SUBJECTS MODIFIERS

WHO OR WHAT A CLAUSE, PHRASE, OR DEFINITIVE ELEMENTS

SENTENCE IS ABOUT 1. A singular verb requires a singular subject.

A plural verb requires a plural subject.

ADJECTIVES & ADJECTIVAL ELEMENTS
NOUNS a. When two singular subjects are joined by alld, the USED TO MODIFY NOUNS OR PRONOUNS
- PROPER NOUNS verb is plural. Exception - when two singular sub­ 1. Prepositional phrases. verbal phrases, and adjec­
NaillI' a ~pecitic persoll, place, or object. They jects are connected by and present a single idea, the tive dependent clauses changc the image made by
begill with till IIpper case letter. verb may be singular. the noun or nominative element by itself.
1. John b. When two singular subjects are connected by or, 2. Proper adjectives arc formed from a proper noun.
either... or, or IIeither. .. llor, the verb is singular. - Frellch, Democrat, etc.
2. Mercury
c. When two plural subjects are connected by or, 3. Demonstrative adjectives answcr the question
3. California
either... or, or lIeither. .. //or, the verb is plural. which one?
-COMMON NOUNS - thi.~, tlrat, tlre.,e, those (also called pr(}/wlI/ls)
NaillI' a lIoll-~pecitic perSOIl, place, 01' object; tltey d. The verb agrees with the nearer subjecl of a com­ 4. Descriptive adjectives answer the qucstion what
do IIOt begill with all IIpper case letter. pound sentence which has both a singular and a plu­ kind'!
l. boy ral word joined by or or IIor. - big, small, red, etc.
2. pland e. When the subject and the subjective complement 5. Quantitative adjectives answer the question how
3. state (predicate adjectives, predicate nominatives that fol­ many?
low linking verbs and refer to the subject) are differ­ -Oll/!, three, .,ome,jew, several (also called pronouns)
PRONOUNS ent in number, the verb agrees with the subject. 6. Qualitative adjectives answ",r the question how much"
Take the positioll tllldfilllctioll (ll/WIIIIS, bllt do IIOt - The books Ihal I received were the most appreciated. - little, much, cOllsiderable
specifically lIallle. 2. Every or mallY beforc a word or series of words is fol­ 7. In comparing the quality of nouns, adjectives change
I. He fed the cat. lowed by a singular verb. by degrees.
2. She fed the ~ at. - Every lIIan, WO/lwn, and child was asked to donate. a. The positive degree covers one itcm: big, good
3. It got extremcly fat. 3. When the subject comes after the verb, as in sentences b. Comparative degree cowrs two items: bigger, better
4. They wish they had fed it less. beginning with here is, there is, and where is, make c. Superlative degree covers three or more: bigge.~t, hest
8. A predicate adjective follows any linking or state
sure that the verb agrees with the subject.
of being verb: The 111('11 were sick FUIII elltillg the
NOMINATIVE ELEMENTS - There tire three cour.,es olactioll we call lake. ral-\' (~vsfers.
-VERBAL -VOICE
1. GERUNDS (-ing ti.mll ofthc verb) I. ACTIVE VOICE: Subjcct is acting. ADVERBS OR ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS
a. Reat/illg travel books is my hobby. - Liffhtnill!: struck the bam. USED TO MODIFY VERBS, ADJECTIVES, OR
b. Travelillg by train is part of my daily routine. 2. PASSIVE VOICE: Subject is acted upon. OTHER ADVERBS
2. INFINITIVES (to, plus the verb) a. The barn wus struck by lightning. I. Prepositional phrases, verbal phrases, or adver­
a. To read a travel book brings me pleasure. b.The passive form always consists of some form of bial dependent clauses add descriptive elements
b. To trtll'el by traill can be fun. the vcrb be plus the past participle. to a sentence.
-NOUN CLAUSES -MOOD 2. Adverbs answer one or more of these qucstions:
That 0111' lIeetls a clear goal is strcssed in college I. Indicative: makes a statement or asks a question. a. How'! (by what manner'!) quickly, SIOH'(I',j'ast
preparatory classes. • It is 40 miles to Gaillesville, but we'll get there ill b. When? (at what time?) IIOW, theil, lIever
time. c. Where" (at what location'!) here, there, dOH'II, lip
GENERAL RULES d. To what extent docs a thing havc some qualit~'"
2.lmperative: expresses a command request,

I. All inflected forms must be in subjective case. e. To what extent docs the adverb express quantity')
suggestion, entreaty, etc. where subject (usually the
3. Adverbs follow the verb.
2. Gender is important with subject pronouns. pronoun you) is understood.
a. John walked slowly.
• Johll is proud of the school he attended. - Stop! Please sigll the jimll before retllmillg it. b. John walked jaster thall Peter.
3. Number is important for agreement of subject and 3. Subjunctive: equals the past tense in structure and is 4. Adverbs modifying adjectives and adverbs precede
verb. used after if' and wi.5h when the statement is contrary the word being modified.
a. The wOlI/all was tall. to reality. - John ",alk"d surprisingly slm\'~\'.Ii!/' SOIllI'On/! so loll.
b. The WOlllell were tall. a. I wish I were a rich H'oman. 5. One-syllabic adverbs arc compared by adding -er or -est.
c. The IIIUlI IIlId the WOlllall were tall. h. III kllew her nllIllIJeI; I would call hel: a. John wlIlkeel slower Ihall I did.
-TENSE b. John wlllkeel slowest o(al/.
SPECIFIC RULES 1. Made from the principal parts of verbs. 6. Adverbs of two or more syllables add more or most.
I. Some pronouns always take singular vcrbs. 2. Three forms are: a. John walks more slowly th<ln I.
- each, someone, either, neither, somebody, nobody, a. Present tense or present infinitive: do, give, ring, b. I alii most to kilO\\, thaI.
everybody, anyone, nothing Ihrow
2. Some pronollns always take plural verbs. b. Past tense: did, gave. rang, Ihrew
• both, few, several, many c. Past participle: done, given, rung. thrown
3. Collective nouns thought of as a single unit are sin­
gular. Collective nouns with idcntified parts require
a plural verb.
CLASSES & TYPES OF VERBS
I. A transitive verb takes an object. -DIRECT OBJECT
a. The grall/l is going to the show. Noun, pronoun, or nominative clement which rceeil cs
b. Th e lIIell are going to the show. - Pu"h this hulloll ilvou wallt a l.ig}11. the action cxrressed in the verb.
4. Generally, subjects appear before the verb and may 2. An intransitive verb does not take an object. • I haw relit the book.
be separated by modifiers or prepositional phrases. - The sun shOllI' brightlli. -INDIRECT OBJECT
To determine a subject, answer who or what about 3. A verb can be transitive or intransitive in different sen­ Noun, pronoun, or nominative clement for or to
the construction being analyzed. tences. whom or to what the action in the verb was done.
a. Johll walks. 4. An auxiliary verb is used before main verbs to form • 1 read the c1as,5 th" entire book.
b. The traill runs. the passive voice, produce certain tenses, ask ques­ -OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
c. Johll , who is late for the train, runs. tions,make negative statements, and express shades of Answers the question whom or what a/i,.,. the prepo­
meanll1g. sition.
a. They have beell studyillg diligent~v. - John traveled fQ the COUlltry in his ('ar.
b. I do /lIJllike Ihe course. -OBJECT OF A VERBAL (GERUND,
VERBS (PREDICATES) 5. A phrasal verb is more than one word long and com­ PARTICIPLE, INFINITIVE)
Is a noun, pronoun, or nominative clement.
WHAT A SUBJECT IS DOING; WHAT IS bines one or more auxiliary verbs with a main verb.
- Knowing nolhillg ahout //laking n(Jodl..s, I bOllght
BEING DONE TO IT; A STATE OF BEING - 7hell were givell lIIallY opportunities. some.
6. Linking or inactive verbs link the subject with a -PRO,,"OUN AS OBJECTS
THE FIVE PROPERTIES OF VERBS predicate noun, predicate pronoun, or a predicate l. All personal pronouns used as objects must be in the
-PERSON adjective and are always intransitive: He looked sad. objective case; The call/hI' him and me ("(/1/11' lit 1100/1.
A verb is in the same person as its subject. A linking verb states that one thing is equal to anoth­ 2. Who is the subject form; Who S('II/ the/ilx:)
I. First person: 1 aln hopillgj!,r rain. er and thus requires that the subjective case be used: Whom is the object form; 7i, whmn should 1.l end
2. Sccond person: You are /wpillg/!}/' rain. This is &. the/ax!
3. Third person: He is /wpillgji,,' rain.
 WORDS CLAUSES SENTENCES
GROUP OF RELATED WORDS WHICH CONTAIN Group of related words having a subject (present
-BACKGROUND A SUBJECT & A VERB or understood) and a verh which express a com­
I. Words are composed of sounds or phonemes to plete thought,
which meaning is attachcd. -INDEPENDENT CLAUSES:
2. The range of human sounds is codified in the I. Meet the above qualifications for clauses. KINDS OF SENTENCES
International Phonetic Alphabet. 2. May be regarded as sentenccs since they make sense. -DECLARATIVE SENTENCE
a. Some symbols arc similar to the alphabet: some • Sire had not finished tire paper and was sure to gd a I. Makes a statement.
appear to be strange squiggles. low grade.
b. One can learn the symbols and approximate a given 2. Today is the day bejiJre the IOllg holiday,
-DEPENDENT CLAUSES
sound. but variances in stress and pause will not -IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
\. Meet the above qualifications for clauses.
yield a fluent rendering of a language. 2. Do not make sense and are regardcd as fragments. I. Gives a command.
3. Sounds in predictable patterns become words. 2. Please c/ose the door Oil rOllr war out,
- Because she Iwd l10tjinished the popel:
Meaning is attached by users and listencrs of a par­ -INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE·
ticular language. I. Asks a question.
-SUFFIX AI\D PREFIX
TYPES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES 2. Who was that WOII/IIII?
-NOUN CLAUSES
I. Combinations of sounds which appear at the begin­ -EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE
Noun clauses are dependent clauses used like nouns:
ning and/or end of words to alter mcanings. indicate I. Expresses strong feeling.
1. That she had lIotfinislred tire paper was the ,",-'({son
functions, and to signal particular usc in a construc­ 2. Ends with an exclamation point.
jhr her lOll' grade.
tion. 3. What a be{llltijilimorning!
(The noun clause thtlt she had 1I0t jinished tire paper
2. SulTix -s or -cs are plural when attached to a noun
is used as the subject of the sentence.)
and singular when attached to a verb.
3. -Iy signals an adverb or modifier.
2. I knOll' wlrat { wiil do totlay. SENTENCE PATIERNS
(The noun clause what { will do today is used as thc - PATTERN I (S + V) Isuhjectl + Ivcrhl
4. -er signals comparative degree of adjective. direct object of the verb knolV.)
S. -cst signals supcrlative degree of adjective. I. Thc subject may be conlpound.
3. She l\"Ii!1dered alulIIl what she slrollid do lIext. 2. The verb may be compound.
6. -ed frequently signals past tensc of a verb. (The noun clause what sire slrould do next is the object
-MARKER WORDS (ARTICLES) 3. Johll rail, (Juhn is the subject and ran is the verb.)
of the preposition ahOIlI.)
I. A, an, or the are noun markers that precede the noun. 4 . .101111 "/1(/ Peter rail "nd jeil dowlI.
(Note: I f we were to take out the preposition, then the
2. Auxiliary verbs can, may, he, do, plus a verb. will sentence becomes: She wOlldered ...hat she would do - PATTERN 2 (S + V + D,O,)
always mark a verb. next, The nOUll clause thus becomes the object of the Isubject + verb + direct objectl
3. Subordinate conjunctions after, although, as, verb lVlJlldered and the sentence takes on a more url!ent I. Any of the clements may be compound.
hecause, if mark a dcpendcnt clause. I'mn.) L 2.The verb represents direct or indirect action, active or
-ADJECTIVE CLAlJSES passive voice.
Adjective clauses arc used to point out or dcscribc any 3. .101m rail the race, (,fohn is thL' SUbjL'd, Ill/I is the
noun or pronoun in the sentence. verb , and rael' is the direct object.) .
PHRASES I. A relative pronoun (who, WIrOIll, whose, "'hich, that) 4. The race 1\'(/.1' rllll h.1" ,/ohll.
GROUP OF RELATED WORDS
always introduces an adjectivc clause. - PATTERN 3 (S + V + 1,0. + D.O,)
2. Adjective clauses may be restrictive or nonrestrictive. Isubject + verh + indirect object + direct ohjectl
- PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 3. the car which is parked by the cllrb belongs 10 l11e. I. Any of the clements Illay be compound.
I Made up of a preposition plus its object and any mod­ (Thc adjective clause, which is parked by the curb, 2. Dad paid the clerk the sales tax, (f)"d is thc subject.
ificrs. modifies car in a restrictive way.)
2. Used as modificrs (adjectives or adverbs). I'aid is the verb, clerk is the indirect object and s<lles
4. lhe em: which is parked by the cllrb. beluugs 10 me. tax is the direct object.)
3. Common Prepositions - abollt, above, according to, (Setting olfthe adjective clause with commas-I,I is non­
across, after, uxain.\'t, along, UnlOl1g, around, at, - PATTERN 4 (S + V + S,C)
restrictive and subtly changes the meaning of the sen­
bejiJre, . behind, below, belleath, beside, between, tence since, in the first sentence, we are saying that only Isubject + verh + suhjective complementl
beyond, by, down, during, except, for. from, ill, ill the car which is parked hy the curh belongs to me. In I. Any of the clements may bc compound.
place oj; illside, illto. like, lIear, of, oj]; on, Ollt, Ollt­ the sccond sentence, we are saying that the car belongs 2. The verb must be linkinl! haY\: no adion.
side, over, past, .\'ince, through, to, toward, under, to me, and, hy the way, it is parked at the curh.) 3.Jane is my attorney, (Jane is the subject, is
IInti/, up, IIpon, with, within, withollt -ADVERBIAL CLAUSES [linking ve rb1 is the verb, and ({/lomlT is a
Example: For the student. tl,,: prepositional "hrase call Adverbial clauses arc used as adverbs. predicate nominative.)
he cunli/sing ill a ,\entence. I. Adverhial clauses are introduced by subordinate con­ 4. The water is bille, (Willer is the subject. is [linking
• The prepositional phrascjor the stlldent modifies the junctions (after, although, as, as ij; becall.\·e, be/iJre, if; vcrb] is thc verb, and hi1/(' is a predicate adjective.)
sllhieel phmsl', and second prepositional phrase in a sillce, so that, that, 1/IIle,~s, Ullfit, whell, where, while).
sentence I110difies the verb. 2. When the adverb clause begins a sentence, it is set off
-VERBAL PHRASES SENTENCE FORMS
by a coml11a. -SIMPLE SENTENCE (an independent clause):
I . Verb forI11s not used as verbs. 3. Because he WllS late, she was angry.
2. Because they are verb forI11s, verbals retain many of Contains a subject and a verh and expresses only
(The adverbial clause becallse he was late modifies
the properties of verbs by taking objects, by having one complete thought,
the adjective (tUgIT.)
their own subjects and by being I110dified by adverbs. Either the subject or the vcrb lllay bc compound.
4. She wos IIngr\! because he was late.
-INFINITIVE PHRASE (This expresses the same idea without requiring thc I. John slept.
I. Infinitive (to + verb), which can be used as a noun, the subordinate conjunction docs not 2. John (/l1d Bohhil' slel'l.
an adjective, or an adverb. . of the sentence.) -COMPOUND SENTENCE:
2. To read Ihese papers wil/take a long tillle. CoMaills two or II/ore illdepelldellf c1allses IlIId call
• The infinitive to read is the subject of the sentence. express more thall olle complete thought,
3. She \\"(//Ited to read the huok. I. Compound sentences arc joined hy coordinating
- The infinitive to read is the uirect object of the verb. CONNECTORS conjunctions (and, 01; nl)l; liJl: '0. l"Iel. hilI) or a semi­
4. She had lIIune),' to .\pend. ,JOINING ELEMENTS colon I ; I when no coordinating conjunction is pres­
- The infinitive to .\pelld modifies 1II0I1e.1'.
ent.
5. 10111 remlv to write the papt!!" now -CONJ UNCTIONS
a. Sohhie likes l\'(1tching TV hilI she "rel"r, going 10
- The infinitive to write I110difies the adjective ,",-,ad\,. Joining words that link parts ofsentellces,
6. The infinitive may have its own subject and object. the 11100'ies.
I. Coordinating conjunctions join like parts of words,
7. The infinitive to be has special rules. phrases, and clauses. b. Bohhie' likes lH1lching n: she <'niol·.1 e.H'n 'ising 011
a. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective casco a. Joe alld MWT lI'entlo tl1<' show the tr('(ulmil/. (/l1d she "dorn the sl11el! of" !'II!'!'.\"
b. Becausc the linking verb requires the same case b. You \\'i!ljiu{(iI in the cupboard or lInder Ihe cOluller. brallh.
both before and atter it, the noun or pronoun used as e. Jil11 shut the dool; but he did nol lock il. 2. Note: Using only a comma [,1 betwecn the two or
a complement must be in the objective case. 2. Correlative conjunctions join like parts and come in more independent clauses of a compound sentence
-GERUND PHRASE pairs, will result in a comma splice error.
I. The gerund (-ing form of the verb) is used as a noun. a. Not TOI/1 bllt his hrother won Ihe tournament. Error - Bohhie likes John, she lon's I'i/c({/iOI1.1.
2. Walking is a healthy exercise. b. Neither M"':F nor Jane was impressed hy this. Placing no punctuation between independent clauses
- The gerund walking is the subject of the verb is. 3. Subordinate conjunctions are used to introduce which do not have a cooruinating conjunction \\ ill
3. Pmper shocs art' nt'ed,," jiJr eomliJrtahle walking adverbial clauses and link them to the main clause. result in an error call ed ~~run-on" or ~~fused.~'
- The gerund walking is the object of the preposition - Not onlv Tom hilt his hroth",. 1I'0n Ihe to/lrnament. Error SohNe likes II1IJ1'ies Johl1 likes l'ilealiol1.1.
jiJr. because they practicI'd hord. -COMPLEX SENTENCE:
-PARTICIPAL PHRASE - CONJlJNCTlVE ADVERBS
Contains {III independent IlIId {I dependellt c1{1l1se.
I. The participle (present, past, or perfect participle Used to join maill dallses,
I. Conjunctive adverbs arc always preceded by a semi­ - Adverbial clauses appearing at the beginning of
of the verb) is used as an adjective.
colon 1;1 and arc always followed by a comma 1,1. a complex sentence arc set olT by a comma.
2. The girl talking on the phone is MalT.
- The participle talking modifies girl. 2. Examples: Accordingly, consequently, further­ {fvoll are goillg to walk. be sllre to stay Oil the path,
3. The letter signed hI' John was readvliJr thl' l11ail. more, however, nevertheless, etc, -COMPOUND/COMPLEX SENTENCE:
• The participle siglled modifies the noun letter. a. She knew her!ad o(studFing would be u detrimel1l: Contaills at least two indepelldent c1allses alld at least
4. The report, accllrately written, was approved hI' him. nevertheless, she took the tesl. one dependent c1allse,
- The participle writtell, plus accurately, describes the b. She lI'as siek and tired oj" 01/ this nagging "bolll • If' you an! going to walk, he sure to stay Oil the! path,
report. studring: Iwwe)'('/'. sh" didfind this chartuselit!. .1'011 won I{ ge{ losl.
 "but in your case, I'll make an exception."
SEPARATE & ENCLOSE PHRASES MIS READINGS & OMISSIONS
-PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS
& CLAUSES - USE COMMAS TO PREVENT MISREADINGS
John's new car, in my opinion. is a lemon.
AND TO CLARIFY MEANING IN A SENTENCE.
-NOUNS OF DIRECT ADDRESS I. To Susan, Jason's choice of costumc was unaccept­
WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS - Adam, do you want to plant the palms this afternoon') able.
AND, BUT, OR, NOR, FOR, SO, YET - INTERJECTIONS 2. As soon as we left, Marilvn closed the store.
-SEPARATE MAIN CLAUSES WITHIN A - Well, that about docs it for today. -COMMAS CAN INDlCA'rE AN OMISSION:
-DO NOT USEA COMMA WITH IDENTIFYING • Helcn bought a new television; Mark, a laser printer;
SENTENCE.
and Sarah, a stereo system,
I. Mary counsels students, and she volunteers at WORDS THAT INTERRUPT MAIN CLAUSES
the local hospital. IN A QUOTATION. UNNECESSARY COMMAS
2 . .Iohn planned to invest his tax return, hut he • "Don't speak to me," she sighed. "Your words arc -UNNECESSARY COMMAS CAN BE AS
bought a computer instead. 1l1caninglcss." CONFUSING AS LEAVING OUT REQUIRED
3. Doug will play the game, or he will mow the COMMAS.
lawn. (For illst{lllce, ifyou sepurate (I ,mb;"ct alld verb or all
WITH ADJ ECTIVES ad;ectil'e alld thl! word it II/odifies ",ith u cOlI/ma. your
4.1 don't smoke, nor do I eat ncar people who -COORDINATE ADJECTIVES MODIFY NOUNS re{lder will have to spelld till/I! fiKurillK 01lT ...hich
smoke. SEPARATELY. ideas go togetlrer.)
5. Sandra won't be going with us, for she returned I. We felt the salty, humid air near the beach. NOT iJilll' ({lid Ma,.ci". '){Iill iI 10" hOllie,
her application too late. 2. Martha created a thl'ee-tiered, white, flower-cov­ BUT fiilil' ({lid Ma,.ci" ')[fi'l iI lo,~ hOllle.
6. The bank lowered its interest rates, so we decid­ -DO NOT PLACE A COMMA BEFORE A COOR­
ered wedding cake for Jason and Renee. DINATING CONJUNCTION AND A PHRASE
ed to refinance our mortgage. -COORDINATE ADJECTIVES: (see "With Coordinate Conjunctions").
7. I haven't seen the new house, yet I know how to can be joined with ulld (salty and humid; three-tiered NOT A/i",. school SUlllllel likes /() lillish his hOllle­

get there. and white and flower-covered), and their positions wo,.k. (/Ild \l'(lIch TV/il,. a ji:II' hOIllT

-DO NOT USE COMMAS BEFORE CON­ can be changed without altering the meaning of the BUT A/i",. sc/zoill SOlllllellikes IlIjillis/z /zis hOIll£'­

.JUNCTIONS THAT LINK PHRASES '\'(lrk alld lI'uleh TV liJl" 0 lell' /zolln,
sentence. OR Alia sc/zoill SWIIlIej lik",\ lo/illish his hOIll(,­
OTHER THAN COMPLETE SENTENCES. -CUMULATIVE ADJECTIVES DO NOT ,\'(),.k. alld 111i!1I /z(' sp(,lIds {/ 1"11' /zlllln II"(I/ch­
\. Mary counsels students and del ivers meals to REQUIRE A COMMA. ilwTV '
shut-ins. I. Adam bought two tall palms. (Notice thutill the first eX{llI/ple, the COII/II/{I sep{lrate.' a
2. Two inches of snow and a glazing of ice covered 2.1 found a shard from an ancient Greek urn. cOlI/poulld verb rather thall tllY) illdepelldellt c/tlllse,'i.)
the streets. 3. Marissa planned an amazingly detailed, truly
exotic Halloween costume.
WITH INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS (There are two sets of clImulative adjectives ill
-COMMAS SEPARATE ELEMENTS THAT this selltellce that jimctioll separately to modify
INTRODUCE AND MODIFY SEN­ "costllllle.'? -JOIN RELATE)) MAIN CLAUSES WHEN A
-ADDING COMMAS TO A STRING OF CUMU­ COORDINATING CONJUNCTION IS NOT
TENCES. USED.
- After looking at several cars, Michael decid­ LATIVE ADJECTIVES OR CHANGING THEIR
I. I will not paint the house; you can't make me.
ed on a sporty model. ORDER RESULTS IN AN AWKWARD CON­ 2. Sally built a tree house; she painted it hlue.
-COMMAS CAN BE OMITTED AFTER STRUCTION. (Maill dtll/Sf'S joilled with a comll/a cOllstitute a
SHORT INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS IF I. Adam bought two, tall palms. COllll110 ,\plice. V.';"e t1 .';"elllico/OIl or .\'epUrtlte tire
2. Adam bought tall, two palms. clauses ill to two cOlllp/efe "'l'lItellet!s.)
THERE IS NO RISK OF MISREADING. -WORK WITH CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS TO
- After I moved I lost contact with my high school JOIN MAIN CLAUSES.
pals. WITH NONRESTRICTIVE PHRASES & 1.1 would like to go to the Illuseum with you; however,
APPOSITIVES I must visit my dentist instead.
2 . .lim had given 1l1uch thought to his future; therefore,
WITH OTHER ELEMENTS -NONRESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS CAN BE
it came as 110 surprise when he returned to school.
-DATES OMITTED WITHOUT CHANGING MEANING. 3. The audience was sparse; in fact, there were only
1.0n Decemher 7, 1941, Japanese war planes I. Frank's new aquarium, a marine tank, hosts bril­ five people.
bombed Pearl Harbor. liant coral and brightly colored fish. 4.1 want to travel this summcr; accordingly, I will hmc
2. Awakened by a strange noise, Alan wondered if he to save 1l1oney this wintcr.
2.0n 7 December 1941, .Iapanese warplanes 5, Six people saw the bandit Icavinu the store: more­
remembered to lock the door when he went to bed.
bombed Pearl Harbor. oyer, olle customer even got his t[~g number.
(Notice tlUlt lIIilit{lry d{ltillg does 1I0t require ("'Marille fUllk" alld ''Awakelled by a ."tru/lge /loise"
-SEPARATE ITEMS IN SERIES THAT CONTAIN
COIIIIIUlS.) are 1I0t absoilltely lIecessary to tire meallillg ot the COMMAS.
3.0n Wednesday, December 28,1994, I will cel­ selltences.) • I packed my suitcase with old, comfortable jeans;
ebrate my 30th birthday. -DO NOT USE COMMAS TO SET OFF rugged, warm sweaters; and new, freshly starched
RESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS. shirts.
-ADDRESSES AND PLACE NAMES -DO NOT USE SEMICOLONS TO SEI'ARATE
- The President of the United States lives at 1600 I. The first hOllse on the left is for sale.
UNPARALLEL ITEMS.
Pennsylvania Ave., Washington, D.C. (The phrase "Oil the left" is essellti{llto the lIIe{lll­
NOT iJe/i),.,. slarlillg Ihe (,lIgille: Bill c/e([lI<'d l/te
-NUMBERS illg of the selltellce.) ))·illds/tield.
I. The city marina cost $8,479,000 to construct.
2. Those people who have already purchased tickets BUT Bc/i)!"€'s,,,,.'illg l/ze ellgille. Bill c/etllletl tire
2.Jill's dress has over 2,500 hand-sewn beads.
may enter the theater now. windshield.
(With four-digit IIl1mbers, COIllIll{lS (Ire option­ ("Who h{/l'e (llre{ldy pllrch{lsed tickets" is essell­ This sentence is Illade up "f a dC/lelldelll cl,,"s(, and an
tial to the me{llliug of the selltellce.) independent clause; thereforc, the sentence Jocs not
(II.) require a semi-colon to separate the l'Iauscs. One
3. Martin planted 1500 marigold plants. comma will do.
QUOTATIONS WITH PARALLEL WORDS, PHRASES &
Commas ordinarily separate a quotation from its APPOSITIVES -SEPARATE COORDINATE CLAUSES WHEN
source, such as he said or she said. I. The department store offered a suit, a shirt, and a THEY ARE JOINED BY TRANSITIONAL
tie for one low price. WORDS AND PIIRASES, SUCH AS:
I. John F. Kennedy said, "Ask not what your accordingly aftcnvards a~aill
country can do for you; ask what you can do 2. The kitten stalked the ball of yarn hehind the cur­
besides consequently c1;ubtlcss
for your country." tain, over the television, and under the tahle. eventually evidentlv furtherlllore
2. "Sometimes love is strongeI' than a man's
3. Marie offered her students a treat if thev would however moreover nevertheless
convictions," wrote Isaac 13ashevis Singer.
complete their assignment, if they wou"ld clean otherwise perhaps therefore
3. "I never fo " said Groucho Ma their desks, and if they would stack their hooks for example for instance in addition
 COLONS OTHER PUNCTUATION
END MAIN CLAUSES & INTRODUCE
ADDITIONS & MODIFICATIONS oBRACKETS: enclose editorial comments inserted
DIRECT & INDIRECT
oENCLOSE A DIRECT QUOTATION. within quoted material.
oBASIC EXAMPLES • Machiavelli, the political pragmati st. argucs that
I. Frank introduced four kinds of fish into his new I. Martha whispered quietly, "I'm scared of the dark."
2. "When," she breathed "do we get out of here'?" "princes lor anyoIle in a position of powerl ha\ C
aquarium: three angels, six tetras, a pair of Bala
shark s, and a spotted catfish. 3. "What if we get stuck in this place?" she asked. accomplish ed most who paid little hecd to
2. After a few months, Frank encountered a problem 4. "I knew I should have taken up spelunking." keeping their promi ses."
with hi s new aquarium set-up: Algae growth. °CAPITALIZE THE FIRST WORD OF A DIRECT oPARENTHESES: enclose supplemental infor­
3. Tamara suggested a solution: "I keep quite a few QUOTATION. mation that is not necessary to the meaning
snails in my aquarium. They eat the excess algae." oDO NOT CAPITALIZE THE FIRST WORD in the of the sentence.
oDO NOT FUNCTION INSIDE A MAIN CLAUSE: second part of an interrupted quotation unless the I. There arc three sections to a thoughtfully composed
NOT Frallk \/i/\lorite /ish is: the allgel/ish. second part begins a new sentence. essay: (I) the introduction, (2) the body, and (3) the
BUT Frallk :~favorite.fish is the angel/ish. olNDIRECT QUOTATIONS DO NOT REQUIRE conclusion.
oLINK INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WHEN THE QUOTATION MARKS. 2. Hamid ({wI tlte Lell\" II/Desire (19117) suggests that
SECOND MODIFIES THE FIRST. Father said that we should be frugal with our money. Shakespeare 's f~1I110US tragedy is about the traditional
Frank learned a serious lesson about aquarium rite of passage all boys go through as they mature
maintenance: Do not overfeed fish, as this causes
the water to cloud.
ENCLOSE OTHER FORMS OF QUOTED into men.
MATERIAL oDASHES: (typed as two hyphens with no space
(The reader Wllllt.l· all explallatioll of the "importallt
oARTICLE, ESSAY TITLES & SHORT STORIf~S before, between, or after) emphasize certain materi­
lessoll," which is provided ill the secolld clause.)
oOTHER USES o The current edition of li lllitv Fair contains an article al within a sentence.
I. Business letter salutation - Dear Mr. Brown: entitled, "Raider of the Los't Art." I. I would suggest 01' should I say, argue that all
2. Title and subtitle - Dudes: My Story (Do Iwt pl/t qllotatioll marks amI/lid titles of yOl/r aspects of the present economy must be changed.
3. Biblical citation - Genesis 1: 1 OWII compositiolls.) 2. Three membcrs of the Board uf Rel!cnts eH'n the
4. Bibliographic entries - Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. oCHAPTER TITLES newly appointed member votcd~ to reduce the
o Susan quoted II'om Chapter Three of Carole Jackson 's education budget.
C%r Me Beautitill, "The Seasonal Palettes." 3. Adam's mothcr- a woman of high energy, intelli­
oSOi'liG TITLES . gence, and wit always hosts the best parties.
APOSTROPHES o The Commodores ' "Three Times a Lady" was the oHYPHENS: join words together and indicate a line
SHOW POSSESSION number one hit when I graduated from high school. break.
oMOST POEM TITLES I. The ill-fated ship sank quickly.
oADD "'s" TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE ofsingu­ • T.S. Eliot's "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" 2. The editor-in-chief checked the final drafi.
lar and plural nouns, and indefinite pronouns that remains a landmark poem of the 20th century. 3. The player-King delivered hi s lines cxpertly.
do not end in lsi or with an s or a z sound. (Longer poems, sUi:h as Eliot 's Waste Land, are 4. Anti-smoking lobbyists roanwd the halls of the

I. My mother's purse held many treasures. underlined or italicized.) government building.

(the purse oWlled by my mother) °TELEVISION AND RADIO EPISODE TITLES

(Lille-end fryplrellS break accordillg to .1J'lIables.)
2. Can anyone's dog enter the Kennel show') o More people saw "Going Home," thc final episode of
oSLASHES: indicate options and unindented lines of
(dog is oWlled by allyolle) M.A.s.H. , than any other tclevision show 10 date.
poetry.
3. The Women's League is very active. oSPECIAL PHRASES, WORDS, OR SENTENCES
I. The phrase "rule of thumb" has a violent history. I. Please usc your book and/or a calculator.
(the p,!ssessil'e form of womell, a plural, takes all's)
2. Marci pronounced "accept" as "except." 2. Good professors arc truc teacher/scholars.
oADD '''S'' TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE of singu­
3. Many childrcn recogni ze these famous lines:
lar nouns ending in lsi or with an .~ or z sound. 3. The inl~1I1l0US declaration "Let them eat cake"

I. We listened to the stereo in Chris's new car. represents the arrogance o/" the French Aristocracy.
'''Twas the night before Christmas. whcn a ll
2. Liz's dress was the sensation of the party through thc house/Not a creature was stirring,
(add only an apostrophe if the extra lsi creates an not even a mouse. "
INDENTED QUOTES oELLI PSIS points: indicate an omission from a
awkward pronunciation). oDIRECT QUOTATIONS LONGER THAN FOUR
3. The Bible speaks admiringly of Moses' wisdom. direet quotation.
TYPED LINES are set off as block quotations by
o ADD ONLY AN APOSTROPHE to form the pos­ o "Another problem ... is acid rain .... "
indenting 10 spaces from the left margin and double­
sessive of plural nouns ending in lsi or with an .1' or (Three .~paced period., illdicate all Ollli.ISioll with ill a
spacing.
z sound. Example: There are many reasons why a pond quotatioll. Four .~paC/!d periods illdicate all omi.'­
I. The cats' toys were spread around the room. ceo-system fails. For instance, indus­ simI at tire end of a direct qllotatioll.)
2. The latest car designs were engineered for drivers' trial pollution might di srupt the " nat­ oITALICS: indicate titles of books, magazines, news­
comfort. ural bio-diversity of the system." papers, long plays, poems, etc.
oTO FORM THE POSSESSIVE OF COMPOUND Another problem, due in part to indus­ I. My sister can recite passages frolll Willdell.
NOUNS, add I'sl to only the last word. trial pollution, is acid rain, which 2. Newsweek is Illy favorite ncws magaz ine.
I. My mother-in-Iaw's furniture was imported from acidifies the pond system. 3. Daniel bought a copy of the L.A. Times.
Havana. (llIdellted passages do not require quotatioll marks 4. Professor Briggs can read Paradise LO.I·t in Italian
2. Webster's brother-in-Iaw's office was vandalized. 1II1Ies.~ tltey appear witfrill tlte text.) (alternately, you can underline titles).
oMAKE ONLY THE LAST NOUN POSSESSIVE to o Newsweek is Illy t~lvorite news ma gaz in~.
show .joint possession.
o James and Susan's dog chased our cat. WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION
(tlte dog belollgs to botlt James and Susall) oTHE PERIOD AND COMMA are always placed
oMAKE BOTH NOU:'IIS POSSESSIVE to show indi­ inside the ending quotation marks.
vidual ownership. o He said, " Let's go to the beach today." Layout: Javier Salado
oJames' and Susan's cars were both vandalized . oTHE QUESTION MARK AND EXCLAMATION
POINT are placed within the quotation marks only • _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L _ _ _ _ _....
°USE AN APOSTROPHE to form certain plurals:
I. Phillip's report card had 3 A's and 2 Bs. ' when they refer to the quoted material. This Qu;clcsfudy. outline is an annotate d review of the basic rul es
°USE AN APOSTROPHE to indicate contractions. o Frank asked, "When can I add fish to the tank?" of English Grammar & Punctuation. Use it duri ng, and well
beyond, your college years as a handy reference source, but not
I. I'm ok'd to enter the restricted zone. as a rep lacem ent for assigned class work.
2. The '92 hurricane left a wide swath of damage
AU r ight s rcs('n cd. No pari or th i;. puhlicati on ll1;)y 1)<: n:rrouuccd or lrln:<.rniltcd in Bn~
through the Miami area. 1()fIn, or by allY I11C:JIlS, clC~' lronit.: or mcchll ni c:;iI . induding rhot(X" 11}. record Lng. or an~
3. Strangely enough, we never had the opportunity to in fornWli " ll ~tora gc <lud rc:tric\:.1 ~ y stC1ll . \\ itlll) ul II nHcn pcnll i.)s ion I"r(ltll th~' puhli,her.
ci)2001. 200J lJa r Clm rts, Illc. U7(JX
try fish 'n' chips while we were in London.
oDO NOT USE AN APOSTROPHE WITH POSSES­ opERIODS END MOST SENTENCES IN ENGLISH.
o Mary asked us about selling her housc. free d~wn~adS &
SIVE PRONOUNS.
oPOLITE REQUESTS that do not require a "yes" or n n re 01. titles at
"no" answer should use a period. qUlc 5 uuy.com
o Would you please clean your room.
°USE A PERIOD WITH MOST ABBREVIATIONS. ISBN-13: 978-157222531-2
oJan.=January (acronyms, such as IRS and CARE, do ISBN-10: 157222531-9
not require periods).

911~~IJ~~~IIIIIIIJIJIJ1llllllllillillillil
LL
°QUESTION MARKS END DIRECT QUESTIONS.
o Is Mary going to sell her house?
°EXCLAMATION POINTS END EMPHATIC
STATEMENTS.

6 20531 5