitoring (RL'K) system and the radiation dosimcetric
a~spheric air;
data collector and processor UNO-06R are linked radially to units for local
The UNO-06R are linked to one another and the data exchange and
CSICI'Mbl CPK
- ~ - U~
- - ~
* ~ ~A6.m
m~I
-j
1~j( ~?i~ ~O
iThAD. ,Th
•-198-
UDZhG-05R, UJDZhG-14RI) ;
- volume~tric beta activity of inert gases in air and process media ir±
the ranges 10-9 - 1.4 x 104 curies/• (YDG•B-08) and 10-5 - 0.3 curies/.l
(UDGB,-05-01) ;
- activity of beta active inert gases in gas aerosol releases into the
vent pipe in the range 8 x 10-9 - 8 x 10-5 curies/4;
releases into the vent piPe in• the range 3 x 10-13 - 3 x 10-10 curi'es/j.
Gas aerosol releases into the vent pipe are monitored by radiometers
RKS-03-01 and R1KS-2-02. Air flow rate in the vent pipe is measured by a
For each unit of the nuclear power plant the total number of protection
- personnel when leaving the nuclear power plant for protection and
subsequent detailed examination of the subject for gammla radiation in the
radiation exposure doses in the range 0°05 - 2 R at energy 0.1 - 1.25 MeV
....(IFtJ-l),.
C-
-200-
dose in the range 0.1 - 9.9 R/hr. There are also a num~ber of dosimeter
gland (MSG-01). Also s~nconductor DGDK type detectors are used at the
nuclear power plant with corresponding analysis and processing equipment
himan organism.
ber/s (KDK-2) ;
air for alpha, beta and ganima radiation in different energy ranges (RZhS-05,
Throuigh the vent pipe of the nuclear power plant and automatic mreasurement
of weather paramreters.
2.11.8. AES management centers
AES management is performed on two levels:
- plant level
- unit level
(see Figure 2.61 the fundamental management layout of the plant).
Management of all of the devices which ensure the safety of the AES is
circuit breakers for the 330-ky autotransformers, and circuit breakers for
the 6-ky and 300 kV reserver transformers s.n.);
rt
ro
0•
ro
0
I3
III
~ -
unit
- - -t -
_J
I
I
bU III power
-203-
- coordination of the work of the operational personnel stationed at:
the unit control panel and at individual structures of the commercial site.
Keys for controlling the above cited circuit breakers are provided at
panel.
The devices for relay protection, accident preventing automatic.
devices, and telemechanics are located in the buildings of the relay panels
of the corresponding distribution devices (ORU): ORU-750 kV and ORU 330 kV.
for controlling the relay protection and the accident preventing automatic
devices.
Unit management level
others);
- reactor management;
The work spaces of the operators- the control panels are positioned in
the operational circuit of the SChchU:
- management equipment
-conmmunication equipment.
The panel of the operational circuit of the SCHchU includes:
unit;
- individual instruments of the test system; and
- signaling systems.
The basic volume of the parameters are controlled by the "SKALA"
These include the reactor power, the pressure and level in the BS, the
flow rate of steam after the BS, the flow rate of the replenishment water
into the BS, and measurements of the SFKRE and SUZ and others.
.-205-
Power supply to the BShchU and the "ISKALAI STsK. is implemented from a
reliable power system in such a way that if the s.n busbars are shut off,
the operator does not lose information about the status of the
technological parameters.
with special panels - safety panels (PB) for each of the three safety
others are installed on the control panel. Recorders of the neutron power,
the pressure in the BS, and so on are installed on the panels of the
panels.
For a number o,f technological systems which are not associated with
the basic technological process, local control panels are provided for: the
-205a-
gas loop, the special water purification; radiation control systems; for
installations for sorptive purification of ejector gases, and turbines.
-206-
Local panels are also provided for a number of units of the basic
technology (GTsN, PEN, APEN, and others), which are delivered in a complex
downtime. Normal operating modes are startup and shutdown of the block,
The startup of the power block with an RBMK reactoir is conducted with
operating reactor coolant pumps , with "sliding" pressure and with a free
water level in the separators. The required anticavitation supply during
control valves that are mounted on the head of the pumps. The continuous
control of cooling water consumption is carried out in this mode over all
of the fuel channels of the core and by this token assures the safety of
the separators, i.e. the pressure is not constant, but rises as the
temperature increases.
hour each. With such a capacity, the reactor coolant pump has the capacity
of controlling water consumption through each of the fuel channels, as well
as assuring an adequate supply prior to pump cavitation. With a 2-3%
carried out until a temperature of about 200 degrees Celcius. The heating
pressure of about 15 kgs per square cm in the separators. After vacuum is•
reached, the turbine is jolted and accelerates. Synchronization of the
Regular shutdown and cool down of a power block with an RBMK reactor
lb1:2
•o
- -j - -
2~ + ~D* 430
~4m~
0
C I . £ a 42.. 4A, ,l& Is ~bpL)~,4ac
TIP~e ) h~~ir
I
-2 10-
turbogenerators of the block are switched off the network and are stopped.
When reactor capacity is reduced to 20%, capacity of the operating reactor
coolant pumps must be reduced to 6,000-7,.000 cubic meters per hour. Cool
down of the circulation loop to a temperature of 120-130 degrees C is
As during heating, the factor that limits the cooldown rate are the
in this mode.
limits.
upon getting to nominal capacity, the DRK would be fully open, with the
total
-211-
consumption through the reactor being equal to 48,000 cubic meters per
hour.
Maintenance modes
For this purpose the pressure and suction slide valves on the -
pipelines of this particular GTsN must be closed, and after draining the
heat carrier, the GTsN itself and the sectors of the pressure and suction
circulation loop.
being serviced, the ZRK mounted at the channel inlet is closed, the level
of water in the separators is lowered below the notch marking the water and
steam commnunications
--212-
of this channel into the body of the separator. Cooling of the remaining
channels of the core is carried out either under forced or under natural
circulation of the heat carrier.
the fact that the ZRK is closed, is cut off from the core, while the
removal of residual heat is done by water that is fed into the channels by
the separators. Such a cooldown regimen of the fuel channels (bubbling
cooling regimen) was studied during the design of the reactor, using
special test benches. Experimentally it was shown that when damper-control
valves are shut, a reliable cooling of fuel channels is assured with
bubbling cooling when the following requirements are fulfilled:
-- the level of water in the circulation loop is above the notch mark
of the steam-and-water communications (PVK) in the separator;
flowmieters and the ZRK. In order to carry out this operation, used are
-213-
operating equipment.
separators. At the AZl signal, the reactor power decreases to a 60% level;
- AZ2 functions in an emergency discharge of the load or stopping of
individual dynamic modes which occur at working AES which was performed
later indicated that the mathematical model which had been developed
measures and means envisioned fully ensure the safety of the RMBK reactor
The loss of power for system auxiliaries is one of the most severe
Fig. 2.64.
One can see in the figure that in the initial stage of the
-215-
process, the rate of the drop in~the water flow rate is somewhat higher
than the rate of the decrease in thermal power of the reactor, which leads
that the decrease in reserves before the crisis even in the channels under
the greatest thermal stress in this mode is slight and is Safe for the
reliably due to circulation created by the GTsN which are running down.
factors, such as the design of the circulation duct, the behavior of the
pressure in the duct, variation in the feedwater flow rate and temperature,
etc.
conducted on working
2
kgf /cm
-D, sa • • • _
transfer medium in the drop, expansion of the level in the separators and,
level, partial loss of the steam-water mixture and water from the duct does
of the power unit and a deep pressure drop, the system for emergency
cooling of the reactor is engaged and feeds water to the fuel channels.
RBMK reactors has been confirmed by accidents which have occurred under
real conditions at working AES. For example, a full loss of power for
installed at the inlet to one of the fuel channels of the reactor were
recorded during the transition process. No temperature increase of the
fuel
-218a-
element shells was recorded throughout the transition processd, and the
recorded flow rate through the channel in natural circulation was at least
-219-
20% of the flow rate which occurred at nominal power. The standard system
indicated the possibility of stable and safe operation of RBMK power units
flow rate and the level in the separators ensures safe operation of these
in the separator and preventing cavitation failure of the GRsN, i.e., for
kgf/1cm2
AHHP£
AZ - Protection
AZM - AZ for working power range
BS - Drum separator
PK - Overcompensation
PK-AZ - PK in AZ modes
-223-
PO - Operator's panel
PPB - Pressure-tight box
PS - Warning signal
RIK - Working ionization chamber
RPU - Backup control panel
RR - Manual control rod
S - Synchronizer
SI US - Individual rod control scheme
SSS AR - AR rod synchronization system
SUZ - Control/safety system
STsK SKALA - Central monitoring system
SChS -Counter
TA - Process automation
TVS - Fuel assembly
TEZ - Typical replacement element
UZM - Power level protection amplifier
UZC - Speed protection amplifier
USMo 12 - Summing amplifier
USO - LAR-LAZ deviation signal amplifier
USO.'10 - USO for AR
US P - Truncated absorber rod
Ts Z - Central hall
ShchO - Operator's console
ShchEP - Electronic instrumentation console
-223a-
•) - Reactor reactivity
~- Percentage of delayed neutrons
Appendix 3
SHUT-DOWN
3. Eliminating the consequences of, the accident and shut-down.
3.1 The progress and prospects for shutting-down the first, second,
operate in the fourth unit for some time after the accident, and due to
dispersion of the radioactive dust from the territory of the plant. The
individual horizontal sectors of surfaces of the machine hall had the
highest level (up to 10f5 - particles/cm /min), since it was contaminated
* The rate of the dose off'- radiation in the contaminated spaces of the
first and second units on 20 May 1986 was 10-100 mr/hr and that in the
steel, concrete, different coatings) and the nature and level of surface
contamination.
Spray decontamination was widely used during the wash down with the
use of washing machines and fire hydrants and some of the spaces were
direct
-2-
measurement of the gamma background radiation from the washed surfaces and
a "smear" technique. As a result of the decontamination, the levels of
roof of the third unit and on the metallic supports of the pipe.
The territory of the plant, the walls and roofs of the building also
In order to deactivate the territory, the AES was divided into zones
gammna radiation in the region of the first unit to 20-30 mr/hr, where this
the third and fourth units, is possible only after closing the destroyed
reactor.
the first 3-4 months after ejection, especially during the occurrence of
active biological and atmospheric processes (growth, development, and
disappearance of plants, rains and winds). The poorly attached part of the
•needles).
30-kilometer zone will continue to greatly change for 1-2 years, especially
situation.
grown in them must be available for solving the issues of the possibility
barium-140, and strontium-8g), make up more than 90% of the total activity
and cannot in the future be limiting factors due to their short half-life
the agricultural conditions of the forest area are quite specific, while
the following are required for realizing the capability of returning the
clay suspension, zeolites) into the upper contaminated soil layer; and
In the evacuation zone and in the rigid control zone, the agricultural
Agricultural Industry of the USSR and the Ukrainian SSR, and the Ministry
production (after curing in warehouses) for food purposes, for feed, for
and sorbents, which increase the fertility of the soil and reduce the entry
proceed from their well known absorptive role in forest-steppe and steppe
region and the use of special compounds for dust suppression, changing the
harvesting methods and the processing of. the harvest, etc0
widely. The typical construction materials are bricks, wood (boards), both
painted and unpainted, with different states of the paint, shingles and
roofing tin.
mai).
transported away.
-8-
Decontamination of transport systems was performed by spraying and by
steam ejection methods using the above cited solutions.
Appendix 4
AES and the territory of the country, performed by UNKhV from Soviet Air
Hydrometerorology which were flown from 1 May through 25 June 1986 were
were drawn and areas calculated which were included by these curves. The
results of the evaluations of the recording for 26 July 1986 are cited in
It follows from the data in this table that the total radioactivity of
the fission products ejected from the damaged reactor and settled on the
soil in the 30-km zone is 8-14 MCi. Analysis of the acquired results
showed that by the time the intensive ejection of fission products from the
reactor had halted on 6 July 1986, the volume of radionuclides in the 30-km
settled to the soil is 10-30 MCi. It follows from an analysis of the data
that the total activity of radionuclides ejected from the damaged reactor
into the environment does not exceed 50 MCi, i.e., is approximately 3-4% of
the total activity of the fission products in the reactor of the fourth
analysis of the samples in the 30-km zone, and the use of the correlations
fuel located in these zones was determined. These values are somewhat
higher than those acquired from data an analysis of the isodoseso The
site and on the roof of the Cher~nobyl AES are shown in Table 4.1.
(6) Relative, %
(7) Total:
P.MP/4
c3oi.~ c I AXHB.OCT61b
JA" 23
Ns 43
0
.A'a 3
0,2 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,3 0,2" 001 0,5 ,3
0,3 0,4 0,45 0,51 0,8 0,5 0,2 O,1 0,05 0 0
0,3 0,37 0,5 0,8 0 0,3 0,15 0,05 0,03 0 0
0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,6,5 0,55 0,42 0,351 0,22 0, I6 O,1O
0,5 0,6 0,8 0,85 0,7 o,55 ' 674z 0,37 0,25 0,I5 0,09
T .~. . .
I I - -
* i
I
i
.1 ~_____ I
0,55 *1
ii
0,37~ 0,25 0,15
~.i. 10,2510,310410410,310.2510.18101510110 08100,09
04
_____ UI
rd?41
I. __________ __________
I
.WE 9 .A'17E8
the period from 6 through 30 May 1986. These data showed that the
composition of the fission products (with the exception of gaseous fission
products, such as I. Te, and Cs) ejected from the damaged reactor are close
" Top8, %
Table 4.3
HyKA
I I |x~• I CTII H
95 Zr 36
' 0 3 R,,
1,7
I3I1 6,3
1401a 2I
28
17
23 9Np
6,4
=•
aXTH~e
-• @0,13
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
iiyic•xn AXTx4BHocTb
ci:;
H • 239______
2394244pe 239.20p
•lO l••l Ic
i144 242. 239.,240.•=
npo~a
6
-7-
Table 4.6
Tampa 4.6
Table 4.7
(2) Nuclides
l•BI0 4,8B
14La12 5,6 0,23 -
Table 4.8
Radionuclide composition of aerosols at an altitude of 3 m,9 in Bq/1.
Ta~mraa 4.8
3 mn, in Bq/1.
Ta~,ma 4.9
a~po3 o3e.•
22.05.86 Ha B3OOTe 3 ?A,
23 43 73
Soil samples in the direction of the south-north ejection at the end of the
sector with the contaminated forest in the 1.5-km radius may be considered
as having relatively greater concentration of transuraniums. The results
of the analysis of this sample taken on 8 May 1986 from the surface near a
road are presented in Table 4.3. The total value of the =d'-radiation of
the sample
is 1.3'10• Bq/g.
(filters) and soil samples based on data from measurement by the Kurchatov
Institute of Atomic Energy are presented in Tables 4.4 and 4.5 and from
fixed points on the commercial site. Table 4°7 presents the results of
measurements of aerosols at an altitude of 200 m, while Table 4.8 presents
8 and 9 are related to the southern. All four points are positioned on a
line which passes approximately 150 m east of the damaged reactor (see Fig.
4.1).
Data from Table 4.7 attest to the abrupt reduction in the specific
activity of the aerosols after 6 May 1986, which points to the dynamics of
Table.4.8 and data in Table 4.9. The latter presents the results of an
relatively closely to the points indicated in Table 4.8 (see Fig. 4.1).
samples. Figures 4.2 and 4.3 cite the results of measurements of the
AES, •,%*
ai0 CD
[y i
13
-14-
Table 4-d1 -
The values ofQ*) which characterize the output of nonvolatile fission
KEY: 1) Date
in air
in fuel,
26.04 I
11 32
29.04 2,0 8,0
02.05 1,2 18,3
03.05 105 85,3
04.05 3,8 5,2
05.05 1,8 3,I
08.05 26 51
11.05 23 37
I3.05 13 22
ia _ [AcQIJ)/A(i)] I 3TO•.Ze
= Z--r"'w; 1d•lCe ;
A -aiTrnHOCTm pa~aomj~m~aa
flep~o~a•.•imfl 3poc .
'•K 4O.0,- - -
--- - a ///
15
I
0
J C.#'f-./, BS- 9B
N ~~"LI' ~
de .95- .9, 38
frLJU ".,•
7,
K
4-.
'5- /
(a
~5;9 4o 0(15 574'o 0,f~
4~TT YtT 1 ~
s~2~6
2z; I-,/ ,6
~,) dr4~2f
dr) d- o
sand and dust samples (# 16-LPD) (Tr. Note: "L" is unknown; PD is fission
products.)
Content of cesium-IY,. and cesiurn-g37(total) in (a) 5.OX0a0" g/g and (c)
-q
1o4 x10 g/g°
16
.-17-
extended during the process which consists of several stages. The dynamics
of the process of ejection are very convexly characterized by the data in
Table 4.11, in which the dimensionless values of the iodine-131-normed
In the Second stage from 26 April through 2 May 1986 the power of the
ejection beyond the damaged unit was reduced ,due to measures undertaken to
put out the graphite fire and to filter the substances coming from the
also similar to their composition in the fuel. In this stage there was a
transfer of the finely dispersed fuel directly from the reactor by a steam
of hot air and the graphite combustion products.
-=17a-
The third stage of the discharge is characterized by a rapid rise in the
radionuclide discharge dose beyond the reactor unit. In the initial part
of this stage, transfer of the volatile components, especially iodine,
dominates, and then the composition of the radionuclides again approaches
their composition in the irradiated fuel (on 6 May 1986). The discharge
power of the fission products in the third stage in a first approximation
O)
T60p flpo133o0mLIcZ BHe m.ze~a,
•) amne c~epeiw c pesy.7TTaTa7m I3Mepeml2 INCTI~7a •Kcnep•-
MeHTaJn•EOf de TeopoAorU.
liberation. Here, there was a leak of the fission products from the
The last - the fourth stage, began after May 6 and is characterized by
a rapid reduction in the output of the fission products from the fuel and
an essential halt in discharge (table 4.13), which was the result of the
materials.
Basic conclusions:
1. The total discharge of radioactive substances (without
radioactive decay.
-19a-
2. The composition of the radionuclides in the emergency ejection
and tellurium.
3. Correlated quantitative information about the change in the
from the damaged reactor is cited in Tables 4.13 and 4.14 and in Fig. 4.4°
Table 4.13
Daily discharge q of radioactive substances into the atmosphere from
~a~a Bpe,,nocIOec.3e
_______a a~ap•, CyT q. L,'
26.04 0o ) 12
27.04 I 4,0
28.04 2 3,4
29.04 3 2,6
(1) Date
30.04 4 2,0
(2) Time after the accident, days
01.05 5 2,0
(3) q MCI
02.05 6 4,0
03.05 7 5,0
04.05 8 7,0
05.05 9 8,0
06.05 10 0,I
09,05 14 = 0,01
23.05 28 20.10-6
The value is cited with consideration of the decay on 6 May 1986o The
activity was 20-22 MCi at the moment of discharge. For the composition of
radionuclides composition of the air and soil samples and by the error rate
of radioactive decay (the discharge of 26 April 1986 was •20 MCi at that
moment in time). For the composition of the discharge products, see Table
4o14.
-- &. -l-
ax)Ar•c . •pomemo•
8RaxoCTH,
26.04.86 06 .05.86•) i3 pee..c~opa Ha 06.05.86, %
1 S3 y1 5 45 oozoo O
85 0,15 -"
85 -0,5--
1 3 Ii 4.5 7,3 20
132 4 1,3 15
134 0,15 0,5 1O
137 0,3 I 13
990,45 3 2,3
950,45 3,8 392
103 0,6 3,2 2,9
• 46 0,2 1,6 2,9
S0,5 4,3 5,6
141 0,4 2,8 2,3
144 0,45 2,4 2,8
89 0,25 2,2 4,0
900,015 0,22 4,0
239 2,7 1,2 3,2
238 o,z.io-3 o,8.io-.33
239 o,i.io44_,
1986 %
(4) Possibly to 100
*) Evaluation error is ±50%, explanation in the note to Table
4o13.
**) Total discharge by 6 Ma~y 1986.
***) Data are cited based on the activity of the basic radionuclides
CyM~ap~aR •o~e
109
aKTHI3HOA
/SKMDI4oc'rh
peaKcToP8
U ('p)
iO6
U~SI~~Rt~ nufSPOC ga npeSIe3I~
peaKTOP8
(~)
m peaKTopa
To'Iq KOC~b
x4 ottesHK ±_50%
101
Tlepfol0a~a..nfl~ufl
Bu~poC 26.04
CL )
iLal'a
(5) Activity, Ci
(6) Date
Appendix 5
Appendix 5
5. ATMOSPHERIC TRANSFER AND RADIOACTIVE
5.1 Formation of the basic source of contamination - the cloud and gas
stream as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl AES.
accumulated in the reactor during its operations was ejected beyond the
plant.
At the time of the accident a cloud was formed, which subsequently
air masses. Then, for an extended period a jet of gaseous, volatile, and
aerosol products continued to leak from the accident zone. The strongest
jet was observed for the first 2-3 days after the accident in a northerly
direction, where the radiation levels on 27 April reached 1000 mr/hr and on
28 April, 500 mr/hr at a distance of 5-10 km from the accident site (at an
altitude of 200 in). The altitude of the jet on 27 April, based. on aircraft
data, exceeded 1200 in in a northwesterly direction at a distance of
approximately 30 km from the accident site, where the radiation levels were
approximately 1 mr/hr. On subsequent days the altitude of the jet did not
Portions of the contaminated air masses (clouds and portions-of the jet-of
radioactive products)were propagated according to the wind directions to
and Cs'B4
of the samples of atmospheric aerosol in the first days after the accident
On 26 April 1986 the region of the AES was in a low gradient baric
m and 1.5 km the area of the AES was on the southwestern periphery of a
high pressure region with transfer of air masses in this layer to the
the air masses occurred to the west and northwest with outlet
-3-
of the air particle propagation trajectory on 26 and 27 April into regions
on the Polish border, which is confirmed by data from measurements of
determined the basic zone of the formed near-by radioactive fallout in the
northwestern and northeastern directions from the AES. This is confirmed
evaluated.
'Table 5.2 cites the results of integration of the sites limited by
different isolevels of dose rate (in units of r/hr m ), as well as the
settled in the near zone of the track were evaluated in a comparison with
the dosage rate on "D" + 15 (Table 5.3),
the total volume of fallout in the near and far zones is approximately 7.0~X
10 MeV/sec on 5 May 1986 or approximately 3% of the total energy liberation
of the radioactive products in the rector for this time.
samples withdrawn from the surface level on a regular basis (every 1-3
days) at the mouths of the Pripyat, Teterev, Irpen, and Desna Rivers and at
the Dneprovsk water intake (Vyshorod). Water samples were taken throughout
26 April 1986.
Table 5,7 cites the maximal concentrations for the observation period,
reservoir and by the contaminated waters from the Pripyat River reaching
this section.
The total beta-activity of the water in the Dnepr River in the region
of the "Kiev" weather station was in a range of (1-5)X, I0 Ci/1 for the
period 13-22 May 1986. 0
d
-- 7-
5.6 Plutonium contamination of the atmosphere and terrain.
Investigations of plutonium isotope contamination were performed using
a special vehicle for taking air, soil, and grass samples on the ring-broad
around the Chernobyl AES beyond the limits of the 30-km zone (May 1986).
Ta~nM1a 5.2
(5) MeV/sec
(6) Ci
-8
TaOzmta 5.3
8 9 sI.
13? Cs 905p, ROJDI4OCTDO
, ,og~A 9 Zr,-i I0
26-27.04 3,2. 1-12
27-28.04 5,7,10"15
28-29.04 2,4.10-13 2,7.10-I4 2,4.,I0"I4 5,4o10-I4
29-30.04 2,2.10"1I 1,6.10-12 2,I.10-12 8,4.I0"12
30.04-01.05 8,3.1iO"9 2,2.I0" 9 5,7.I0-9 2.10-9
1-2.05 I,l.IO"9 1,9.10-IO 8,7.10"I0 5,5.10"IO
2-3.05 2,5.I0-If 4,I.IO-II 4,5.10"II I,I.IO-If
3-4.05 3,I.IO"nII I,I.ZOII 1,2.IO"II 5,I.IO-2
4-5.05 I,6.I0"nII g.iO-I2 8,7.1O-In2 1,4.IO-12
I0
Tadati~a 5.5
..... . = .. . . . ..
p.flp~nRb, (
1.05.86 80 25 18 5,6 1,6 0,6
p. flpxnruTb•, 42
120
m
Rxescxoe 3o~o•a-
3 ua•!
17 20
28•
12
-- '3--
Ta6~zxa 5.8
Xo~exTpa•R c~~hfk H3•oflo5o nZAyToH (C)
53=o3m!~yxe (KIi/a) us I =.,5M
U 35 0,17.10"14
45 0,7/0. I0"15
(3) C, Ci/m
(4) km SSW
(5) km ENE
(6) km NNE
(7) km W
(8) km WSW
(9) km SW
V~a_
Ta•n•z~ 5.9
flLiOTHOCTb flo~eI~XHOCTH01'O 8ar3•H8)tRfl D0BeXHOCTH0OO
CJoR M OTAe~zbH0 TI~BBH CyJ•iR M3OT01lO0 flJ~yT1OHMR
(5) km NNE
?wc. S.~
TPhL~OflI ~S2J~ uemi LA h~VTB 0.7 b
0? ?AU~n~ CPO~OI
.-. OTZSI *6.0*.
~-0?a3~ 27.0*
4~0?1S~ 27.O~
/ "" "•' Near the surface of the earthi and at altitudes of:
~1
a..'
H- .. O
*SestSfUPh
1• *
'"-4.
0)l i qI l
1:_
I April
TOT- •. May
3 Sample date
I 9 5 2r
O.I:.d• .- •. )
2U6 2'8 o 2 1 • • IO 12 ,f4 ]•6 1i0
•o22 •4 AamTdosa~
500
(2) April
10
(3) May
00
1 (4) Sample date
O.1I
Ii; [8 2b 22 24 AaTa oTdO8Q
ECOSYSTEMS)
-1-
Appendix 6
6. Expert evaluation and prediction of the radiological conditions of
irradiation of both water organisms, and man, who is linked by the food
inside the 30-km zone adjacent to the Chernobyl AES, and beyond it. As a
result of the processes of sedimentation, the basic part of the
radioactivity entering the water medium rather quickly entered the bottom
sediments, whose radionuclide concentration is higher than the activity of
the All Union Scientific Research Institute for Atomic Power Plants
(VNIIAES), the spatial distribution of radionuclides in the water medium is
reservoir and in the rivers which flow into it is much lower (by a factor
of 1o• -1o'4 ).
The time dynamics of the radionuclides may be broken down into three
Table 6.1I
Specific activity (Cl/kg) of bottom sediment samples in June. 1986 (10-20
June 1986) (based on data from IYaI AN UkrSSR. GeoKhl AN SSSR. and VNIIAES)
'-po(Ioo•- 127.-95 • -95 Cc -I41 Ce-I44 •)c-I4O Lo. -i40 Rw-I03 Cs-i34 C$S-137 1-131
• _x 2 t,INmii I.. ... ....
3l, l ifmei e
River.
slowly.
Based on experimental data about the distribution of
data for June 1986 and a prediction of the rate of the absorbed dose
for June 1987 are presented in Figure 6.1 and Table 6.2.
inhabitants.
- The dose stress for hydrobiota living in the Dnepr River in
terms of order of magnitude are similar to the natural background
radiation,
-4a -
radiation dose shows that the basic dose forming nuclides at the
present time are comparatively short-lived elements: zirconium-95,
niobium-95, cesium-141, barium-140, lanthanum-140, strontium-89,
ruthenium-10• and
-5-
so on, whose contribution to the total radiation dose for the
majority of the components of the water ecosystem exceeds 70-80%. At
the present time, the contribution of long-lived cesium isotopes.
(cesium-137 and cesium-134) to the total dose does not exceed 4-5%.
This means that as the short-lived radionuclides decay, the radiation
stronti um-gO.
When speaking about potential biological effects of ionizing
radioactive radiation.
Of the hydrobionts, the most vulnerable link are the fish, the
Pewsfpn i (6yRl 204)1 0,I (0,009) 140 (3,3) 1 110 (15) 1 12 (2) I 6 (0,8)
Pewa ,lerip "o 1 1 1 I
(Kn, I' CP , 0,002 (0,0002) , 0,3 (0,025) , 1,0 (0,2) , 0,1 (0,015) I 0,04 (O,01)
(7) plankton
(8) fish
Sciences)
(12) Natural background radiation
., *In parenthesis - prediction for June, 1987.
--8-
- physico-chemical forms of existence of radionuclides- in
•0
-itIg196 re,;
ec~eT~eHI~f ~ - n~o~Ho3 H8
- •cTecTBe•rul( •,•a•exH•t! •e•!;
-9a -
KEY (1) mrad/hr
(2) Dnepr River (Kiev 1GM AN Ukr SSR)
Table of Contents
Effectiveness.............**. . *****. . 35
Conclusion.............. * . . . 47
7.2 Data on the Radiation Dosage Magnitudes for the Population of the
Thirty Kilometer Radius Around the AES and in Individual Areas of the
European Section of the USSR, Accident Radiation Consequences... ......... 50
7.2.2 Radiation Levels for Citizens of Pripyat' from the Time of the
Treatment Practice.
accident site, was ordered in the first 30-40 minutes by the intermediate
Over the next 4 hours first aid teams administered assistance to the
victims: they were taken from the area of the plant site, primary sanitary
severe burns and one person from the number of personnel on duty at the
time was not discovered. It is possible that his work station was located
Twelve hours after the accident, a specialized team arrived and was
sent to work, comprising physicists, radiology therapeutists and hematology
lab workers. Thirty-six hours after the accident, they examined at the
MSCh base in the hospital and ambulatorily nearly 350 persons and performed
approximately 1000 blood analyses (at least 1-3 for each victim over the
sent for emergency hospitalization where those for which the development of
acute radiation sickness (OLB) with the greatest probability had been
prognosticated. To provide maximum assistance and competent subsequent
first two days, of which over the first three days, 84 were defined as OLB
were determined over the first 3 days of their stay in the hospital.
The criteria for classifying the patients over the first days were
The time and severity of the primary general (vomiting) and local
(hyperemia and edema of the skin and mucosa) reactions were demonstrative
over the first hours to the first three days. The expression of
lymphopenia was evaluated quantitatively according to days of observation,
and based on it the average dose of overall uniform radiation was
marrow cells.
The dynamics of skin change over the period from the first days to two
parameters.
and mucosa.
The course of the sickness and its possible outcome, being defined on
The number of lymphocytes for the first 3-6 days was less than
victims,
For 17 patients the accident was lethal on the days +10 up to days
+50. These persons were burned over 40-90% of the body surface, and for
the majority they were extremely severe, practically fatal, even without
IV severity died on days +4 and +10 at the hospital in Kiev from combined
thermoradiation damage.
approximate dose of overall gamma radiation was 4.2-6.3 GR. Criteria for
determining OLB of this degree of severity were the times of development of
over the first two days to seven weeks. Of them, the number of persons
according to cardiologic data was from 0.8 to 2.1 GR. There were no
months (with regard to the length of the latent period and the presence of
the body
(RUP, SRP-68-O1,
AKTINIYa, TISS and others). This made it possible to
assess dosage rate distribution about the body (region of the thyroidH
gland, chest, back, hands, feet, legs, etc.) and to determine readings for
repeated sanitary
-8-
Though for the majority there was a combination of two or three of the
indicated factors, for the victims, the foremost was external gamma-beta-
already for the first two days after the accident, certified the presence
The patients were carefully and repeatedly washed and placed in wards.
Potassium iodide was continuously administered already from the first days
(0.25 two times a day). Burns and oropharyngeal syndrome observed over
these periods was initiated and continued for a major portion of the
patients. Special diagnostic procedures of both general clinical and
-Sa -
biophysical nature were developed to refine the possible dosage level and
nature of exposure.
-9-
Instrumentation and methodical provision for biophysical investigations was
the person's body, and to isolate only that emission resulting from the
neck was done by measuring the iodine-131 level in the patient's forearm.
the biosubstrate analyzers BIO-1 and SICh 2.1 were used. The first
facility has a high volume scintillation counter, and the second device
possible.
the SICh 2°2 devices and a semiconductive detector with local shielding
were utilized. The first device employs a high volume scintillation
detector, and the second--semiconductive detector based on pure germanium.
The facilities were calibrated by means of human body phantoms,
-10-
radioactive substances.
were used to assemble and analyze the resulting gamma spectra. The
magnetic carriers.
elements in the victims' exreta, urine samples were studied for 10 of the
in the urine upon entering the hospital (28 April 1986) was 2.0, 0.67, 0.1
nCurie per 0.1 ml urine, diagnostic testing was conducted using pentatsin
after admission, blood and urine samples were taken for biophysical studies
(measurements of the total activity and gamma-spectrometric readings). The
One to two days after the victims were admitted to the hospital, the
radio iodine level was determined for them in the thyroid using the "Gamma"
reading of the levels of radio iodine content for the period from 29 April
to 6 May 1986 (day +3 to day +lO)indicate that for the major portion of the
April 1986 was less than 50 microCurie, and for 6% of those studied, these
levels were 2-4 times higher (Fig. 7.1.1 and 7.1.2).
For all the fatalities, during autopsy, samples were taken of various
individual radionuclides for five victims which died on the 17th to 19th
days from acute radiation sickness were obtained. A typical chart of
.The
sample analysis in relative units per 1 g tissue is given in Fig. 7.1.6.
individual observations.
Wline 1274 keV (sodium-22, half-life of 2.6 years) having 99.95% yield and
-12a-
the line 1368 keV and 2754 keV (sodium-24,,half-life of 15 hours), having
99°87 and 99°99% quantum yield, respectively, were not detected.
qI$I~UIILIVr.uu Ln
°O • m• • Q, -4
• " ........
... ' . doznee 200 wd•J.-0.5% (I ,ejr'jneil) a.b..i.Z.OicroC•,ire
.. 0.5% (1 Person)
0' I ! 0 0
I .. • ... .. *.*. .0 ... . . e.. . . .
e
I !;
a. I , I.
.. *'
*I
S
0...O o
. .
*.0 • * * I
:1I••e
. Mi c r o . C J r
I
200 !~~~KT~ID Ch,?1K
-~_ t 150
-~-
10 1uu
JUU 150
+.. ./. .. igure 1.1.2. Results of Measuring radio iodine activity on 6 .May 1986
1' Pie. 7.1.2. Pe~y~z~hTan N3MepH~feirwnn•Boc'm jx.wowo~ua 6 Ma 1986 rota
•* .j. ". n ¶Onw~jnu31.a ,p.rfnern (Thyroid Glanl). "0..
-•;........ i cOnIqcCTnO ,jII.i.iA: 104, Total numnber ofi Studies: 104.
"* !..*i*
o • I I• ..
-I . ;. iI. S"
• , ~. ... I" '". . ..
* •' UI'
. . . .0..,.. . • + '•,' 0 o 9 I
•0i ;
- a * .I . .. . .. .. . .. "- . -- ,..I . . ...
I
osog,. .
0 . 0". : ' ' '
.... .. I..
.......... ,I _ :. ...... g-e + ~i
............--- ".-. * - --
00.1 ... .
,, I 0.. . :... ;' ;.. . :. " : ;
,*, ; l +
* • | .0 . - 1. 00
I • 4
• ,° ,. S I a
. j..-.. .-- ' .. - _--_- - I - ,_
Fig. 7.1.3. Photon emission spectTurn of "ieorpb -ti-ec-'-. ,
•mixture of radionucli~ded. P'iegr~'~' .I-I--
[ :semiconductive d~etect~or:.withl i6P,u.ijL•
4 .... __ _.__.
... _ L.
, ; ~cm sensitive cavity. Etter~y aranget gileater• -. ---- -.. ..
SI
S .
thane.. :.*' .O
S
I;
. ,
S : I , 'S " . " t
S. " I - '
IPO
In...
q~)
~S.S
0..
0
U
a
t
.0
S t~
*H~ C
bO ' *45*1
Iii * . . .. &..o - .
r-I * ~6
S-I
d~ 4',
.1
II
'4
, I - -U.. ~.*i '.e~*
'If S .• I... . sq.
.d . ... . .: ..;
3~i 4~J~iS * I
**
it
.'.. 4"- I% - * i
o I I " '" •I U;
I -.. . ., 9 ~
~ I.U * 4 * - *.a.......8....; ' * •
'is
~,%
'.'~ ~eq*
I *' * i j
a''.. I me
.~ #SI PS', ' I.
~0 6*
a •. :o •
• I
I-. "'
f0-....
L'•? Everywhere in spectrum augmen tofl along y
w - r
. I
I. I.
I
o
'°
I 0
a.. 0 *o.
S.
* S:
A oll~e
..
h
-.. 8
MPTEPHP::J1r H38 J1E KHX
Fig. 7.1.5. Sampling diagram of sectional lung tissue.
t88
-- 09
k 4
I?
Fig. sampiing
lung 7.1., Di ciagram)
ribut4.oD'.in of-ra dionucldes
p•..•.7. 1.•. rer1aive sabout Mean
unites). the vic.tims'
valves arelun$ iccta rf
Pacpe~ze•aeRe FmL.uA'7•,ou ao .aentm ziocrpuer (c,. ©,.,• e@~op. wpo8 a-r•..)
(OmIoc 3IT.•• eW P ,z'wrsm). yl•R IN CbW
e•",M~lq 3WRN.M.
Ue=uII.-234
6.22 sCe.i•m-.34 OX
ooz --io.c
d m -- . ..
I i• .1 4 15 S 6 7
iodine-131
. . . . .
-I - "13 "Sample
Ou9.' DmO 110 Cli,:,0
number
I1o~ accoring to chat
U,.':~I
L2 0.5C
r~. 3~
S2
-[ A 7fflvm
3 4
A
15
l |
5
•
£7" C 9 It'
-
11
-
12 13
I .
same as aove
z iocon ium-95
2.h
v1
I
riTh$ .~o'~n~-~4O
. 2o"•-4 latau 10
a• ov e
1 2:3 4 15 IL
5 67 .' I '2 '' 3 io.v'-• n.L'., no~ r•
YUcpsd-144 cerium-l44 same as above
same as above
I8
-19-
The line 511.0 keV present in the spectrum has insignificant area and
(lanthanum-140).
samples were collected certifying that those indicated persons have the
mCurie iodine-131 and 4 mCurie cesium isotopes for the second victim.
-20-
the entire body made for iodine-131 and cesium-134, 137, were nearly 4 Sv
(400 REM)--for the first victim and nearly 1.5 Sv (150 REM)--for the
second.
External Irradiation
For some, cellular composition of the bone marrow was analyzed once
every 7-14 days (or more frequently according to special instructions).
-20a-
Based on the resulting data, the course of bone marrow syndrome was
Graphs were compiled for each patient, which presented the dynamics of
and bone marrow taken from the victims at various time intervals after
exposure (from 1.5 days to 6 weeks) served as studied material.
used.
The dosage was estimated from the number of dicentrics based on 100
2) where Y--dicentric frequency (per 100 cells) and D--dose (GR). It was
indicated that the radiosensitivity of peripheral blood lymphocytes for
.- 21A-
patients with acute leukosis in remission and of heal~thy donors after" gamma
victims.
* For almost all Victims, exposure was relatively uniform: the cell
dicentric distribution was subordinate to Poisson's law or deviated little
from the theoretical distribution. The severity of bone marrow syndrome
was prognosticated from the most informative hematologic index--the number
after irradiation). For this, the expected neutrophil curve was plotted
for the dose calculated from the number of dicentrics, and it was compared
with the real curve observed for each specific individual. Preliminary
analysis showed that for uniform exposure, the neutrophil curves for the
majority of victims in the cell number reduction phase coincide well with
cytogenetic study and the peripheral blood neutrophilic curve for patient
D. The prognostic curve is designated as a dotted line, and the real
curve--solid line. According to Fig. 7.1.8, both curves quite
I.,v,+ AW•tw1PwIO3- 1
.•O3& rIo KT•PMIt,.
LM3,+
(9.4..A rp I TKI. PACt'PLflt•[WWL LM~tNI<PMKO! 110
10t OBUIiu[
PI,I¶ S&&ITh0MhflP
23
2porxHo3poBe.Hke TR•.CT)4 KoC.T.8,.Oo3ro!eoro cm.v.%ob'.a '1O p3J
• / /
- I
I (.
0,0-p
im after eIoue(a•
-25-
purpose, bone narrow punctates and peripheral blood and bone narrow
cells were transplanted from a donor of the opposite sex, .the sex
chromosomes were used as markers, and when cells were transplanted from
donors of the same sex -- radiation induced marker chromosomes were used
(symmetrical interchromosomal exchanges,. non-dicentric inversions).
in Accidental Exposure
adopted in the Soviet Union for clinical labs and included nearly 35
normal values, and also with the dynamics of the index for a given patient
(see exemplary record of the dynamics of indices for Patient S. in Table
Antithrombin-3
Gamma-GTP
23. AUr - 961
LDG
24. Eao-•epuexT •/I2 68zs =-enzyme LDGI` 2
26
Tad~nviu 7.1.2
RapTa JLH8MK]RM 6OoxmMleIcKHX ,loltasaTeJ~eR
%3.V.I.
CnMeiU1, K., 0.. ., C.BO..
LAs-f•'IAwafirst ?Ohvo
pj e•.
•aTafloc.Ty!Lefme 26 anpe•I986 r.
AJ~arwo3: Ocrp~an nytqeneau dOAe3H
.r~odyAM- .:
lo•• .11M
l•
.no •pwT-
.potmTap-:
m
m
lA : /• :no •• *H :TJ'iHii .: :HOB * : /_ IMm Xw-- :'
•* : . .:~./•
na) .epecaj. A,. _ •: ,,e.pa• M
:ArH
.* / .:((o/.(o , , •N)
I I i i I • i II I '
/•tme peuner
ii
- -
-lCT~nemHL ntopae-e
-29 a-
Key: (1) Patient group; (2) Blood- group and rhesus factor; (3) antigen
without exceptions; (17) all during first days -of hospitalization; (.18) all
degree Qf severity was done daily. Stage I and II patients were examined
patient, was nearly 800, and for a stage I patient -- on the order of 200
analyses.
cases exceeded the norm by a factor of 10-20. Parallel with these changes,
and hypoalbuminemia.
bilirubin.
-31-
norm).
Certain special studies were made, the results of which are being
hemolys is).
On the 10th day, sharply positive paracoagulation tests were noted for
the majority of the victims. The fibrinogen and antithrombin IIl levels
most apparent.
(TABLE 7.1.3).
Inoculations were made of blood, excrement, urine, from mucosa of the mouth
contaminated objects);
-33-
- damages to the skin and mucosa, mouth and throat, intestine from
relatively uniform gamma radiation in doses exceed threshold fbr
Radiation damage of the skin (beta-burns) over more than 1%. of the
li fe.
victims sustained some dynamics over time and was characterized by the
Primary skin erythema detectable the first and second days after
exposure, was nota reliable enough criterion for predicting the subsequent
course in view of its instability and the absence of reliable methods for
quantitative evaluation of its expression.
on the days from the end of the 1st to the 3rd week, 8 persons are isolated
with almost total skin damage (from 60 to 100% of gross area). Cutaneous
hyperemnia for them was accompanied by edema; bubbles and erosions (erosive
-33a-
critical; for three, as critical; for one, average severity.• The number of
life (extent greater than 50%, earlier formation .of extensive erosive
ulcerous surfaces). These six persons died; for one skin damage was the
primary cause of death (death on the 48th day) under wholly restored
peripheral blood chart. Endogenic intoxication for this patient caused the
Skin damage with total area to 30% at day 21 was observed for 21
marrow damage in this patient group varied from extremely critical to mild.
On days 36-45, the most typical were damages in the area of the crura
and thighs. The patients noted the appearance (or intensification) of
lymphostasis and edema of the more distal "focus" of the skin damage (e.g.,
were epithelialized.
Effectiveness
washing upon entry and exit from the room, obligatory use of
The food was ordinary; raw vegetables and fruits and canned
*
I 1 i .I •J.] II - -- 1 . 0 Jr l I In f # I I. IIII Af l -
nlrrx~oaaet
1L5. jIi•
! - -
=•-
•,#•~u - - II:--f -j- " "
no..u Kn~u
ii|llnUll i _m
I
__- .. ! •.!!! !• ! ! ____±F
!]i],i-'rr-H !! ! !!!! !! -H m!!!
d[ TlUr 9IF-9ll _
ft, e', f,i,,,,(,lll'6l I I I iI II I ]
{6
.-- -I 1 1 1
. -. . .. .• .-l II
,I• I aa m i .. i
I i |
- - . I-I-I-I-4--I-,I-I
Ig
I 1
If
. I I A I Va a 11,111 a I EIaIIIvIaIEIPifI
I-I;4~I-I-I~-,-U~I-a-,-i-,-i-,--4--,-~t- vIiaIrII~IfI - v-i,- a ......... I*
dfinSadlJ Ad I Ia |I a ll#lflflll#lf'lrll" .,nm*u,•- ruf.llvl•.l•,-it-hPiPlrlf.l¢'f'l
Aw'.mI
" " UN9kfte "I$ •i~S6" I e e •. • i",
hoE'-%"
rs•n "i1m "t. 41, le
69 i ......
-- 39-
infections. The comparative effectiveness of the two versions for
initiating selective intestinal decontamination is being evaluated.
simplex of the face, lips and oral mnucosa), was widely used for the
first time to treat patients with acute radiation sickness with good
severe stage
-40--
inoculated from the blood most frequently for the dead patients.
activation of cytomegaloviruses.
thousand/microl iter),
-41-
which were then used at the necessary time with high effectiveness,
syndrome.
The demand for erithrocytes was much higher than expected, even
for patients with stage II-Ill acute radiation sickness
practically not expected, was selected over the first three days
exposure.
Transplantation was done only from close relatives (natal brothers and
need to determine HLA fenetin for most of the patients, namely over the
first 1-3 days after exposure, so long as the number of lymphocytes did not
performed.
the 9-19th day after TKM) from radiation damage to the skin and intestine.
At the same time, for the remaining six patients which had no skin and
intestinal damage incompatible with life, only temporary or partial
lost) myeloid function of the transplant, for all these patients, some or
other disturbances were observed, which may be due to the reaction of the
host vs. transplant or transplant vs. host reaction. In two cases, these
exposure doses.
hydrocortisone based on propolis and wax with direct action antiseptics and
for rapid and reliable elimination of mucus from the cavity of the mouth,
proposed.
-46-
the cost of efforts, which naturally are possibly only in peacetime, such
specialized nursing stations were organized for each victim with stage
III-IV OLBo
satisfactory: in the group of persons with stage II OLB (dose of 2-4 GR),
there was not one death. Fatalities among those with stage III and. IV
severity of OLB in 19 cases could be due only to severe damages over 50-90%
of the body surface incompatible with life, which, in turn were of stage
the country.
and recovering.
The primary damaging factor for all victims was the relatively uniform
influence of gamma-beta-radiation at. a dose exceeding 1 GR according to
For 50 persons, major portions of the skin's surface and part of the
face, and mucus nasopharynx and gastrointestinal tract sustained additional
50-90%) were the leading among the causes for severity of the general state
o-48-
presence and severity of OLB, entrance into the body of a complex mixture
of nuclides, primary iodine, cesium, zirconium, niobium and ruthenium
isotopes, was discovered. However, their quantity and the dosage level for
all, with the exception of one patient, were below the clinicall~y
thyroid gland for 94% of the victims did not exceed 50 microCurie over the
assessment of the prognosis for the disease for the overwhelming majority,
5. Bone marrow transplant was indicated (dose of more than 6 GR) and
6. Dynamic observation has been organized for all patients, which will
later define the completeness of their rehabilitation and the need for
-50-
OF THE ACCIDENT
7.2.1 Introduction
Measures were taken immediately after the accident to implement
activated.
of the Chernobyl AES personnel, the residents of the city of Pripyat', and
people that were then evacuated from the 30-km zone, with the purpose of
finding individuals in need of medical assistance;
-50a-
--- make an estimate of the possible level~s of radiation of the
population in the areas of increased-radioactive contamination within the
30-km-zone, in order-to make-a decision concerning the need ....-
-51-
for a complete or partial evacuation, or the development of appropriate-
temporary recommendations concerning food and daily activity in the given
region;
-- the levels of gamma radiation over the entire area of European USSR
gamma-background;
From the start of the accident at the 4th unit and during the fire
that followed it, the wihd carried radiactive products, bypassing the city
covered the territory of the city during certain time intervals, and slowly
contaminated it. Until 21:00 26 April 1986, the magnitude of exposure to
situation in the city during 27.04.86 continued until 17:00, i.e. until
the complete evacuation of the population was carried out, the radiation
was •~-•540 mR/h, and in the area of Kurchatov Street, 720-1,000 mR/h.
during this time period was 5.9; 7oi; and 20.3•at points 1, 2, and 3
-52a-
respectively. By 6 May the levels of, radiation-in the city of Pripyat'
were reduced approximately by a factor of 3. Rough estimates make it.
possible to assume that the external dose of gamma-
- *
.. "-........[
. ., .•°,.
t. O'
! ll I Il "II
' .-
" .
a, •
.. ", 'r
•" 'o
* eI "
•" I
. ,,
- .. . :
•I i , .
i., 'ta:.
ganima-radiation from the passing cloud of discharge matter and during the-.
first hours after the accident was close to 10-15 R.
spent outdoors, and not to open windows. On 26 April any type of open air
residents that stayed primarily indoors during the daytime period on 26 and
skin.
-55-
evacuated from the city of Pripyat' to the nearby areas of the Polesskiy
rayon showed that 97 percent of the 206 persons examined showed an iodine
content in the thyroid that was less than 30 rads. Here a positive role
was played by the iodine given for prophylactic reasons, as well as. the
limits issued for the use of milk from cows kept privately.
judged on the basis of measurement data for iodine content in the thyroid
AES, an evaluation was conducted of the dynamics of the decay in time of the
magnitude of the dose of external gamma-radiation from the earth's surface.
This relationship is shown in Figure 7.2.2 by a solid line, while dots
indicate actual measurement values of the dosage magnitude in the area in
relative units. A rather good correlation of the estimated curve and the
experimentally derived data made it possible to conduct specific extrapolation
evaluations both the greater time periods (a year and longer) after the
accident,.as well as the period during which the discharge cloud passed.
(R gamma, 15 mR/h) and the dosage of external radiation from the radioactive
cloud (D cloud, R), the dosage from radioactive fallout at different times
The last value is for an instance when no limit has been made on th• issue
18 .. 31" ' !I
3
a
Ii4 1h!
t,. CVII.
which *isnaturally possible only in zones with a very low level of:
vegetation contamination by iodine-131.
of the human body by the fallout cloud and internal radiation of the
people in some populated areas of the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl AES.
These magnitudes are calculated with the aid of the correlations given
above, and the actual values of dosages received, based on the measurements
Table 7.2.1.
1) Populated area, KN
2) Distance from Chernobyl AES mR/hr '°D"°- ,
3) Magnitude of dose per cloud, R
4) Dose from cloud fallout, R
5) Dose from fallout in thyroid gland of children, rads
6) Dose from fallout over 7 days, R
Estimated / s.r-"
.C•.ristogolov a
b•CToroAo3~Xa 5,5 12 I0 120 8,4 3,2
Ae,,eD 9 25 7 250 17 IO
'hernobyl
leoB~•I .8 1,2 80 5,6 3,D
Pyu z 22 8 0,6 80 ,622
Orevichi
0pe•r 29 2,5 0,2 25 1,8 4,4
m•
-58a-
the estimated and experimental values of the dosages coincide, which made
it possible to conduct similar estimates for the entire 30-km zone around
the: Chernobyl AES during the first days after the accident; this was based
on the available data for the radiation situation that had formed. These
calculations are shown in Table 7.2.2., which shows
-59-
6~- ~- I
--..........
• I.
* a - .* -
8.. .........
.• .. .o....o... ..
ai.
A.
* -- l;li;Z
N
lpaflpff
i
a,
S II
L, c~*r.
generalized data for 71 population points in this zone, and indicates the -
estimated range of dosages of external gamma-radiation in open areas.
dosage magnitude for each zone within the Chernobyl AES is tied to the
significant lack of uniformity of the radioactive contamination of tI~e area
(see Appendix 5). Based on similar estimates and taking into account the
continuing release of gases and aerosols in the accident zone during the
first days after the event, a conclusion was formed concerning the wisdom
During the first days after the accident, 90,000 people were evacuated from
the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl AES. Taking into account 45,000 people
moved on 27 April from the city of Pripyat', the total fiaure of evacuees
reached 135,000.
radiation from the discharge cloud and radioactive fallout that did not
exceed 25 rem, and only some populated areas that ended up in more heavily
contaminated areas of the radioactive pattern (the village Tolstyy Les,
Kopachi, and some others), did the radiation fallout dosage in people reach
1.6 million of human remo .Taking into account the magnitude of spoultaneous
morbidity
-61-
I -- .
5 1
-
3-/ 5 6-8D
?-IO 4 IO-6O 16-130
5 6-80
3-7 2-0
10-:[5 IO 1,2-75 1 1,2-75
10-15
2-120425
15-20 16 0,3-•5 1 0,3-25
15-20
0,5--40 19
in5-
20-25 2D 0,4-,35 20 0,4-35
20-25
0,6-60 312
25-30 16 OI-I2 16 0,1-12
25-3D
0,2-20 044
S ~ S -
(*) These estimates were derived taking into account the activity regimen of
the farming population and the safety coefficients that are provided by
due to cancern over the 70-year period will result in'•14,000 cases for
114,000 evacuated persons; additional morbidity tied to the accident
fallout from the Chernobyl AES, will increase natural morbidity from
surface of the soil and the nature of decrease in the dosage magnitude of
the gamma-radiation on the site (see Figure 7.2.2.) will make it possible
over time, the height and intensity of the discharge. In particular, the
formation of abnormally high local contamination of individual sections of
*the air and at the contaminated territory. Thus, for example, the content
along the radioactive trace that had been formed. This is confirmed by
data, in accordance to which the air activity within the 30-km zone
(Chernobyl, Zorin, Skazochnyy settlement, Pripyat) comprised (TYPIST: See
how this is typed on orig. p 64 top) 10ot2.to 10-44- Curie/l for the total
Chernobyl AES.
Thus, for the population living in the contaminated area and using
During the first stage after the accident (rQ2 months), iodine
cattle was the principal radionucleide for measurable dosages, with the
human thyroid gland being the critical organ that gets maximal dosages.
evacuated from the 30-km zone was tested, and was also tested in the
residents of a number of populated areas in Ukrainian SSR, Belorussian SSR,
and RSFSR, where increased
-65-
Table 7.2.4 Relative content of gamma-releasing radionucleides in aerosol
air samples (TYPIST: Columns will be listed left to right; I will number
cols. 1-4 for ease)
(TYPIST: Last line is a note) NOTE: Line drawn through indicates that in
C -%- ' J
4.05 3Opmi 1,5.10-13 20,0 - 4,0 - 5,0 I2,0 - 8,0 20,0 30,0 -n I,O
3.06 r.llpwnnm 4o0-IO0 - 1,2 0,8 1,I 2,5 I1,2 T2,I I9,2 26,1 19,1 6,7 -
3.06 n/JKCea•o'u 6i0-I13 0,46 3,9 7,7 I8,8 27,9 3,5 3,2 17,0 2,0 4,9 4,6 -
3.06 'lopnodiw~r 4,0i0-I12 5,9 0,8 1,6 3,7 5,0 II,2 9,0 18,6 22,9 II,7 9,6 -
II
"-66-...
levels of radiation were recorded, but the need to take 'the decisioh to
evacuate was absent. Special attention was given to the children segment
of the population, who as a group with an increased radiation risk..*This
is due to the fact that the accumulated dose of radiation in the thyroid
gland, with an equal content of radioiodine is 8-2 times higher in children
aged 2-14 years than in an adult. In addition it should be noted that the
share of milk products is substantially higher in the diet of children.
into the organism, using data for isotopic composition of contaminated soil
and food products. During the time period after the accident, a direct
determination of radioiodine was made in a large number of residents,
children (up to age 15) was examined, as well as part of the adult
population that were evacuated from the 30 km zone, and other populated
areas located along the trace of the radioactive cloud and where increased
from the 30 km zone, the dosages in the thyroid gland derived from
radioactive substances in locally produced foodstuffs is significantly
lower than those that may cause some sort of changes in the state of
health.
-67-
The sufficiently high dosages that were sometimes observed in thyroid
uncontrolled use of milk from privately owned cows, even though the health
services put into effect a ban on the use of whole milk having a
radioiodine content above -W.OJO -7 Curie!]. This requirement was
strictly carried out within the framework of the centralized milk delivery
system. Additional measures were subsequently made for rigid control over
the sale and use of milk from cows that were privately owned.
the radiation situation near the plant, but also at significant distances
from it. Figures 7.2.4 and 7.2.5 show changes over time of the magnitude
of the gamma-radiation dosage in open areas in certain oblast (county)
centers of UkrSSR, BSSR, and RSFSR, that were 100 to 1,000 km away from
Chernobyl AES. The figures show that practically in all of the populated
areas
-68-
5F
,•1 L................................
".............-.'-J-''
: - uezM r;'!g• - -'
2'. - ..- . . . .t ]. l .M .-
*• I ' . I
* II
f
6
I...
'4-
2'.
z S~
I.
a 0*
~1 • •'I •*f . ,
~
I
•O Il1
a * q
I
I *.~
711|].1:--. .....
- . . i * • • . * g • I
i
! S j =-
i
" F * p.
..................... ; ...... . w
- -u
5
4 4. 0 i , -
a'
i,
! . . , 9 .. * . . . 'a,' '
I I. *~
* 4 .. a.•
t. .. -. .1
2 t" -. .~a -5~.
iewubnaa.Sd& CL "
zeI
'I I1 2 1.1
li . 9 + "
a U Um 46 S
'I, ~
possible to select 10 of them (see table 7.2.5) that had maximum levels of
of people for the oblasts for 1986 does not exceed (taking into account the
activity regimen of the population) 1.5 rem, and 5 rem over 50 years. This
confirms the complete lack of danger of the resultant levels of external
the radiation situation that existed prior to the accidents the content
levels of strontium-90, cesium-137, and other nucleides in any type of
.- 70a-
foodstuffs was many times lower than those levels that .could reach -the
established levels of
-71-
oblast,
Gomel (.)
Kiev (*)
Bryans k
Zhitomir
Mogil1ev
Orlov
Chernigov
Tul1a
Cherkassk
Bres t
Ta~.'~a 7.2.5
7Io~
0
-72-
of the annual intake of nucleides via food. These norms were base•,on the.
fact that individual groups of the population that received the most
radiation should not get an annual radiation that exceeded 0.5 rem, while
for critical organs in the 2nd group (that included the thyroid in
particular) no more than 1.5 rem. In addition it was set that the given
dosages of radiation should not be exceeded via any combination of
the reactions indicated above are derived from the need to limit the risk
(0°5 rem for the entire body) corresponds to the upper probability limits
actual radiation levels of the population from food and water were ten
After the accident, there was a need for rapid resolution of issues
relating to the inspection and prohibition of using specific types of food
products. Since at first the principal danger was iodine-131 that came to
human beings during the spring-summer period primarily with milk, as well
as leafy greens. Regulations were put into effect irmiediately after the
accident concerning the allowable content of iodine-131 in milk and milk
products (cottage cheese, sour cream, cheese, butter), as well as in edible
were also introduced for the allowable content of iodine-131 in meat, fowl,
eggs, berries, and medicinal herbs. Data was received in the second half
of May which showed that due to the decay of iodine-131, an increasing role
•in contamination of meat and other types of food was played by cesium-137
and cesium-134; data was also received concerning the presence of rare
these along with cesium, were found in edible greens (1 X10 -6 Curie/kg
and higher). During the entire month of May high concentrations of iodine
carry out large scale efforts to control and inspect food products, there
was need to set regulations that allowed monitoring with the use of the
were in effect by the end of May. The allowable radiation dosage of the
-73a-
entire body and the internal organs for which the norms have been
calculated is 5 rem.
In the first days and weeks after the accident, the principal activity
in food products was exemplified by the presence of iodine-131. It
appeared in the the milk of cows that were kept in pasture 2-3 days after
--74-
contaminated from the surface, i.e. those that directly absorb nucleides
contained in the atmosphere and which settle from the air. Such products
include lettuce, dill, coriander, tea and so forth. As an example, table
surface.
by the end of May and in June, practically only cesium-137 and cesium-134
The exceeded levels in food that were in effect in May regulations are
Ceriumn-141
lodine-131
Ruthen iurn-103
Rutheni um-t06
Barium-140
Cesium-134
Cesium-137
Zirconium-95
Niobium-95
Lanthanum-140
Ta~.7z.L .7.2.6
Co;n•el:mie paoi~yX.ao3 a ,EeKoT'opx p:acTzTer~m.x
flpo.~x:,ax Ddz•3E K4,2C
"/5co.
-76-
products
BelorussianMinsk
SSR Gomel
Brest
Mogilev
Grodno
RS FS Tul1a
Bryansk
Kal uga
Kursk
Orlov
0*
-
!
Pecny.uua !0zacT• HeCOOTheTCTEyn~aA HO•IAPM
!
1•¢0 - I MOA0-
3e,,'eE5'
CTO- oBo•
•ro•
~p~a
Joa•
I0 5
CCP To~e~cKaR
40 30 15 90
I0 50 5 3.
Mori~e~c~aR 20 10. D
Pp ecxa• 5
Ib
- . d - I- -4-
,PC•CP Ty.'ILcKaA I5
-
E~c~az 30
20
30
Qpxo3c~a~ I0
J -- . -
KC
Ee~cc~aA -10 20 - ~20
76c.
.- 77-
indicated that in many areas of' USSR, BSSR and RSFSR in May-June 1986, the
concentration of this nucleide in milk exceeded the set standards (O.1l mk
Curie/l). Having analyzed the levels of soil, plant, and milk sample
for the mean magnitudes of external gamma-radiation dosage for the oblast,
in comparison with magnitudes actually noted in May 1986. Information for
area is shown in Table 7.2.9. As the table shows, the expected mean values
for the regions of the external radiation dose for humans in 1986 was
generally below the annual dosage limit for individuals in category B
(limited part of the population), in accordance with NRB-76. The
collective radiation dose for this part• of the country's population will
make up 8.6 million person/rem in 1986, and during the 50 year period after
. o77a-
the accident, 29 million person/reinso For comparison, let us note that the.
annual aggregate
-78-
Gomel
Kiev
Bryansk
Zhitomir
Mogil1ev
Orlov
Cherni gov
Tul1a
Cherkassk
Brest
Ta~nLam 7.2.8
78 o
-79-
1. City population
2. Village population
3. Ukraine
4. Belorussia
5. Central
6. Western
7. Eastern
9. South-eastern
10. e+-western
11. Moldavia
?~ic.7".2.E6AkiCAeHHOCTb I.aceAe)-I,1 -
B O'TAeAb~.4IX per~'1oNax
EBpon~e•cKo• 4'rTi CCCP
,,• &lUbdI. ~
c
S /0 ~I I'. i3 •+4 S
79oa.
-80-
Expected dosages of external radiation for "-
Table 7.2.9
population in individual regions of European USSR
Central. UkrSSR
Western UkrSSR
Eastern UkrSSR
South UkrSSR
S-E BSSR
•N-W BSSR
Moldavian SSR
Bryansk Oblast
Bryansk Oblast
Kaliningrad Obl.
Kalinin, Tula,
Smolensk Obl.
Orlov, Kursk,
Lipetsk Obl.
Total:
Ta.m= 7.2.9
w F
•l3a •I986Ir. KOw~neXTDHaA .•o3a,
?erzoE Eaoe.7eH. .1. ~
w..•• cexscioe oK0- 3a 1986 •3a 50
1"onl ,,IGT
I _ _ __I _ _
I__ -- -- h •
B80
-81-
dosage from natural background radiation for the given number of people
will comprise 10 million person/reins, i.e. it is comparable to the annual
dosage from the accidental discharge in 1986. In 50 years the dosage~ from
natural background will be almost '15 times higher than a corresponding
cancer will make up less than 0.05 percent in relation to the death rate
due to spontaneously arising cancer (about 9.5 million cases over 70 years)
of cancer and non-malignant growth in the thyroid among people who consumed
original data:
for the regions under question are shown in Figure 7.2.7. The figure shows
~-81a-
and even higher (thick line in the figure). Due to the fact that milk sold
mkC/l, it was decided that such milk can be used by the entire city
populations of these areas and the major part of the village population.
1. Ukraine
2. Belorussia
3. Central
4. West
5. East
6. South
7. South-east
8. Northwest
9. Moldavia
11.Bryansk Oblast
Tula Oblasts
Lipetsk Oblasts
3t3
P•c. '7.2.7." Ko HLIe.HTP au~-i~
B MOqO K~ KOpOB
82 •-
-83-
' years after entry of iodine-131 into the human organism, and the.~risk of
death due to spontaneously occurring thyroid cancers over the same period
deaths from iodine-131 makes up about 1 percent and practically does not
The given estimates are based on the concept of the limitless linear
well as on the principle of making decisions for the sake of human beings,
i.e. the inalienable assurance of man's safety in the area of small dose
the linear extrapolation method, based on data for the frequency ofzeffects
necessary to take into account the fact that this may result in the
overestimation of radiation risks..." Thus, the magnitudes shown in the
given section of the report should be viewed as the "upper"1 estimates for.
should be viewed separately for the principal nucleides and types of food
products.
significance.
contaminators of meat, milk, vegetables and other products since the middle
of June. The source for the contamination to-date Qf plant and animal
products has been the air. The grain and potato crops in fall 1986 can be
expected'to be relatively clean; there will not be a great deal of cesium
by air, and soil contamination will not be able to play a role as yet.
-84a-
substantially different for areas that lie near the Chernobyl AES, where
the soil type is different. Since frorr the Polessie soils (alluvial•
plain), which are poor in humus, cesium enters plants 10 times and even
-85-
100 times higher than from other types of soils, the Polessie regions can
expect relatively stable and high levels (almost at the current) of
1 Curie per square kilometer and with the consumption of locally produced
radiation of the organism by cesium-134) 0.70,'0.34, and 3.3 rem for the
first and second years, and 70 years respectively. In this instance the
regions in UkrSSR and BSSR, the dosages for the same periods of time will
be 120, 58, and 570 person/reins. For the other territories of the nation,
dosages for the population will be 120, 36, and 170 person/reins. Taking
into account that the overall amount of cesium-137 that was discharged into
the atmosphere and fell on the earth surface after the Chernobyl AES
accident is estimated to be 1.0 . 10 Curries (see sections 4 and 5), and
taking into account that 10% of the discharged cesium isotopes fell on
the Ukrainian and Belorussian Polessie, the aggregate dosage •f radiation
radionucleide transfer along the food chains for the given regions. These
efforts, which are being activated by various scientific sub-branches of
the nation will make it possible to develop recommendations for the most
optimal methods, from the point of setting dosage loads per person, to
conduct agricultural work in the areas that are contaminated by
radioactivity.
-87-
Following the accident, 84,000 people were evacuated from the city of
first days after the accident, 450 brigades that included doctors, nurses,
laboratory technicians and dosimetrists were called upon, and who were
provided transport vehicles. Overall (taking into account the changes
In order to provide medical care for workers that were taking part in
all).
-89-
The purpose of the list was to study the potential after effects of
purposeful medical observation, one that meets the expected effects for the
and death rate due to malignant growths, birth rate, condition of the
studied.
within the regions where those under observations originate, as well as the
with regulations issues in USSR. Within the dosage range that presumes
Taking into account the risk levels for death rate from cancer as a
population sample.
As a result of the above, all persons who currently live, who came
temporarily, the organized units who were called to work at the accident
site, and subsequently their children and grandchildren, and persons who
In order to develop this registration list, plans have been made for
registration and dosimetric charts, which will be filled out for each
after the start of the exposure, data for the child at the conclusion-*of
pregnancy, causes of death (adults, children, newborns), measures taken
The dosimetric chart will record the healthful character of the region
other instruments.
locale.
//
I ~Frequence of examinations will be determined on the basis of i~itial.
examination results and evaluation of the dosage level. Preventive and
being considered..-
country.
* ~The programs under preparation will take into account the experiences :
of other nations (the Three Mile Island program; the MAGATE conference in
'1I