Participant - Handbook - Junior Instrumentation - Technician - Process - Control PH - Eng PDF

Junior Instrumentation
Technician (Process Control)
iii
Participant Handbook
iv
Acknowledgements
v
About this Book

This Participant Handbook is designed to enable training for the specific Qualification Pack (QP). Each
National Occupational Standard (NOS) is covered in different Units.
Key Learning Objectives for the specific NOS mark the beginning of the Units for that NOS. The book
contains the following units:
1. Overview of Instrumentation and Process Control
2. Site Readiness and Instrument Usability – Process Control (NOS Code IAS/N0300)
3. Preventive Maintenance – Process Control (NOS Code IAS/N0301)
4. Task reporting – Process Control (NOS Code IAS/N0103)
5. Safety, Health and Environment – Process Control (NOS Code IAS/N0105)
6. Work Effectively With Teams (NOS Code NOS/ N2105)
Unit 1 gives a general introduction to process control industry and practices.
Units 2 and 3 are related to skills specific to the job role of Junior Instrumentation Technician (process
Control)
Units 4 to 6 cover general skills needed to perform efficiently in the process control industry and are
applicable to other job roles as well.
Key Learning Objectives for the specific NOS mark the beginning of the Units for that NOS.
The symbols used in this book are described below.
Symbols Used
vi
Table of Contents
S. No. Modules and Units Page No.
1. Overview of Instrumentation and Process Control 1
Unit 1.1 - Process Industry and the Need for Process Control 3
Unit 1.2 – Sensors and Instruments in Process Industry 8
Unit 1.3 - Gas Analyzers in Process Industry 29
Unit 1.4 - Principles of Control Loops 32
Unit 1.5 - Control Elements & Control Systems in Process Industry 42
Unit 1.6 - Connections & Isolations Practices in Process Control 52
Unit 1.7 - Plant Safety & Security 55
Unit 1.8 - Standards, Symbols & Terminology in Process Control 59
2. Site Readiness and Instrument Usability – Process Control 63

Unit 2.1 - Follow Instructions Relating to Process Plant 65
Unit 2.2 - Work Permits, Check Sheets and Formats 73
Unit 2.3 - Plant working and instrumentation documents 75
Unit 2.4 - Assist Servicing of Field Instrumentation and Control Valves 79
Unit 2.5 - Assist in Routine Check of Analyzers and Analyzer House 82
Unit 2.6 - Identify & Locate DCS & PLC Devices 83
Unit 2.7 - Identify and Locate Trouble in Packaged Units 86
Unit 2.8 - Identify and Locate Trouble in Packaged Units 88
Unit 2.9 - Site Guidelines of Field Installations 90
Unit 2.10 - Guidelines Regarding House Keeping and Lighting 96
Unit 2.11 - Monitor and Maintain Consumables and Follow-up 98
3. Preventive Maintenance - Process Control 101

Unit 3.1 - What is Preventive Maintenance? 103
Unit 3.2 - Obtain PM - work permit 105
Unit 3.3 - Assist in Organizing PM - Preparatory Tasks 106
Unit 3.4 - Assist in Executing PM-Schedule 107
Unit 3.5 - Assist in Preparing PM-Process List 108
Unit 3.6 - Assist in Planning – PM Schedule 109
Unit 3.7 - Assist in Performing PM-Visual Checks & Action 110
Unit 3.8 - Assist in Completing PM schedule 112
Unit 3.9 - Assist in Preparing PRM List 113
Unit 3.10 - Assist in Listing PM to be taken during Shut downs 114
Unit 3.11 - Assist in Following up Consolidated PM List 115
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4. Task Reporting – Process Control 117

Unit 4.1 - Task Reporting – Normal 119
Unit 4.2 - Task Reporting – Faults 120
Unit 4.3 - Task Reporting – Preventive Maintenance (PM) 122
Unit 4.4 - Task Reporting – Unusual Occurrence 123
Unit 4.5 - Task Reporting – Theft 124
Unit 4.6 - Task Reporting – Security Breach 125
5. Safety, Health and Environment (SHE) – Process Control 127

Unit 5.1 - Follow SHE Instructions 129
Unit 5.2 - SHE for Personal Protection Directives 131
Unit 5.3 - Reporting – SHE Audits 132
6. Work Effectively With Teams 133

Unit 6.1 - Creating Team Environment 135
Unit 6.2 - Clear Communication and Working with Colleagues 136
Unit 6.3 - Working cooperatively and Team Decision Making 138
Unit 6.4 - Demonstrating a Sense of Responsibility 139
Unit 6.5 - Showing Respect for Colleagues, Opinions, Customs and Preferences 140
Unit 6.6 - Working with Teams of Other Organizations 142
7. Employability and Entrepreneurship Skills 145

Unit 7.1 - Personal Strengths & Value Systems 149
Unit 7.2 - Digital Literacy - A Recap 163
Unit 7.3 - Money Matters 167
Unit 7.4 - Preparing for Employment & Self Employment 175
Unit 7.5 - Understanding Entrepreneurship 183
Unit 7.6 - Preparing to be an Entrepreneur 205
viii
1. Overview of
Instrumentation and
Process Control
Unit 1.1 - The Process Industry and the Need for Process
Control
Unit 1.2 - Sensors and Instruments in Process Industry
Unit 1.3 - Gas Analyzers in Process Industry
Unit 1.4 - Principles of Control Loops
Unit 1.5 - Control Elements and Control Systems in Process
Industry
Unit 1.6 - Principles of Measurement, Connections &
Practices in Process Control
Unit 1.7 - Plant Safety & Security
Unit 1.8 - Standards, Symbols and Terminology Used in
Process Control
IAS / N0300
Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Describe different kinds of process industries, their unique characteristics and requirements.
2. Describe different types of sensors, instruments and control elements used in Process
Industries
3. Explain the principles of control loops.
4. Explain principles of measurement, connections and practices in process control.
5. Explain plant safety and security principles and practices.
6. Describe standards, symbols and terminology used in process control.
2
Unit 1.1 - Process Industry and the Need for Process Control
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. Describe different types of Process industries
2. Describe the key characteristics of Process Industries
3. Describe the requirements of Process Industries
4. Describe the need for Process Control
5. Describe the Role of Instrumentation Technician
1.1.1 Introduction
A process is an operation that uses input resources and transforms these into one or more outputs of
specified constitution and quality. The resources include raw materials, energy and the environment
for the transformation to occur. Environment includes creating the right conditions of temperature,
pressure, chemical environment (pH), concentrations, flow and other parameters.
Process Industries manufacture chemicals by reacting various liquids, gases or solids. Industrial
processes are procedures involving chemical, physical, (including mechanical or electrical steps) to
enable manufacturing processes. These Process Industries include Fertilizer plants, Power Plants,
Pharmaceuticals plants, Refinery and Petrochemicals, Steel, Cement etc. Various chemical reactions
take place in various equipment and these reactions have to be closely monitored and controlled so
that the operations are as per design and operate in the prescribed safe and efficient manner. One
can divide Process industries in two ways:
(a) Continuous operation or Batch operation
(b) Their final product could be gas, liquid or solid or a combination.
Another way to classify industries is manufacturing Heavy Chemicals, Light Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals,
Fertilizers, Polyester, Petrochemical plants, Oil Refineries, Steel Plants, and Thermal Plants. In every
one of the process industry mentioned above, their processes and environment are unique and this
means Instrumentation and Process control have different requirements to manage this combination.
Examples of Process Industries
1. Fertilizers
2. Cement
3. Petrochemical Refinery
4. Petrochemicals Processing
5. Chemical Plants
3
6. Power Plants – Thermal, Nuclear

7. Steel Production
8. Aluminium Production
9. Other Metals Processing
10. Textile
11. Pharmaceuticals
12. Paints
13. Food processing
And many other processing industries.
1.1.2 Common Characteristics of Process Industries

Although each industry is distinctive in its unique requirements, there are some common features
found across all process industries:
1. These generally run continuously on a three shift basis, hence all systems and sub-systems
have to be running continuously. The duty cycle and reliability requirements are high. The
plant has to be operated and maintained round the clock. There is no option of stopping a
part of the plant or a sub process – as it affects the whole chain. Breakdown or unplanned
shutdown is therefore very expensive and has to be done only under extreme conditions.
2. Input materials of the right quality have to be continuously fed at defined flow rates.
The intermediate product storage and flow has to be accordingly adjusted. The finished
products have to removed, packed and stored.
3. The whole plant may be divided into a main processing unit and number of independent
‘shops’ – each specializing in a specific king of processing or service, in turn feeding other
shops or the main process. Different ‘shops’ need different kind of processes, equipment
and skills to run.
4. There are a number of standard sub systems that support the functioning of the plant. These
are called ‘Packaged Units’ – because these are complex systems made of many different
parts and integrated as a complete unit by specialized vendors and supplied as such.
Examples are: Boilers, Diesel Generating Sets, Air Condoning Units, Chillers, Compressors,
Water Treatment Plant, Turbines, Blowers, Ventilators, and Dust Precipitators etc. There
may be redundancy in packaged plants, so that if a packaged unit fails the plant can still
run on the redundant system which the defective unit is being repaired.
5. The plant may have different departments specializing in different domains and providing
specialized supporting services that are used by all departments and shops Examples are:
Central Stores, Electrical, Mechanical, Civil, Metallurgical, Chemical, Instrumentation,
Automation, Fire, etc. Chemical Analysis Laboratories and Calibration laboratories are also
found. Maintenance department and Cranes sections are also common.
6. Training and orientation is a continuous activity in plants – for new people joining the
company and for existing employees to enhance their skills in their own domains or to
get the knowledge and experience of related domains, and thus become multiskilled and
more useful for the plant.
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7. All plants have requirements of planned maintenance, overhaul and regeneration – to

allow parts to be checked, reworked or replaced to account for the normal wear and tear.
These are annual affairs – or as required by the process technology. This is a time when
the production stops and the whole plant gears up for restoring the plant to a healthy
condition which will avoid any potential breakdown owing to wear and tear of parts.
8. There are periodic inspections by multiple regulating and compliance agencies, which
are called ‘Audits’ which must be complied with and passed for the plant to be allowed
to work. For example, the Boilers require annual IBR audit. The concerned staff have to
enable the compliance agencies to inspect and collect information and certify the plant as
fit for operation.
1.1.3 Need for Process Control

Process control is required for a number of reasons. Some of these are:
1. To produce the right product
A process industry normally produces an end product by combining a number of inputs in the right
proportions, and making these inputs combine under controlled environments – which normally
includes certain given ranges of temperature, pressure, chemical environment (pH), concentrations,
flow and other parameters. There are more than one parameters that affect the formation of the
end product and the speed at which the reaction takes place. The coordinated control of all such
parameters require a well designed system, which we call the Process Controller.
2. To achieve the right quality
Process industries handle large amount of inputs and outputs and the outputs are generally produced
in a continuous manner – without stopping the process. The quality of input material may fluctuate,
or the feed of different inputs may vary with time. It is required to ensure that correct mixing,
blending and processing operations are carried out irrespective of input fluctuations at all times so
that a consistent quality is achieved. Control systems are therefore needed to maintain the correct
proportions of inputs and process conditions to deliver a consistent end product. Without a proper
automated control system, the product quality is likely to fluctuate and lead to lot of rejections or
acceptance of poor quality product.
3. To create a safe environment for the people, process and the environment
Safety is a key requirement in any industry – to safeguard the health of people working in it and to
protect the huge investment made in creating the plant. Preservation of the environment is also a
key requirement for any industry – as it has huge compliance implications – which ultimately affect
the operational costs and viability of the plant. Safety includes issues of fire and explosion, hazardous
chemicals, personnel injury and plant damage.
4. Competitiveness and financial viability
Every industry operates in a global competitive environment today. Ability to produce the products
of right quality, meeting the required safety and compliance norms needs a high degree of efficiency
at all levels and tight process control. Frequently the product mix need to be changed to meet the
market demands. This calls for process adaptability and flexibility. A modern process control system
helps in achieving these goals and enhance the viability of the company.
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1.1.4 Instrumentation in Process Control

All Process Industries have Instrumentation & Process Control systems which means, Measurement
and Control by a Final Control Element such as a Control Valve or Variable Frequency Drive.
Instrumentation & Control generally include common items such as:
• Legacy systems such as pneumatic instruments, analog instruments and wired relay
panels along with modern Smart electronic transmitters, DCS-PLC Digital Valve controller,
Emergency shutdown systems and new concepts in Safety Instrumented systems
• Hazardous area instrumentation such as On Line Analyzers, Fire alarms etc.
• Turbines, Compressors, Boilers etc. with their special control systems.
However, each type of process Industry has its own specialties or characteristic nature which requires
unique sets of instrumentation and controls. In addition to above, industries have some more specific
requirements:
a. Fertilizer and Chemical Plants
Salient Points, difficult liquid prone to solidification, Corrosion issues – call for special
sensing elements with wide range of material of construction-Titanium, special stainless
steel etc. Complex Control Valves
b. Oil Refineries and Petrochemical Plants
Instruments in Hazardous Area, sophisticated Gas Analyzers, online Gas Chromatograph,
Liquid analyzers and Fire & Gas. Complex control loops and advanced process control.
Complex Control Valves
c. Thermal Power Plant
These Plants have similar measurements, and control like any other Process plants but
here the focus will be on steam and water. Boiler measurement and controls de-super
heater, steam turbine controls. Analyzers for boiler water and steam are prominent
measurements. Feed water Control valves are heavy duty valves and are exposed to severe
wear and tear.
d. Steel Plants
Non contact temperature measurement, Temperatures of 1300 °C is quite common in
blast furnaces.
e. Pharmaceuticals and Food Industry
Have unique sterilization requirement for sensors and control valves.
The above process industries have some common requirements:

1. Measure Process Variable—Compare Process variable with Set Value - Display Value in
Receiver & Operate Final Control Element (Usually a Control Valve).
2. Have an independent “Watch Dog” to monitor deviation from prescribed limits-initiate
visible & audible alarms – Initiate (as prescribed) Emergency Shutdown system to bring
the process to a safe condition.
Instrumentation and Process control fulfill these requirements. Teams of Instrumentation technicians,
supervisors and engineers ensure that the instrumentation devices and controls operate in a correct
manner. These teams maintain all hardware and systems of Instrumentation and Process control.
6
1.1.5 Role of Junior Instrumentation Technician

Junior Instrumentation Technician (Process control) assists Instrumentation Technicians and
Supervisor in performing various maintenance jobs – which include Preventive, Corrective,
and Opportunistic maintenance. He does not perform these jobs independently, as he is not yet
experienced in doing these. So he needs to observe the senior technicians working, learn from these,
ask questions, read instrumentation documents and vendor manuals. He performs assistive duties
under direct supervision.
He learns on the Job. His daily jobs include:
a) Assists Instrumentation Technicians who are his senior colleagues and seeks continuous
guidance from his supervisor
b) Understands the job and does preparation for executing the jobs and informs his senior
colleague /supervisor.
Career Progression
The Junior Instrumentation Technician (Process control) is an understudy to an Instrumentation
Technician (Process control). Therefore the primary role of the Junior Instrumentation Technician is
to observe, study, learn and grow to be able to perform the jobs done by Instrumentation Technician
with accountability and responsibility. He needs to follow Instruction, improve professional skills,
take extra initiative to learn all the modules in the student book, identification and learning of various
hardware and systems and improving his hands on ability, with commitment, should take him to the
next position.
The Instrumentation Technician has the responsibility to perform the general maintenance, preventive
maintenance, shutdown maintenance, overhaul and the emergency breakdown maintenance. He
participates in various inspections and audit. He also performs installation of instruments when
needed and to perform the Loop test, to verify that the control loops are performing as designed
– under the guidance of the Instrumentation Engineer and the Process Engineer. He reports to
Instrumentation Supervisor.
Notes
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Unit 1.2 – Sensors and Instruments in Process Industry
Unit Objectives
1. Describe different types of Sensors used in the industry and their purpose
2. Describe different types of Temperature Sensors, their ranges and applications
3. Describe different types of Pressure Sensors and their applications
4. Describe different types of Level Sensors and their applications
5. Describe different types of Liquid Flow Sensors and their applications
6. Describe different types of Instruments and their applications
1.2.1 What are Sensors?

Sensing is a fundamental need in any control system. It tells us about the relative intensity of
something which we are interested in and want it to be at a certain level.
As an example, let us take the human body. It performs many functions, some autonomously and
some under the direction of the conscious brain. The human body is a very complex control system
– which consist of many independent control systems working in a well-coordinated manner. This
is akin to a large power plant or petrochemical refinery and processing plant – but infinitely more
complex and efficient.
The human body has five main sensing systems – vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste which help
the humans to navigate and perform their numerous functions. The sensors are Eyes, Ears, Skin, Nose
and Tongue. Other than these, the body can sense its own temperature and regulate it precisely
at 98.4°F nominally. The body’s temperature controller is so precise and robust that it can tolerate
extreme variations in external environment temperature and body conditions and still maintain the
internal temperature to where it needs to be. When the body is under the influence of bacteria or
viruses and is fighting, its temperature rises in defense and also signals (generates alarm) to tell that
something is seriously wrong.
The body has a chemical factory too, called the liver, which converts any food material taken into right
chemicals that the body needs, and in the right amount. Much of the human innovation is inspired by
the wonderful biological world. Any manmade factory or process plant is a poor copy of the human
body (or for that matter any other living system) – in terms of the complexity, the efficiency, the degree
of automation, adaptiveness, flexibility, robustness and self-healing or regenerative properties.
Most processes, whether domestic or industrial depend on changing the form of the input material
into something that is desirable. Domestic processes are cooking, grinding, heating of water or the
home, washing etc. These require some kind of thermal or mechanical processing which needs to
be controlled. For example, cooking requires the temperature of the food item to be maintained
within a temperature range, for a given time. Similarly grinding requires maintaining a certain range
of speed. The quality of cooking and grinding depends on maintain the parameters – temperature
and speed – within certain limits. This is a rudimentary form of process control. The parameters are
not measured normally using any sensor purposefully installed – rather, the sensing and control is
done by humans with intuition and experience.
8
Junior Instrumentation Technician (Process Control)
1.2.1.1 What are Industrial Sensors?

1.2.1.1processes
Industrial What are needIndustrial
sensors and Sensors?
controls by design – as these require a much more precise
control of the process parameters over a longer period of time, to deliver a consistent quality of
Industrial processes need sensors and controls by design – as these require a much more precise control
output material. It may be noted that the cooking ends when the cook feels that the item is ‘just
of the process parameters over a longer period of time, to deliver a consistent quality of output
right’ for eating – which can accommodate a wide range of variability in the degree of cooking. The
material. It may be noted that the cooking ends when the cook feels that the item is ‘just right’ for
same can’t be said of industrial processes. Hence the industries need to sense specifically and control
eating – which can accommodate a wide range of variability in the degree of cooking. The same can’t
the parameter precisely – so that these can be measured, verified and accepted by the purchaser.
be said of industrial processes. Hence the industries need to sense specifically and control the
parameterprocesses
Industrial precisely – also
so that these
need tocan be measured,
monitor verified
and control and accepted
several by thesimultaneously
parameters purchaser. in a
coordinated manner. This requires a high degree of instrumentation and automation in
Industrial processes also need to monitor and control several parameters simultaneously in athe process
plants.
coordinated manner. This requires a high degree of instrumentation and automation in the process
plants. Sensors are devices which sense or detect the value of a physical parameter such as
Industrial
Temperature, Barometric
Industrial Sensors Pressure,
are devices which Fluid
senseFlow, LiquidtheLevel,
or detect valueGas
of aPressure, Gas Concentration,
physical parameter such as
Humidity, Conductivity, Color, Light Intensity or any other parameter.
Temperature, Barometric Pressure, Fluid Flow, Liquid Level, Gas Pressure, Gas Concentration, Humidity,
Conductivity, Color, Light Intensity or any other parameter.
1.2.1.2 Why
1.2.1.2 Whydo
dowe
weSense?
Sense?
The purpose
The purpose ofofsensing
sensingis to know
is to the the
know value of theofparameters
value of interest
the parameters – so that– these
of interest canthese
so that be changed
can be
in the precise manner dictated by the transformation process.
changed in the precise manner dictated by the transformation process.
Remember that
Remember thataaprocess
process plant converts
plant a combination
converts a combinationof rawofmaterials into a set
raw materials intoof desirable
a set of outputs.
desirable
Chemical processes use chemical reactions for the conversion process.
outputs. Chemical processes use chemical reactions for the conversion process. However, However, there are other
there are
industries where the conversion process is mechanical or any other form. Some process
other industries where the conversion process is mechanical or any other form. Some process plants plants – such
–assuch
a Thermal Power Plant
as a Thermal Powerconvert coal intocoal
Plant convert electrical energy. Here
into electrical we Here
energy. do notwe have a physical
do not have amaterial
physical
as a desirable output – it is the electrical energy, which is distributed and consumed
material as a desirable output – it is the electrical energy, which is distributed and consumed in a in a manner
different from a chemical output such as fertilizer or petrol. However, the philosophy of control remains
manner different from a chemical output such as fertilizer or petrol. However, the philosophy of
the same.
control remains the same.
Thus, you will find that in any kind of process, we have three elements – the input(s), the process (which
Thus, you will find that in any kind of process, we have three elements – the input(s), the process
converts) and output(s) as shown in figure 1.1.
(which converts) and output(s) as shown in figure 1.1.
Figure
Figure1.1
1.1--The
The Basic Process
Basic Process
In figure 1.1, the quality and yield of the output is dependent on the value of the process variable X,
In figure 1.1, the quality and yield of the output is dependent on the value of the process variable X,
which is related to the conversion process. Generally, there is an optimum value of X, sat X at which
which is related to the conversion process. Generally, there is an optimum value of X, sat Xoptopt at which
the output property is the best. The requirement then boils down to maintaining X as close to Xopt as
the output property is the best. The requirement then boils down to maintaining X as close to Xopt as
possible. Sensing of X is therefore essential.
possible. Sensing of X is therefore essential.
19
9
1.2.1.3 The Control Problem

Once we have sensed the process variable X, we need to know how we can vary it to bring it close
to Xopt. This requires the knowledge of the process, which will tell us how X is generated in the first
1.2.1.3 The Control Problem
place.
Once we have sensed the process variable X, we need to know how we can vary it to bring it close to
We will defer the answer to this question to a later section and be content with the knowledge for the
Xopt. This requires the knowledge of the process, which will tell us how X is generated in the first place.
time being that sensing of a ‘process variable’ is essential.
We will defer the answer to this question to a later section and be content with the knowledge for the
time being that sensing of a ‘process variable’ is essential.
1.2.1.4 Sensors, Detectors vs. Transducers
1.2.1.4 Sensors, Detectors vs. Transducers
A sensor (also known as a Detector) is a device having a characteristic that changes in a well defined
A sensor (also known as a Detector) is a device having a characteristic that changes in a well defined
manner when exposed to a physical stimulus that is to be detected. Here the characteristic means
manner when exposed to a physical stimulus that is to be detected. Here the characteristic means an
an output in response to the stimulus which is detectable as a change, for example of mechanical
output in response to the stimulus which is detectable as a change, for example of mechanical
dimension, electrical resistance, voltage, current, capacitance, inductance or anything else.
dimension, electrical resistance, voltage, current, capacitance, inductance or anything else.
A transducer
A transduceris ais device or or
a device circuit that
circuit converts
that convertsone
oneform
formofofenergy
energyinto
intoanother.
another.ForForexample,
example,a a
mechanical
mechanicaldimensional
dimensionalchange
change(called
(calledstrain)
strain)can
canbebeconverted
convertedinto
intoananelectrical
electricalvoltage
voltageusing
using
piezoelectric material.
piezoelectric material.
Sensing
Sensingand
andTransduction
Transductionareareboth
both needed
needed to togenerate
generateananoutput
output that
that is readily
is readily usable.
usable. The most
The most usable
usable
formform of signal
of signal is an electrical
is an electrical signal signal
as thereasare
there are numerous
numerous ways of ways of conditioning
conditioning the signalthe
andsignal and
processing
processing it using powerful semiconductor devise and integrated circuits. Electrical or electronic
it using powerful semiconductor devise and integrated circuits. Electrical or electronic processing can be
processing canasbeneeded,
as accurate as accurate as needed,
relatively relatively
inexpensive, inexpensive,
standards standards
based and based and very flexible.
very flexible.
Transducers
Transducersareare
used
usedtotochange
changethe
the output from
fromaasensor
sensorinto
into
anan electrical,
electrical, pneumatic
pneumatic or hydraulic
or hydraulic signal
signal
thatthat a process
a process controller
controller cancan use.The
use. Thetransducer
transducertakestakes care
care of the
the nonlinearities
nonlinearities ininthe
thesensor
sensor
characteristic and
characteristic andproduces
producesandandoutput
outputthat
thatisisaastandard
standard signal
signal usable by
by aa controller.
controller.
WeWe
willwill
learn about
learn ‘standards’
about ‘standards’for
forsignals
signalsinininstrumentation
instrumentation in
in aa later section.
section.
Figure 1.21.2- The

Figure - Theelements in Process
elements in ProcessControl
Control
TheThe
sensor and and
sensor transducer are often
transducer arepackaged together together
often packaged and the combination is called an Instrument.
and the combination is called an
Instruments can have other interfaces such as display, adjustments, keypad etc.
Instrument. Instruments can have other interfaces such as display, adjustments, keypad for enhanced
etc. for
functionality. The sensor may be built into the Instrument package, or the sensor can be
enhanced functionality. The sensor may be built into the Instrument package, or the sensor can separately
packaged and connected to the Instrument through a cable and a connector or terminal block.
be separately packaged and connected to the Instrument through a cable and a connector or
To terminal block. for our purpose any device that measures a process variable is an instrument.
simplify things,
To simplify things, for our purpose any device that measures a process variable is an
Instrument.
10
20
1.2.2 Types of Sensors

Sensors of interest to us can be broadly classified into the following categories:
1. Temperature Sensors
2. Relative Humidity Sensors
3. Pressure Sensors
4. Fluid Flow Sensors
5. Liquid level Sensors
6. Mass, Weight Sensors
7. Vibration Sensors
8. Optical Sensors – Turbidity, Suspended Solids, Color, Polarization, Refractive Index
9. pH Sensors
10. Conductivity Sensors
11. Ionization Sensors
12. Proximity Sensors
13. Position sensors – Linear, Rotary
14. Range Sensors
15. Gas Flow Sensors
16. Gas Analyzers (online / offline)
17. Radiation Sensors
18. Other sensors
It must be noted all the sensors mentioned above are not found in all industries. The use of sensors
is decided by the kind of process and the variables it needs to measure for control. We will look at
some of these in more detail in the following sections.
Notes
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11
1.2.3 Temperature Sensors

The science of measuring temperature is called Thermometry and the temperature measuring
devices are called Thermometers. A wide range of thermometers are available for use in industry. All
depend on some kind of sensing elements, which convert the thermal energy of objects into some
other physical quantities (generally, mechanical movement or electrical) which are measurable.
As the object to be sensed can vary widely in shape and form, so we need different types of sensors to
suit varying needs. There is vast variation in the ranges of temperature to be sensed across different
applications, varying from subzero temperatures to several thousand degrees Celsius, which also calls
for a variety of sensing mechanisms. Thus we find many different types of temperature sensors.
Thermometers can broadly be classified into two categories, namely Contact thermometers and
Radiation thermometers.
a. Contact thermometers are based on sensors which are brought in close thermal contact
with the object to be measured. The physical contact ensures that the sensor reaches the
temperature of the object to be measured given sufficient time. Some physical parameter
of the sensor such as its mechanical expansion, electrical resistance, electrical voltage etc.
is measured whose value depends on temperature. This dependence which may be linear
or nonlinear, provides a quantitative measure of the object temperature.
b. Radiation thermometers sense the infrared thermal radiations emitted by an object
whose temperature is being measured. This sensing does not require the sensor to be in
contact with the object, and hence such measurements can be done from a distance. Such
sensors or detectors are also appropriately called ‘Non-contact Thermal Detectors’.
Tips
The different types of physical sensing mechanisms for temperature are:
1. Mechanical expansion – e.g. Mercury Thermometer, Bimetal temperature gauge
2. Resistance variation – e.g. Thermistors made of semiconductors or alloys having a positive
or negative Coefficient of Temperature
3. Resistance variation – e.g. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), made of pure metals
(such as Platinum) and alloys
4. Thermoelectric Seebeck effect – e.g. Thermocouples
5. Radiation detection – e.g. Pyrometer and Infrared/ non-contact Temperature Detector
12
hysical sensing mechanisms for temperature are:
1n –Mechanical Temperature
e.g. Mercury Thermometer, Bimetal indicators
temperature gauge Junior Instrumentation
– e.g. Thermistors made of semiconductors or alloys having a p
based on1.2.3.1
expansion of bimetallic
Mechanical Temperature Indicatorselements, which drive an indic
f Temperature
These are based on expansion of bimetallic elements, which drive an indicator on a graduated scale.
– e.g. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), made of pure me

s
ck effect – e.g. Thermocouples
e.g. Pyrometer and Infrared/ non-contact Temperature Detecto temperature
scale
pointer
Temperature indicators
of bimetallic elements, which drive an indicator on a graduated Biometallic
strip
Figure 1.3 - Principle of Bimetallic Temperature Ind
22
Invar strip expands
less than copper Copper strip
expands in
Heat
Figure 1.3 - Principle of Bimetallic Temperature Indicator
1.3 - Principle of Bimetallic Temperature Indicator
22 13
1.2.3.2 1.2.3.2
Thermocouple Temperature Detectors
Thermocouple Temperature Detectors
When certain dissimilar metals are connected in a loop to form two junctions and one junction is
When certain
heated or cooled with dissimilar
respect to metals
the are connected
other in a loop
junction, to formflows
a current two junctions and one
in the loop. junction
If one is junctions
of the
is opened heated or cooled with respect to the other junction, a current flows in the loop. If one of the junctions
and connected to a voltmeter, a voltage can be detected. This voltage is equal to the
is opened and connected to a voltmeter, a voltage can be detected. This voltage is equal to the
Thermoelectric EMF. Its magnitude and polarity is determined by the characteristics of the materials
Thermoelectric EMF. Its magnitude and polarity is determined by the characteristics of the materials
and the temperature differential between the junctions. For a given pair of materials, the thermal
and the temperature differential between the junctions. For a given pair of materials, the thermal
EMF is dependent on the temperature differential and hence can be correlated to the temperature
EMF is dependent on the temperature differential and hence can be correlated to the temperature
according to some equation.
according to some equation.
Figure 1.4 - Thermocouple measurement with ice bath as reference

Figure 1.4 - Thermocouple measurement with ice bath as reference
In practice, the ice bath is replaced by an isothermal block whose temperature is sensed by another
In practice, the ice bath is replaced by an isothermal block whose temperature is sensed by another
sensor and the value is used to make the Cold unction Compensation and compute the actual value
sensor and the value is used to make the Cold unction Compensation and compute the actual value
of the hot junction.
of the hot junction.
Thermocouples come in a wide range of materials and operating temperature range – spanning from
Thermocouples
-270°Ccome in a though
to +1800°C, wide range ofa materials
not with and operating
single thermocouple. temperature
Popular thermocouple range
types are: – spanning from
-2700C to +18000C, though not with a single thermocouple. Popular thermocouple types are:
• Type B (Platinum / Rhodium)
• Type B (Platinum / Rhodium)
• Type E (Chromel / Constantan)
• Type E (Chromel / Constantan)
• Type
J • (Iron/Constantan)
Type J (Iron/Constantan)
• Type
K• (Chromel/ Alumel)
Type K (Chromel/ Alumel)
• Type N (Nicrosil / Nisil)
• Type N (Nicrosil / Nisil)
• Type R (Platinum / Rhodium)
• Type
S• (Platinum / Rhodium)
Type R (Platinum / Rhodium)
• Type
T• (Copper / Constantan)
Type S (Platinum / Rhodium)
The polarity of• the thermocouple
Type is shown by the order of appearance of the material in parenthesis
T (Copper / Constantan)
- positive electrode first.
The polarity of the thermocouple is shown by the order of appearance of the material in parenthesis
Thermocouples are
- positive normally
electrode first. encapsulated in a sheath to protect them and have longtubular
construction to facilitate inserting into the process environment deep enough to measure the real
temperature of furnaces or reaction vessels at high temperature.
14
Thermocouples generate thermal emf which are low, generally of the order of 40 microvolts/0K for a
K type thermocouple. Hence very sensitive circuits are needed to amplify these signal to make them
Thermocouples are normally encapsulated in a sheath to protect them and have long tubular
construction to facilitate inserting into the process environment deep enough to measure the real
temperature of furnaces or reaction vessels at high temperature.
Thermocouples generate thermal emf which are low, generally of the order of 40 microvolts/0K for a
K type thermocouple. Hence very sensitive circuits are needed to amplify these signal to make them
readable by analog-to-digital converters (A/Dc).
Thermocouples need to be connected to the measuring circuit using extension wires or compensating
cables – which are made of similar materials as the thermocouples and thus do not generate any
additional parasitic junctions which cause errors.
Table 1.1 - Color codes for Thermocouples
S Type Color Code Positive Negative Range Avg.

No Lead Lead Mate- (0C) Seebeck
IEC BS ANSI
Material rial Coeffi-
cient
(µV/°C )
1 K Chromel Alumel (Ni -196 to 41
(Ni - 10% - 5% Al, Si) +1100
Cr)
2 J Iron Constantan -196 to 40

+760
3 N Nicro- Nisil (Ni −270 to 39

sil (Ni - 4.5% Si - +1100
- 14% Cr - 0.1% Mg)
1.5%Si)
4 R Not Pt - 13% Pt 0 to 1450 -
defined Rh
5 S Not Pt - 10% Pt 0 to 1450 -

defined Rh
6 B No No Not Pt - 30% Pt-6% Rh 0 to 1750 -

standard standard defined Rh
7 T Copper Constantan -200 to 43
+400
8 E Chromel Constantan -196 to 68

(Ni - 10% +1000
Cr)
Thermocouples are color coded – to make their identification easy and foolproof. The
compensating cables and extension wires are similarly color coded. This is shown in Table 1.1.
15
1.2.3.3 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
RTDs are sensors based on the variation of electrical resistance of metals and alloys with
1.2.3.3 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
temperature. In metals the electrical resistivity increases with temperature, approximately
linearly. Thus resistance of the sensor of a given physical dimension can be accurately related to
RTDs are sensors based on the variation of electrical resistance of metals and alloys with temperature.
its temperature.
In metals the electrical resistivity increases with temperature, approximately linearly. Thus resistance
RTD
of thesensing
sensorelements
of a givenare made dimension
physical from platinum,
can be copper or nickel
accurately and to
related have a predictable and
its temperature.
repeatable resistance - temperature equation (R vs. T) over a fairly wide temperature range. The
RTD
R vs. sensing elements
T relationship is anareapproximate
made fromstraight
platinum,line. copper or nickel
The slope andper
gives the have
unita change
predictable
in and
repeatable
resistance at resistance - temperaturealso
a given temperature, equation
called(Rthe
vs. temperature
T) over a fairlycoefficient
wide temperature range.The
of resistance. The R vs. T
relationship is an approximate straight line. The slope gives the per unit change in resistance
variation of the temperature coefficient is fairly small over the useful range – which is very useful at a given
temperature, also called the temperature coefficient of resistance. The variation of the temperature
for linear approximation.
coefficient is fairly small over the useful range – which is very useful for linear approximation.
Platinum is the most desirable material for making RTDs. The nominal value is generally 100 Ohms
Platinum is the
at 00C. These aremost desirable
called PRT-100.material for making RTDs. The nominal value is generally 100 Ohms at
0°C. These are called PRT-100.
Though inexpensive materials such as copper and nickel can be used for making RTDs, platinum
Though
RTDs have inexpensive
a very closematerials such as copper and nickel can be used for making RTDs, platinum RTDs
linear response.
have a very close linear response.
RTDs generally have good accuracy, stability and repeatability compared to other
temperature measuring
RTDs generally devices.
have good accuracy, stability and repeatability compared to other temperature
measuring devices.
The maximum temperature range of PRT100 is about 6500C.
The
RTDsmaximum
also have temperature range oftime
much faster response PRT100 is about
compared to 650°C.
thermocouples.
RTDs also have much faster response time compared to thermocouples.
Figure 1.5 - A Platinum Resistance Temperature Detector

Figure 1.5 - A Platinum Resistance Temperature Detector
1.2.3.4
1.2.3.4Thermistor
ThermistorTemperature
TemperatureSensors
Sensors
Thermistors are generally
Thermistors generally made
madeofofsemiconductors
semiconductorsand andalloys
alloyswhich
which show
show a dependence
a dependence of
of resistance
resistance with temperature. These have good thermal sensitivity, but are highly nonlinear
with temperature. These have good thermal sensitivity, but are highly nonlinear and generally have and
generally temperature
negative have negativecoefficient.
temperature coefficient.
Their Their range
range of operation of operation
is limited is limited
to below 200°C.to below
Thermistors are
2000C. Thermistors
relatively are and
inexpensive relatively inexpensive
are used and are used in heat detectors.
in heat detectors.
25
16
Juniorand
1.2.3.5 Temperature Characteristics of Thermistor, RTD Instrumentation
Thermocouples
1.2.3.5
Figure 1.6Temperature
shown the typicalCharacteristics of Thermistor,
temperature vs resistance RTD and Thermocouples
(or mV for thermocouples) characteristic of
these sensors. It can be easily seen that RTD have the most linear curve, which makes these easy to
Figure 1.6 shows the typical temperature vs resistance (or mV for thermocouples) characteristic of
interface.
these sensors. It can be easily seen that RTD have the most linear curve, which makes these easy to
interface.
Figure 1.6 - Characteristics of TC, RTD and Thermistor

Figure 1.6 - Characteristics or TC, RTD and Thermistor
1.2.3.6 Thermowells
1.2.3.6 Thermowells
Often, it is required to measure temperature of hot process fluid in a vessel at high temperature and/or
high pressure. The sensor needs to be very robust to withstand these conditions. It has to be leak proof
Often, it is required to measure temperature of hot process fluid in a vessel at high temperature and/
and take the stress and the strain of the process fluid dynamics. This generally requires that the sensor
or high pressure. The sensor needs to be very robust to withstand these conditions. It has to be leak
is welded to the vessel. If the process is continuous, there is no opportunity under normal times to make
proof and take the stress and the strain of the process fluid dynamics. This generally requires that
any adjustments or changes to the thermal sensor. All sensors have limited life under such conditions.
the sensor is welded to the vessel. If the process is continuous, there is no opportunity under normal
The cost of the sensor is very small compared to the potential cost of disruption of the process if the
times to make any adjustments or changes to the thermal sensor. All sensors have limited life under
sensor fails while the process is running. Therefore, there has to be some means of ensuring that the
such conditions. The cost of the sensor is very small compared to the potential cost of disruption of
sensors are shielded from the process strain and are also amenable to easy replacement without
the process if the sensor fails while the process is running. Therefore, there has to be some means
disturbing the process.
of ensuring that the sensors are shielded from the process strain and are also amenable to easy
Thermowellswithout
replacement are an answer to this
disturbing problem.
the process.These are cylindrical fittings of suitable material and having
correct wall thickness to withstand the process stress. These are closed at one end (the process end)
Thermowells
and open at are the an answer
other end for to this problem.
insertion of theThese areSensors
sensor. cylindrical fittings
of any kind of suitable material
– Thermocouple, RTDand
or
having correct wall thickness to withstand the process stress. These are closed
Thermistor can be inserted inside the well to make thermal contact with the wall of the well. Usuallyat one end (the process
end)
the and openare
sensors at the other
spring end for
loaded insertion
such of the
that they sensor.
make Sensors
pressure of anywith
contact kindthe
– Thermocouple,
outer wall of RTD the
orthermowell
Thermistorwhich
can be inserted
ensures thatinside the well
the sensor to make thermal
temperature reachescontact with the temperature
the thermowell wall of the well.
in a
Usually the sensors
reasonable time. The are spring
sensor loaded such
is retained that
in the they make
thermowell pressure
with the helpcontact with the
of threaded capsouter
whichwall of
screw
the
on thermowell
the thermowell whichtubes.ensures that thethe
This archives sensor temperature
desired outcomes,reaches
i.e.: the thermowell temperature in
a reasonable time. The sensor is retained in the thermowell with the help of threaded caps which
screw onSensor is protected
the thermowell fromThis
tubes. the process
archivesstress
the desired outcomes, i.e.:
 Sensor is easily replaceable
• Sensor
 Sensor is protected
is in thermal contact from the
withprocess stress – which itself is at the process temperature.
the thermowell
• ThisSensor is easily
is ensured by replaceable
appropriate depth of insertion, governed by the depth of the thermowell.
The• Sensorhas
thermowell is toinhave
thermal contact
sufficient masswith
to makethegood
thermowell
contact with– which itself is
the process. Thisatcauses
the process
some
temperature. This is ensured by appropriate
issues with the accuracy and the response of the temperature sensing. depth of insertion, governed by the depth of
the thermowell.
The thermowell has to have sufficient mass to make good contact with the process. This causes some
issues with the accuracy and the response of the temperature sensing.
26
17
Participant
1.2.3.7 Handbook
Thermowell Failures
1.2.3.7 Thermowell Failures
Figure 1.7 - Thermowell, a typical example
There are commonly four mainFigure

modes1.7of- Thermo-well, a typical example
failures of thermowells:
1. Mechanical failures - Bending or breakage which is caused by various forces encountered
in the flowing process liquid or gas.
Corrosion
2. There - This is induced
are commonly by chemicals
four main and/or increased
modes of failures temperatures.
of thermowells:
3. 1. Erosion - Normally
Mechanical the
failures- high velocity
Bending of thewhich
or breakage liquidiscauses
causederosion of thermocouples.
by various forces encountered
4. Vibration/Fatigue
in the flowing process - Failure
liquid ordue
gas.to Von Karman Trail Effect (vortex shedding around
the thermo-well) and collapse, each time an impulse is felt by the thermo well. It fails
2. Corrosion – This is induced by chemicals and/or increased temperatures.
eventually. This problem is overcome by proper design of thermowell.
3. Erosion - Normally the high velocity of the liquid causes erosion of thermocouples
4. Vibration/Fatigue - Failure due to Von Karman Trail Effect (vortex shedding around the
1.2.4 Pressure Sensors
thermo-well) and collapse, each time an impulse is felt by the thermo well. It fails
eventually. This problem is overcome by proper design of thermowell.
Pressure is an important parameter in many conversion processes and chemical reactions. Proper
monitoring and control of pressure is necessary – both from process and safety considerations. An
excess pressure can damage the process equipment and cause serious accidents.
Pressure sensors are of mainly two types:
1. Mechanical Pressure sensors
2. Electronic Pressure sensors
Electronic Pressure sensors are generally more accurate and versatile compared to Mechanical
Pressure sensors.
The electronic pressure sensors come with many useful functionality, such as with built in Indicators,
Transmitters and Switches, which will be dealt with in other sections.
27
18
mechanical pressure-sensing elements come in many forms. The popular ones are:
1. Diaphragm type
2. Bellows type Technician (Process Control)
3. Bourdon tube type
1.2.4.1 Pressure Measurement with Mechanical Pressure Sensors
4. Spiral type
The mechanical pressure-sensing elements come in many forms. The popular ones are:
. Helical Bourdon tubes.
1. Diaphragm type
ese devices convert the fluid
2. Bellows type pressure into a force, which is used to move a pointer or o
anical indicator –3. giving thetube
Bourdon indication
type of pressure.
4. Spiral type
n pressure is applied to Bourdon
5. Helical these tubes.
devices which are called mechanical elastic devices, there
ortional movement
All these and this
devices movement
convert is used
the fluid pressure into for a Pressure
a force, which is usedIndicator or Pressure
to move a pointer or other transmitter
mechanical indicator – giving the indication of pressure.
don tube operates on theis principle
When pressure that,
applied to these when
devices whichpressurized, a flattened
are called mechanical tubethere
elastic devices, tends
is a to straighte
proportional movement and this movement is used for a Pressure Indicator or Pressure transmitter.
t to its original cross section which is circular. To increase their sensitivity, Bourdon tube elem
Bourdon tube operates on the principle that, when pressurized, a flattened tube tends to straighten
e extended into spirals or helical coils.
to revert to its original cross section which is circular. To increase their sensitivity, Bourdon tube
elements can be extended into spirals or helical coils.
Figure 1.8 - Bourdon pressure gauge
Notes Figure 1.8 - Bourdon pressure gauge
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
28
____________________________________________________________________________________
19
Figure 1.9
Figure - Diaphragm Seal
SealPressure gauge
Figure1.9
1.9--Diaphragm
Diaphragm Seal Pressure
Pressure gauge
gauge
It isItItnormally
isisnormally
normally used
usedused for
for forslurries,
slurries,liquids
slurries, liquidsthat
liquids thattend
that tendtoto
tend solidify.
to Also
solidify.
solidify. used
Also
Also forfor
used
used hot
for corrosive
hothot liquids.
corrosive
corrosive Note
liquids.
liquids. the
Note Note
theBourdon tube will not be affected by these properties of Process Media.
the Bourdon tube will not be affected by these properties of Process Media. The Material of of
Bourdon tube will not be affected by these properties of Thematerial
Process Media. of construction
The Material
of diaphragm
construction
construction is chosen
of diaphragm
of diaphragm based on the
is ischosen
chosen properties
based
based on theof
on the the harshofof
properties
properties process
the
the media.
harsh
harsh Note,
process
process special
media.
media. Note,oil suchspecial
Note,
specialas
silicone oil is filled inside Bourdon tube. Note process media does not enter the Bourdon tube
oil such as silicone
oil such as siliconeoiloil
is filled
is filledinside
insideBourdon
Bourdon tube. Noteprocess
tube. Note processmedia
media does
does notnot enter
enter the Bourdon
the Bourdon
tube tube
1.2.4.2 Pressure Measurement with Electronic Pressure Sensors
1.2.4.2
1.2.4.2 PressureMeasurement
Pressure Measurement with
with Electronic
ElectronicPressure
PressureSensors
Sensors
InInelectronic
electronicpressure
pressuremeasurements,
measurements, pressure is detected
detected by by an
anelectromechanical
electromechanicalsensor sensorand
andthis
this
In electronic pressure measurements, pressure is detected by an electromechanical sensor and this
effectisistranslated
effect translatedinto
intoaa suitable
suitable electronic signal.
signal. The electronic
electronic signal
signalisisproportional
proportionaltotothe thevalue
value
effect is
thetranslated
ofofthe
into a suitable
pressureapplied.
pressure applied. Some common
Some
electronic
common types
signal.
typesof
The electronic
ofelectronic
electronicpressure
signal
pressuresensors
sensors
is are:
proportional to the value
are:
of the pressure applied. Some common types of electronic pressure sensors are:
1. Capacitive
1. CapacitiveSensor
Sensor(uses principle
(uses of change
principle of electrical
of change capacitance
of electrical with change
capacitance in pressure-
with change in
1. Capacitive
change Sensor
of (uses
capacitance principle
represents of change
change of of electrical
pressure)
pressure-change of capacitance represents change of pressure) capacitance with change in pressure-
change of capacitance represents change of pressure)
2.
2. Piezo Piezo resistive
resistive Sensor
Sensor (uses
(uses principle
principle of piezo
of piezo resistance
resistance –when –when
a straina strain is sensed
is sensed by the
by the piezo
2. Piezo piezo
resistiveresistive
sensor
resistive sensor
there
Sensor is athere
(uses is of
change a change
principle ofresistance
electrical
of piezo electrical
resistance resistance
–this a –this
change
–when change
of resistance
strain is sensedof resistance
represents
by the piezo
represents
change of change
pressure). of pressure).
resistive sensor there is a change of electrical resistance –this change of resistance represents
change of pressure).
Figure
Figure 1.10
1.10 - Image
- Image ofofa aPiezoelectric
Piezoelectric Resistor
ResistorPressure
Pressuresensor
sensor
Figure 1.10 - Image of a Piezoelectric Resistor Pressure sensor
2920
29
1.2.5.2
1.2.5 Accuracy
Flow & Repeatability
Sensors Technician (Process Control)
 accurate
Accuracymeasurement
1.2.5.2 of a measurement
Accuracy of flow system
&Repeatability is a liquid
Repeatability value isusually in %for
that indicates how amounts
near is the
1.2.5
The
1.2.5.2
reactant
Flow
Accuracy Sensors
or mix value
measured
and
and hence
of gas and
to theimportant
real value for costing. with
(measured
important
Hence maintenance
a calibrated
getting the right
of definite
reference
to
rates of flow is
instrument).
 accurate
The Accuracy
important for
Repeatability of a is
measurement
measurement
maximum an of flow
efficiency
index (in %)system
ofofgas
and how is close
and a liquid
value
production areisusually
important
and
the in %Costs
cost.
measurements that
for indicates
getting
which
whentheare how
right
they near onis flow
amounts
based
are the
repeatedlyto
•
reactant
Accuracy
or mix and
of a
hence
measurement
important for
system
costing.
is a value
Hence
usually
maintenance
in % that
of
indicates
definite
how
rates
near is the
measured
measurements
generated
measured
value
will
from beto the
the same
value to
real
incorrect
the
value
if the
input.
real
(measured
measurements
The inputs
value (measured
with a
are
must be calibrated
erroneous.
given
with a
reference
in identical
calibrated
instrument).
fashion each
reference time. is
of flow
instrument).
important
 Repeatabilityfor maximum is an indexefficiency
(in %) of and how production
close are the andmeasurements
cost. Costs which when aretheybased on flow
are repeatedly
1.2.5.1
•
measurements Categorization
Repeatability
generatedwill from bethe is
incorrectan indexof Flow
(in %)
if the measurements
same input.
Sensors
of
The inputs mustare
how close are
beerroneous.
the measurements
given in identical fashion each time.
when they are
repeatedly generated from the same input. The inputs must be given in identical fashion
Flow sensors can be broadly categorized as:
1.2.5.1 Categorization
each time. of Flow Sensors
 Direct measurement
Flow sensors can be broadly categorized as:
 Inferential measurement
 Direct measurement
Everyone is familiar with household water meter; flow of water propels a rotor which is coupled to
 Inferential measurement
a counter or integrator which you can directly read. This is direct flow sensing.
Everyone is familiar with household water meter; flow of water propels a rotor which is coupled to
Another principle (widely used in most flow sensing) is inferential method. Here the flow sensor
a counter or integrator which you can directly read. This is direct flow sensing.
measures a certain effect due to flow and this effect represents the flow. In other words flow rate is
Another
inferred principle
from the (widelyeffect whichused 1.11(a)
Figure is
insensed.
most flow
– TheWe
sensing)
have listed
illustration
is only
inferential
a few
of Repeatability
method.
andwidely
Here
used
Accuracy flowthe flow sensor
sensors.
measures a certain effect due to flow and this effect represents the flow. In other words flow rate is
a. Differential Pressure (Head) Type
inferred from the effectFigure which is sensed. We have listed only a few widely used flow sensors.
1.2.5.3 ProducesOrifice Plate
Figure
a differential (OP)
1.11(a)
1.11(a) ––The
pressure Flow
The illustrationSensor
illustration
which is
ofRepeatability
of Repeatability andand Accuracy
Accuracy
proportional to the flow rate - Inferential type.
a. Differential Pressure (Head) Type
The variations are:
1.2.5.3
An orifice
Produces Orifice Platefabricated
plateaisdifferential
generally (OP) Flow
pressure out ofis
which Sensor
suitable
proportionalstainless steel,
to the flowwith
ratean accuratelytype.
- Inferential designed
1.2.5.3
bore. The Orifice
I.
It is variations Plate
Orifice
widely used Plate(OP)– Flow
Venturi Sensor
Tube
as a flow sensor and is inexpensive compared to other flow sensors. Orifice
are:
An orifice
plate II.platePitot
is generally –Static
is generally
used along tube
with(dynamic
fabricated out pressure
a differentialof suitable & stainless
pressure static Pressure
steel, difference)
transmitter. with an plate
Orifice accurately designed
achieves a best
An bore.
orifice
accuracy plate
It is I.widely
under is generally
Orifice
used
ideal Plate
as a fabricated
–
flow
conditions Venturi
sensor
of the out
Tubeand
order of
is suitable
inexpensive
of + 1.5 tostainless
2%compared steel,
to with an
other flowaccurately
sensors. designed
Orifice
III. Variable Area (Rota meter)
bore. It is
plate widely
II.
is generally used
Pitot asalong
–Static
used a flow
tubewithsensor
(dynamic andpressure
is inexpensive
& static compared to other
Pressure difference) flow sensors. Orifice
IV. Mass Flow meter –aDirect
differential pressure
measurement transmitter.
of Mass Orifice plate achieves a best
plate is generally
accuracyIII.underVariableused along
ideal conditions
Area with
(Rota a differential
of meter) pressure
the order of + 1.5 to 2% transmitter. Orifice plate achieves a best
accuracy under V. ideal example Coriolis
conditions ofmass flow meter
the order of + 1.5 to 2%.
IV. Mass Flow meter – Direct measurement of Mass
V.
b. Velocity example
Type Coriolis mass flow meter
Senses flow velocity and converts this into an electrical signal which represents flow rate -
b. Velocity Type
Inferential type.
Senses flow velocity and converts this into an electrical signal which represents flow rate -
I. Magnetic
Inferential type.
II. Ultrasonic - Transit Time, Doppler
I.
III. Magnetic
Vortex
II. Ultrasonic - Transit Time, Doppler
III. type
c. Direct Vortex
I. Positive Displacement (example Oval gear flow meter)
c. Direct type
Note: ThisI.is anPositive Displacement

indicative list only and(example Oval gearone.
not an exhaustive flow meter)
Figure 1.11(b) - Orifice flow sensor- Note a differential pressure P1 minus P2 is produced. Flow is proportional to
Figure 1.11(b) - Orifice flow sensor- Note a differential
square pressure P1 minus P2 is produced. Flow is proportional to
Note: This is an indicative list only and notroot of differential
an exhaustive pressure
one.
square root of differential pressure
Figure 1.11(b) - Orifice flow sensor- Note a differential pressure P1 minus P2 is produced. Flow is proportional to
1.2.5.4 Positive Displacement Meter (Direct Measurement of Flow)
square root of differential pressure
The Positive Displacement (PD) meters have 3 parts:

• Body
• Measuring Unit
• Counter Drive Train
30
30
21
 Counter Drive Train
Participant
1.2.5.4.1 OvalHandbook
Gear Meter (Positive Displacement Meter)-Direct flow sensing
In a centrifugal pump a motor rotates the impeller and impeller transfers liquid from impeller to the
1.2.5.4.1 Oval Gear Meter (Positive Displacement Meter)-Direct Flow Sensing
connected pipe line. In case of oval gear meter liquid is sent to a chamber with highly accurate oval
gears.In Liquid rotates
a centrifugal these
pump precision
a motor oval
rotates thegears andand
impeller theimpeller
rotation of ovalliquid
transfers gear from
is counted bytoathe
impeller counter.
This gives you direct
connected flow
pipe line. reading
In case with
of oval anmeter
gear accuracy
liquidofis +sent
0.25%.
to a chamber with highly accurate oval
gears. Liquid rotates these precision oval gears and the rotation of oval gear is counted by a counter.
This gives you direct flow reading with an accuracy of ± 0.25%.
t Handbook
Figure 1.12 - Oval gear type PD meter

Figure 1.12 - Oval gear type PD meter
1.2.6 Level Sensors
1.2.6
Few widely used Level Sensors
type of Level Sensor are:
 Few widely used type ofPressure
Pressure/Differential Level Sensor
(DP)are:
/Density Level Instrumentation (Dry, leg design).
• Pressure/Differential Pressure (DP) /Density Level Instrumentation (Dry, leg design).
 Displacer type 9uses Archimedes Principle)
• Displacer type (uses Archimedes Principle)
 Radiation
• Based Level
Radiation Instrument
Based (Radar,(Radar,
Level Instrument Microwave, Ultrasonic,
Microwave, Nuclear)
Ultrasonic, Nuclear)
FigureFigure
1.131.13 - Level Measurement Arrangement
- Level Measurement Arrangement
1.2.6.1 Principle of Measurement of DP type sensor

The figure 1.13 shows DP transmitter measuring the
31fluid level in a tank.
The HP (High Pressure) side of DP transmitter sees a pressure of
H x density of liquid + gas pressure P.
LP (Low Pressure) side sees gas pressure P.
22
So (HP-LP) pressures = H x density of liquid + gas pressure P minus gas pressure P
= H x Density of liquid.
1.2.6.1 Principle of Measurement of DP Type Sensor

The figure 1.13 shows DP transmitter measuring the fluid level in a tank.
The HP (High Pressure) side of DP transmitter sees a pressure of
H × density of liquid + gas pressure P.
LP (Low Pressure) side sees gas pressure P.
So (HP-LP) pressures = H × density of liquid + gas pressure P minus gas pressure P
= H × Density of liquid.
This is proportional to the level of liquid in tank.
1.2.6.2 Principle of Guided Wave Radar Level Measurement

In air traffic control tower radar waves are beamed towards flying aircrafts. When a radar wave is
beamed at time t1 it travels hits the aircraft and is reflected back
Junior to the source atTechnician
Instrumentation time t2. (Process Control)
The delay t1 minus t2 represents the distance of aircraft from control tower, the same principle is
used in case of guided wave radar level measurement.
Guided-wave technology beams the radar pulse down a probe that extends into the tank contents,
either liquid or solid. Typically, they’re mounted from the vessel top facing down. The pulse strikes
the surface and is reflected back up the probe to the sensor. This travel time to the surface and back
is configured as distance and thereafter computed as level in vessel.
Figure 1.14 - Non Contact Radar & Guided Wave Radar Level Measurement
Figure 1.14 - Non Contact Radar & Guided Wave Radar Level Measurement
23
1.2.7 Common Forms of Instruments in Process Industry

As we saw in section 1.2.1.4, instruments contain a sensor and the transducer which produces an
electrical output in an industry standard format. To recapitulate,
• The sensor and the transducer are often packaged together and the combination is called
an Instrument.
• Instruments can have other interfaces such as display, adjustments, keypad etc. for
enhanced functionality.
• The sensor may be built into the Instrument package, or the sensor can be separately
packaged and connected to the Instrument through a cable and a connector or terminal
block.
• The instruments are powered normally by 24VDC power supply, which runs throughout
the plant.
• The Transmitter type instruments are powered by the current loop itself which carries the
4-20mA current. The power supply and the signal flow together on the same two wires.
• Instruments have standard signal interfaces to simply plant wiring and interfacing. The
interfaces can be analog or digital. Current loop (4-20ma type) is an example of an analog
signal interface. RS-232 and RS 485 are digital interfaces for serial data communication.
1.2.7.1 A Typical Instrument Building Block

A modern Instrument has the following subsystems inside it:
1. A sensor or Detector
2. Sensor powering and signal conditioning circuitry. This includes the bridge, the excitation
voltage or current source, amplifiers, filters, Cold Junction Compensation etc.
3. Signal conversion circuit – analog (4-20mA) or digital (A/D converter)
4. Linearization circuit – analog or digital
5. Optional: Microcontroller for signal processing and serial communication
6. Optional: Digital signal processing
7. Optional: Digital Display
8. Optional: Auto calibration and self test
9. Optional: Local data storage and USB interface for data retrieval
10. Optional: Digital Communication Protocol software – e.g. MODBUS, PROFIBUS, FILEDBUS,
HART etc.
11. Optional: Local offset and gain adjustments
12. Optional: Switches and jumpers for option selections (Device Address, Modes,
Communication parameters etc.)
13. DC-DC Converter for powering the electronics
14. Terminal blocks and connectors
15. Optional: Shielded, protected Cable assembly for sensor
16. Environmentally protected enclosure
24
1.2.7.2
1.2.7.2Common
Common Instrument Interfaces
Instrument Interfaces
Process transmitters can be divided into Analogue and Digital Transmitters. Analogue Process
Process transmitters can be divided into Analogue and Digital Transmitters. Analogue Process
Transmitters are virtually phased out for new designs, but are still supported by most vendors as there
Transmitters are virtually phased out for new designs, but are still supported by most vendors as
is a huge installed base of such devices. Digital Process Transmitters are gaining acceptance.
there is a huge installed base of such devices. Digital Process Transmitters are gaining acceptance.
Electronic controllers which receive input from electronic transmitters accept both analogue 4 to 20
Electronic controllers which receive input from electronic transmitters accept both analogue 4 to 20
mA inputs and digital inputs. Since globally 4 to 20 mA is still being used, manufacturers kept this in
mA inputs and digital inputs. Since globally 4 to 20 mA is still being used, manufacturers kept this in
mind while they changed to digital transmitters. What they did, was to give customer digital output or
mind while they changed to digital transmitters. What they did, was to give customer digital output
analogue output options though the transmitters were digital. This was possible for example by using
or analogue output options though the transmitters were digital. This was possible for example by
HART Protocol. (HART = Highway addressable remote transducer).
using HART Protocol. (HART = Highway addressable remote transducer).
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.15 -- Analogue
Analoguevs.
vs.Digital
DigitalSignal
Signal
Analogue Vs Digital
Analogue Vs Digital
AnAnanalogue or analogue signal is a time continuous signal –example measurement of temperature
analogue or analogue signal is a time continuous signal –example measurement of temperature
using
using a thermocouplethe
a thermocouple the millivolts varies continuously
millivolts varies continuouslywith
withtime.
time.
A Adigital
digitalsignal
signal––isisrequired
requiredby
by aa microprocessor
microprocessor oror aacomputer
computerandandhence
hencefor
forcomputer
computer processing
processing – It–
Itcan
canbebedescribed
describedasasthe theones
onesusing
using binary
binary (0s(0s
andand
1s),1s),
andand so cannot
so cannot accept
accept any any fractional
fractional values.
values
Transducer
Transducer
A ATransducer
Transducerreceives
receivesan
aninput
inputofofone
onekind
kindand
anddelivers
delivers an
an output
output of
of another kind. For example
example itit can
can
receive input as heat and gives an
receive input as heat and gives an output in terms of millivolts.
in terms of millivolts.
Active
Activetransducer,
transducer,example
example--Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Passivetransducer,
Passive transducer,example
example--RTD
RTD (Resistance
(Resistance Temperature
Temperature Detector)
Detector)
Transmitter
Transmitter
1. The Analogue
1. The Analogue transmitter
transmitterhas nohas
microprocessor and therefore
no microprocessor and its linearization,
therefore temperature
its linearization,
compensating, diagnostics are diagnostics
temperature compensating, very basic. areConfiguration is usually doneis by
very basic. Configuration local done
usually display,
by
buttons, jumpers etc.
local display, buttons, jumpers etc.
2. Intelligent
2. Intelligenttransmitter
transmitterhas hasa amicroprocessor
microprocessorininititbut
butitit also
also has
has a digital communication
communication
capability which permits diagnostics and configurations.
capability which permits diagnostics and configurations.
3. A Smart
3. A Smart transmitter
transmitter is intelligent
is an an intelligent transmitter
transmitter thatanalogue
that has has analogue
outputoutput
but thatbutalsothat also
permits
permits simultaneous
simultaneous digital communication
digital communication – uses the– uses
HART the HART Communication
Communication Protocol
Protocol (Highway
(Highway Addressable
Addressable Remote Calibration/
Remote Transducer). Transducer). Calibration/can
configuration configuration
be executed can
usingbeHART
executed
hand
using
held HART hand held communicator.
communicator
4. A Field
4. A Field BusBus transmitter
transmitter hashas only
only digital
digital communication.
communication.
35
25
1.2.7.3 Popular Interfaces

RS-232 (low-speed, implemented by serial ports)
RS-422 Multidrop serial bus
RS-485 Multidrop Multimaster serial bus
SDI-12 industrial sensor protocol
Profibus
Modbus is a serial communications protocol which is simple and robust. It is a de facto standard for
connecting industrial electronic devices. The main advantages are:
• Open, royalty-free
• Vendor neutral
• Easy to develop, deploy and maintain
Modbus support multiple devices communicating on the same network. Modbus is often used to
connect a remote terminal unit (RTU) to a SCADA system. The data type naming convention is derived
from the relay logic based PLCs, for example a single-bit physical output is called a coil, and a single-
bit physical input is called a discrete input or a contact.
The development and update of Modbus protocols is now managed by the Modbus Organization,
which is an association of vendors and users Modbus protocol devices.
1.2.7.4 Pneumatic Transmitters, Controllers & Receivers

Pneumatic control is gradually being phased out by electronic transmitters and controllers. However,
there are still legacy systems which use this and it is useful to understand the basics of this design.
This section will illustrate the basics of Pneumatic Control from flapper nozzle system and how it
is used in controller. The heart of any pneumatic transmitter or controller is the flapper nozzle. For
detailed description of operation you need to consult the respective vendor manual.
Notes
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
26
Pneumatic control is gradually being phased out by electronic transmitters and controllers. However,
there are still legacy systems which use this and it is useful to understand the basics of this design.
This section will illustrate the basics of Pneumatic Control from flapper nozzle system and how it is
used in controller. The heart of any pneumatic transmitter or controller is the flapper
Junior nozzle. For
Instrumentation
detailed description of operation you need to consult the respective vendor manual.
Figure 1.16 - Schematic Working of a Pneumatic Controller

Figure 1.16 - Schematic Working of a Pneumatic Controller
The instrument air is supplied to Nozzle of flapper nozzle system – as the flapper traverses a distance
The ‘X’
instrument air is supplied
back pressure tothe
activates Nozzle of flapper
pneumatic nozzle system – as the flapper traverses a distance
relay.
‘X’ back pressure activates the pneumatic relay.
Notes
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
37
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
27
1.2.7.5 Sensor (Detector) and Instrument Packaging

The following scenario exists:
Sl. Sensor / Instrument Distinguishing Features

1 Thermocouple / RTD Packaged in stainless steel tube, nominal OD 6.35mm (0.25
inches). Length of tube varies from about 6” to 12”. Has a cast
Sensor or Detector
aluminium head with screwed on cover, housing a terminal block
for connections. Has Cable entry hole.
Comes in IP-55, IP 65, etc. rated enclosures
Transmitter
Houses electronics which converts the signal to standard current
loop (4-20mA) or Voltage output (0-5V, 0-10V).
Indicator, with/without
Transmitter
Houses electronics and a digital display of temperature.
Can have converter for standard current loop (4-20mA) or Voltage
output (0-5V, 0-10V).
4 Pressure Sensor or Has mechanical sensor of any standard type, packaged in stainless
Detector (Mechanical) steel housing. Has a graduated dial for direct display of pressure in
engineering units. Has standard process connection mechanism.
5 Pressure Transmitter Packaged in stainless enclosure of suitable diameter. Has standard

(Electronic) terminal block/connector.
6 Differential Pressure (DP) Packaged in stainless enclosure of suitable diameter. Has standard
Transmitter (Electronic) terminal block/connector.
Comes in IP-55, IP 65, etc. rated enclosures.
28
Participant Handbook Junior Instrumentation
Unit 1.3 - Gas Analyzers in Process Industry
Unit
Unit1.3: Gas Analyzers in Process Industry
Objectives
Unit
1. To Objectives
explain the use of Online Gas and Liquid Analyzers in a typical Process Industry.
1. To explain the use of Online Gas and Liquid Analyzers in a typical Process Industry.
1.3.1 What are Gas and Liquid Analyzers?
As we know, the process industry converts input materials into output products – which are derived
1.3.1 What are Gas and Liquid Analyzers?
chemicals or refined materials, or in the case of power plants – electrical energy.
As we know, the process industry converts input materials into output products – which are derived
In the various stages of the conversion process, intermediate products are generated. Also generated
chemicals or refined materials, or in the case of power plants – electrical energy.
are by products and exhausts. It is essential to know the chemical contents and relative abundance of
constituents
In the various of the of
stages input, output, intermediate
the conversion and byproducts.
process, intermediate Theare
products materials areAlso
generated. often in gaseous
generated are
or products
by liquid state.
andHence,
exhausts.gasItand liquid analyzers
is essential to knoware theneeded for contents
chemical monitoring
andthe concentration
relative abundance and
of
compositions
constituents of of
theconstituents
input, output,and products atand
intermediate all byproducts.
times, for proper control are
The materials of the product
often quality.
in gaseous or liquid
state. Hence, gas and liquid analyzers are needed for monitoring the concentration and compositions of
In the past, in process industries, one had to take intermediate samples while a process reaction was
constituents and products at all times, for proper control of the product quality.
in progress. This was done manually and a lab sample was collected and this was checked in a lab
In the past,
located in process
at another industries, one had to take intermediate samples while a process reaction was in
location.
progress. This was done manually and a lab sample was collected and this was checked in a lab located at
In modern
another process industries gas and liquid analysis are done on line and therefore a continuous
location.
analysis is available. These on line analyzers are used to continuously measure chemical composition
In
ormodern
specificprocess industries
parameters, which gas
areandof liquid analysis
interest are done
for process on line and therefore a continuous analysis
control.
is available. These on line analyzers are used to continuously measure chemical composition or specific
parameters, which are of interest for process control.
1.3.2
1.3.2Analyzer
AnalyzerBasics
Basics
In simple terms, the analyzer system consists of the following components:
In simple terms, the analyzer system consists of the following components:
Figure
Figure1.17
1.17--AAtypical AnalyzerSystem
typical Analyzer System
All
Allonline
onlineanalyzers
analyzershave
havefour
foursections
sections
a) Sample conditioning system - Here the analyzer sample gas or liquid is conditioned to suit the
Sample conditioning
a) requirements system:- Here the analyzer sample gas or liquid is conditioned to suit
of detector unit
the requirements of detector
b) Detector unit detects the parameter unit.
it is designed for, example if it is CO2 it has to be able to sense
b) CO2.Detector unit detects the parameter it is designed for, example if it is CO2 it has to be able
to senseunit
c) Electronics CO2.processes electrical signal from Detector unit and transmits to the Receiver.
d)c) Receiver could unit
Electronics be aprocesses
recorder on a control
electrical panel
signal orDetector
from it could unit
be part
andof the DCStosystem
transmits display in
the Receiver.
control room.
d) Receiver could be a recorder on a control panel or it could be part of the DCS system
display in control room.
Note: The Sample conditioning system is very critical and it has to be maintained very efficiently.
29
40
Note
The Sample conditioning system is very critical and it has to be maintained very
efficiently.
1.3.3 Common Analyzers used in Process Industries

An indicative list of Analyzers used in Process Industries is:
• Non Dispersive Infrared Gas Detector
• On Line Gas chromatography
• Thermal Conductivity Gas Detector
• Zirconia Flue Gas Oxygen Gas Detector
• SWAS (Steam Water Analysis System)
1.3.3.1 pH Measurement
This is the most common measurement done in chemical industries. The purpose is to determine if a
liquid is acidic, neutral or alkaline by nature. The nature of the liquid is crucial for chemical reactions
to happen and at the correct speed. For example:
• Sulphuric acid is acidic,
• Water is neutral, and
• Sodium hydroxide is alkaline.
pH is an indicator of number of hydrogen ions in the solution. pH is a number which can be between
0 and 14.
• Water has a pH of 7,
• An acidic solution has pH < 7 and
• Alkaline solution has pH > 7
30
pH is an indicator of number of hydrogen ions in the solution. pH is a number which can be
between 0 and 14.
 Water has a pH of 7,
 an acidic solution has pH < 7 and Technician (Process Control)
 alkaline solution has pH > 7
Figure 1.18 - pH Measurement

Figure 1.18 - pH Measurement
• A pH electrode has a special glass membrane sensitive to pH.
 A pH electrode has a special glass membrane sensitive to pH.
 • Temperature
Temperature measurement
measurement is importantfor
is important fordetermination
determination of
ofpH.
pH.
Note pH• is proportional to the millivolts measured between electrode 1 (pH electrode) and electrode 2
(Reference Nelectrode).
ote pH is proportional to the millivolts measured between electrode 1 (pH electrode) and
electrode 2 (Reference electrode).
41
Notes
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
31
Unit 1.4: Principles of Control Loops
Unit Objectives
1. Explain the need for control in a process

2. Describe Manual control and basic aspects of Process dynamics
3. Explain the concept of Feedback Control and a Control Loop
4. Describe the components in a Control Loop
5. Explain the concept of PID control.
6. Describe the need and role of tuning in PID control
7. Describe the ways to improve PID Control
1.4.1 What is Process Control?

Process Control is the method and operation of maintaining a chemical or physical conversion process
at an optimum level, so that the desired end products are made; are of the desired quality; and at the
fastest speed. Thus the requirements of Process control are:
1. Desired end products are made

2. End products are of the desired quality
3. End products are made at the fastest speed.
Some other desirable requirements of process Control are:
4. Process achieves high efficiency of input conversion – translating into lowest manufacturing
costs
5. Process consumes least energy
6. Process generates least amount of wastage, emission and pollution
7. Process Operation is free from health hazards
8. Process Operation is Safe and Secure
9. Process can be configured and optimized quickly for different permissible end products or
variants
10. Process can be easily maintained and upgraded
11. People can be trained easily to operate and maintain the systems
32
Types of Control
There are basically approaches to process control:
1. Open Loop Control
2. Closed Loop Control, or Feedback Control
Open Loop Control

In the first approach, the process is controlled by providing a suitable input to the process controller.
Every process is driven or powered by some system which affects the vital process parameters. For
example, in a furnace the power source decides the temperature. The amount of power delivered
to the furnace on the average determines the temperature reached inside. So to control the furnace
temperature, we need a power controller. For a given furnace and power controller, it is easy to find
the power to temperature curve of the furnace. This is likely to be an approximately linear curve.
Now, using this curve it is possible to set the temperature of the furnace at any desired point. This
is called Open Loop control – as the control is independent of the actual process conditions and the
output, the control is done with the prior knowledge of the process characteristics.
This approach works fine for many situations. The only uncertainty in the control comes from the
contents of the furnace. If the furnace is filled with a lot of material then it may take somewhat longer
time to reach the set temperature – but it will reach the temperature, i.e. there is no steady state
error. Similarly, if the furnace is switched off, it may take a longer time to cool with a lot of material
inside it. The thermal mass and the inertia is a factor that determines the response of the furnace
with time. The transient behavior of the furnace under actual use may be different from the plotted
curve if the calibration was done at different furnace load.
Another example of open loop control is an automobile vehicle. On a certain kind of road, the vehicle
speed is mainly controlled by the accelerator pedal. The vehicle will move at a certain speed based
on the amount of pressure on the accelerator pedal. This accelerator pressure vs speed curve can be
plotted and used. This again is an example of open loop control. However, the control may be seen as
not working exactly if the operating environment changes, i.e. if
• The vehicle is overloaded,

• The road condition changes,
• The vehicle is going up or down a slope.
Closed Loop or Feedback Control

The solution to this unwanted variability in Open Loop control lies in sensing the actual process
variable of interest and then to adjust the control input so that the process variable is maintained
at the desired point. The adjustment has to be done in real time and continuously to account for
the unknown disturbances happening to the process. The controller characteristic is still useful, as it
provides a baseline around which the adjustments can be done. This in essence is the Closed Loop or
Feedback Control.
33
The solution to this unwanted variability in Open Loop control lies in sensing the actual process variable
of interest and then to adjust the control input so that the process variable is maintained at the desired
point. The adjustment has to be done in real time and continuously to account for the unknown
disturbances happening to the process. The controller characteristic is still useful, as it provides a
baseline around which the adjustments can be done. This in essence is the Closed Loop or Feedback
Control.
Thusininthe
Thus thecase
caseofoffurnace,
furnace,the
theinside
inside temperature
temperature cancan be
be sensed
sensed and
and compared
compared withwith the
theset
setpoint.
point.
The amount of power to the furnace is now controlled by how far the actual temperature is from the
The amount of power to the furnace is now controlled by how far the actual temperature is from the
desired temperature – and in which direction, i.e. is the furnace temperature lower than the set point
desired temperature – and in which direction, i.e. is the furnace temperature lower than the set point
or higher. It is called closed loop or feedback control because the output variable (temperature is the
oroutput
higher.ofItapplying
is calledpower
closedtoloop
the or feedback
furnace) control
is fed because
back to the output
the controller logic.variable (temperature is the
output of applying power to the furnace) is fed back to the controller logic.
Figure
Figure1.19
1.19- -Closed
Closed Loop (Feedback)Control
Loop (Feedback) Control
1.4.2
1.4.2 How
How is ais a Process
Process Controlled?
Controlled?
Referring to section 1.2.1.2, recall, the basic process
44 control is to have the process variable X at the
Referring to section 1.2.1.2, recall, the basic process control is to have the process variable X at the
desired level X
desired level Xoptopt..
Figure
Figure1.20
1.20 -- The Basic
BasicProcess
Process
InInfigure
figure1.20,
1.20,the
thequality
qualityand
andyield
yield of
of the
the output
output is
is dependent
dependent onon thethevalue
valueofofthe
theprocess
processparameter
parameter
X,X,which
whichisisrelated
relatedto
tothe
the conversion
conversion process. Generally, there
process. Generally, there isis an
an optimum
optimumvaluevalueofofX,X,sat Xoptatat
satXopt
which
which the output property is the best. The requirement then boils down to maintaining X as close toto
the output property is the best. The requirement then boils down to maintaining X as close
Xoptasaspossible.
Xopt possible.Sensing
Sensing of
of XX is
is therefore essential.
therefore essential.
The
Thecontrol
controlproblem
problemboils
boils down
down toto getting
getting the
the process variable XX as
process variable as close
close to to XXopt as possible, and
optas possible, and
thereafter
thereaftermaintaining
maintainingititthere.
there. The
The speed at which
speed at whichXXmoves
movesclose Xoptisisalso
closetotoXopt alsoimportant.
important.
ToToachieve
achievethis,
this,we
wecan
canthink
think of
of aa scheme depicted
depictedin
infigure
figure1.21.
1.21.
34
Xopt as possible. Sensing of X is therefore essential.
The control problem boils down to getting the process variable X as close to Xopt as possible, and
thereafter maintaining it there. The speed at which X moves close to Xopt is also important.
To achieve this, we can think of a scheme depicted in figure 1.21. Technician (Process Control)
Figure 1.21
Figure 1.21- -The
TheBasic
Basic Controlled Process
Controlled Process
(a) General
(a) General Controller (b) Process Temperature Control
Controller (b) Process Temperature Control
1.4.3 The Basic ON/OFF Control

Referring to figure 1.21 (a) the process control is achieved in the following manner:
1. The process variable X is sensed by the sensor
2. The sensor output is given to a ‘Decision’ Box
3. The ‘Decision’ Box compares the value of X with the desired value of the variable X, i.e.
45
with the value Xopt (for the time we ignore how we got the value of Xopt and how it is given
to the Decision Box).
4. The Decision is Yes or No, which is given to a Parameter Controller.
5. The Parameter Controller knows how to increase the value of X, i.e. it has some kind of
connection to the process which enables it to increase the value of X.
6. If the value of X is higher than Xopt then the decision is No, (or Yes is disabled) so the
parameter controller is OFF. It is assumed that the process allows X to naturally go down
towards the zero value if the Controller is not ON.
7. The net effect is that the variable X is driven by the Parameter Controller to either go up
or it is allowed to go down naturally. The ON/OFF cycle time of the Controller leads to
the Variable X going above and below the optimal point at a certain periodicity and with
certain deviations around the optimal point.
8. This is the basic ‘ON-OFF’ control which works within certain limitation.
Figure 1.21 (b) shows an example of process control where the process variable is temperature. Thus,
we have an ON-OFF type of Temperature Controller, achieved with a heater inside the process. The
response of the system with time is shown figure 1.22.
35
around the optimal point.
8. This is the basic ‘ON-OFF’ control which works within certain limitation.
Figure 1.21 (b) shows an example of process control where the process variable is temperature. Thus,
Participant
we Handbook
have an ON-OFF type of Temperature Controller, achieved with a heater inside the process. The
response of the system with time is shown figure 1.22.
1.4.3.1
1.4.3.1The
TheResponse
Responseof of
ON-OFF Control
ON-OFF Control
Figure 1.22
Figure - The Response
1.22 The Responseof
of On-Off ControlledProcess
On-Off Controlled Process
1.4.3.2 Characteristics of On-Off Control
46
Referring to figure 1.22, you will notice that:
1. Initially the process variable (temperature) is low – much below the set point. So the
Controller is turned ON, which in turn switches on the heater inside the process.
2. The process starts heating up. The process variable (temperature) starts rising slowly after
the heater is switched ON and takes time to reach the set point. This is due to the thermal
inertia of the process and also the response time of the temperature sensor. The larger the
mass of the process, the higher is the inertia.
3. When the temperature reaches the set point, the Controller is switched OFF, which cuts
off the process heater.
4. The process temperature keeps rising – despite the heater being off. This is again
because of the thermal inertia – the thermal energy stored in the system keeps raising its
temperature. This goes on for a while – till the temperature reaches a peak and then starts
falling – owing to the natural cooling of the process. There is thus an ‘Overshoot’ of the
process variable beyond the set point. Its magnitude depends on the process dynamics
(time constant), related to the inertia.
5. Controller is still OFF and the temperature continues to fall till it reaches below the set
point.
36
6. At this point, the Controller is again switched ON, which turns on the heater.
7. However, the temperature keeps falling – owing to the slow response of the process to
the stimulus. It keeps falling and reaches a minimum and then starts to rise. The minimum
point reached below the set point is called the ‘Undershoot’.
8. The heating is again switched off as soon as the set point is reached – and the cycle repeats.
9. The successive cycles have smaller magnitudes of overshoot and undershoot compared to
the previous cycle.
10. After a sufficiently long time (say, about ten times the duration of the first cycle) the
amplitudes of the oscillations are too small to be noticeable and the process variable stays
close to the set point. This is called the ‘Steady State’.
11. Unless something happen to the process – such as feed the rate of input, or the temperature
of the input changes – or the heater power is switched off, the process remains at the set
point.
12. If the set point is changed, the process stabilizes at the new set point after again going
through several ON-OFF cycles and the corresponding overshoots and undershoots.
1.4.3.3 Advantages of On-Off Control
You will notice that:

1. ON-OFF control is very simple to implement. It can work with a simple comparator
(Decision Box) and a relay of adequate current capacity.
2. It is robust, because of its simplicity.
3. Its performance can be acceptable for many applications – especially if overshoots and
undershoots are not an issue.
1.4.3.4 Issues with On-Off Control
The main disadvantage are:

1. The overshoots and undershoots can be very large, depending on the process characteristics
– time constant and the damping factor. This may be harmful for the process reactions and
may affect the quality of the output product.
2. The systems takes a long time to stabilize, which again impacts the product quality.
3. The ON-OFF cycle results in thermal shock to the process and can result in mechanical
degradation of the process equipment and the heater, and eventual failure.
4. The ON-OFF switching can cause electromagnetic interference and affect other systems
nearby.
37
1.4.4 The Alternative to On-Off Control

The solution is to use a more sophisticated control system, which takes into account the process
response times and other dynamics. We will present the solution here without going into details of
its evolution and the mathematical formulation.
Recall that the ON-OFF control is based on a comparison of the process variable and the set point
(which generates an error signal) and taking a YES-NO decision based on the sign of the error. This
amounts to an infinite gain system – the output of the controller is driven to full saturation value,
even for a small error. That is:
Control signal = Gain x Error signal = gain x (SP - PV),
Where, PV = Process Variable, SP = Set point
When Gain is very high, then
Control signal = + Saturation Value, for PV < Set point; i.e. Heater = ON
= - Saturation Value, for PV > Set point; i.e. Heater = OFF
Supposing we create a control system in which the output signal is proportional to the error, then it
would look like:
Control signal = Gain x Error signal = KP x (SP - PV), where KP = Proportional Gain
This leads to heating proportional to the error, i.e.
Heating is more if the PV is much lower than the SP
Heating is zero if the PV is equal to SP
Heating is negative (i.e. Cooling) if PV is higher than the SP
This is called the Proportional Control.
True proportional control requires the controller to be able to heat as well as cool.
In practice, cooling can be avoided, as the process system has losses and needs some steady state
energy to maintain the process at the set point. Thus the base line is a finite positive power. The
cooling mode amounts to working below the base line – zero power means maximum cooling (natural
cooling of the process).
Proportional control reduces to the process oscillations seen in the ON-OFF control, but it suffers
from a non-zero steady state error – as the process requires steady state power to maintain itself at
the set point and the proportional gain has to be limited.
38
1.4.4.1 The PID Control

Proportional control improves the system performance, but it is still affected by the process inertia
also called the Process Lag – since the process response lags behind the applied excitation power.
This is taken care of by introducing an ‘Integral’ term in the control signal. Thus, in a P+I Control
System (Proportional and Integral Control), we have:
Control signal = KP x Error signal + KI x (Time Integral of Error Signal)
Where, Error signal = (SP - PV), KP = Proportional Gain, KI = Integral Gain
The time integration of the error is performed over a time frame of t = 0 to present.
The integral term forces the process to move towards the set point at a faster pace and eliminates the
steady state error seen in pure proportional control.
However, since the integral term responds to accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the
present value to overshoot the set point value.
A further improvement is achieved by introducing a Derivative term in the control variable, leading
to a P + I + D or a PID Controller.
In a PID controller, we have:
Control signal = KP x Error + KI x (Time Integral of Error) + Kd x (Time Derivative of Error)
Where, Error = (SP - PV), KP = Proportional Gain, KI = Integral Gain, Kd = Derivative Gain
The time integration of the error is performed over a time frame of t = 0 to present.
Derivative term predicts system behavior and improves the settling time and stability of the system.
However, in practice derivative control in not often used as it is prone to noise. PID controllers generally
include a low-pass filtering for the derivative term to limit the high-frequency gain and noise.
1.4.4.2 PID Control - Example

An example of PID control, in proper industry notations, is shown in figure 1.23.
The Process
Air is to be heated by a furnace fired by fuel gas. Fresh Air is pulled in by a blower and pushed into
the furnace, to be heated and controlled so that the exit temperature of the furnace is always 85° C.
The hot air from the furnace flows to the end user process.
Manual Operation
Refer to the figure 1.23 and assume that the control valve in the fuel gas line is replaced by a manual
valve, and TT and TC the temperature transmitter and temperature controller are replaced by a single
temperature indicator.
How will an operator control the process now? Operator has to constantly observe temperature
indicator located at the outlet of furnace. If temperature goes below 85° C he opens the hand valve
more till the temperature reaches 85° C. In case temperature rises above 85° C he reduces the fuel
gas by operating hand valve.
39
temperature indicator.
How will an operator control the process now? Operator has to constantly observe temperature
indicator located at the outlet of furnace. If temperature goes below 850 C he opens the hand valve
more till the temperature reaches 850 C. In case temperature rises above 850 C he reduces the fuel
gas by operating hand valve.
Many factors can disturb control
Many factors can disturb control
a) Process air flow may increase suddenly (note there is throttling valve exit blower
a) Process air flow may increase suddenly (note there is throttling valve exit blower
b) Fuel gas pressure may fall or fluctuate.
b) Fuel gas pressure may fall or fluctuate.
It is therefore not practical for an operator to be present all the time and operate hand valve. Control
It iswill not be satisfactory.
therefore not practicalThis
forisanonly a simple
operator toprocess but all
be present in reality processes
the time are more
and operate handcomplex.
valve. Control
will not be satisfactory. This is only a simple process but in reality processes are more complex.
Figure 1.23 - A simple Temperature control example

Figure 1.23 - A simple Temperature control example
Note:
Note:TC
= Temperature
TC = Temperature Controller
Controller
TT = Temperature Transmitter
TT = Temperature Transmitter
Basic points of Process Dynamics

In the above process if the temperature changes at the location of the temperature now say at
t1 –it takes a finite time for the temperature sensor to register this change in temperature and say it
registers it at t2. Now t2 minus t1 is called Measurement Lag or Time Constant in Process dynamics.
In the above process if the operator opens the 50 fuel valve more heat will be supplied to the tubes
and process air temperature will rise say at time t3. Now the temperature indicator senses this
temperature at say t4. Now t4 minus t3 is called transport lag or DEAD TIME in Process dynamics.
Therefore the total delay in temperature indicator reading the changed temperature is Dead time
plus Time constant.
Process Dynamics – Summary
a) Dead Time is often called as "How Much Delay" Variable.
b) Process Time Constant is called “How Fast" Variable.
Dead Time
The above process which was operated manually has been converted to an automatic process by
including a temperature transmitter, controller and control valve. The operator sets the controller set
point to 85° C and switches control to Automatic. Now the same operation done by operator is done
by the automatic process controller more efficiently and with minimum fluctuations if the controller
is “tuned” properly.
40
Dead Time
The above process which was operated manually has been converted to an automatic process by
Juniorsets
including a temperature transmitter, controller and control valve. The operator Instrumentation
the controller
0 Technician (Process
set point to 85 C and switches control to Automatic. Now the same operation done by operator Control)
is
done by the automatic process controller more efficiently and with minimum fluctuations if the
1.4.4.3 Summarizing
controller PID Control
is “tuned” properly.
1.4.4.3
PID Summarizing
controllers PID
have three control Control
terms. Each term responds to the error in different ways:
PID controllers have three control terms. Each term responds to the error in different ways:
• The Proportional term monitors HOW FAR the measured variable has moved away from the
 The Proportional term monitors HOW FAR the measured variable has moved away from the
desired
desired setset point.
point.
 Integral
• IntegralTerm
Termmonitors
monitorsHOW
HOW LONG
LONGthethe
measured
measuredvariable has been
variable awayaway
has been fromfrom
the desired set
the desired
point.
set point.
 Derivative Term assesses HOW FAST the error value changes at that point in time.
• Derivative Term assesses HOW FAST the error value changes at that point in time.
So when you combine the three modes you get improved control quality. The controller based on
Sothese
whenthree
you modes
combine the three
decides on themodes
outputyou
fromgetcontroller
improved to control quality. The controller based on
control valve.
these three modes decides on the output from controller to control valve.
Figure
Figure 1.24
1.24 - A- APID
PIDController’s
Controller’s Response
Responsetotoa aDisturbance
Disturbance
Note: How the set point and process variable merge once all the three actions of P, I and D are
Note: How the set point and process variable merge once all the three actions of P, I and D are
completed. Co =controller output, SP= Set Point, PV= Process variable
completed. Co =controller output, SP= Set Point, PV= Process variable
1.4.4.4 Other Alternatives to Process Control

51
While PID control is effective most of the time, for certain complex process control refinements of PID
control are achieved using:
a) Cascade control
b) Ratio control
c) Feed forward control
d) Advance Process control for very complex processes
41
Unit
Unit 1.5Control
1.5: - ControlElements
Elements&&Control
ControlSystems
Systems in
in Process
ProcessIndustry
Industry
UnitObjectives
Unit Objectives
At At
thethe
endend of this
of this unit,
unit, youyou
willwill be able
be able to: to:
1. 1. Describe
Describe common common types
types of of Control
Control Elements
Elements used in used in the Process
the Process Industry Industry
2. 2. Describe
Describe commoncommon types
types of of control
control actionsactions
used andused and
their their purpose
purpose
3. 3. Describe
Describe different
different types
types of of Control
Control Valves Valves
used inused in the Process
the Process IndustryIndustry
4. Describe
4. different
Describe types of
different Control
types Valve Accessories
of Control Valve Accessories
5. Describe
5. different
Describe failurefailure
different modesmodes
of Control Valves Valves
of Control
6. Describe
6. different
Describe types of
different control
types systemssystems
of control used – such
usedas PLC and
– such DCSand DCS
as PLC
1.5.1 Elements of a Feedback Control System

1.5.1 Elements of a Feedback Control System
As discussed earlier, the main elements of a feedback control system are:
As discussed earlier,
1. Measuring the main elements
instrumentation of a of
consisting feedback
Sensors,control systemand
Transducers, are:Transmitters
2.1. Process
Measuring instrumentation
Controllers – Contain theconsisting of Sensors,
processing circuits Transducers, and Transmitters
and the software for implementing the
feedback control logic, such as PID control
2. Process Controllers – Contain the processing circuits and the software for implementing
3. Finalthe feedback
Control control
elements logic,
– such assuch as PID
Control control
Valves, Pumps, Motors, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Pistons,
3. Actuators,
Final Control elements
Positioners, – such
Electrical as Control
Power Valves,
Controllers etc.Pumps, Motors, Pneumatic and Hydraulic
Pistons, Actuators, Positioners, Electrical Power Controllers etc.
Figure
Figure1.25
1.25- -AAFeedback ControlSystem
Feedback Control System
In this unit, we will focus on the Final Control Element and the Process Controller blocks.
In this unit, we will focus on the Final Control Element and the Process Controller blocks.
54
42
1.5.2 Final Control Elements (FCE)

The FCE are the the devices that actually perform the heavy lifting in process control. They physically
move, position, regulate, perform the mechanical motions and manipulations, and control the
electrical power input to the process for heating, cooling or other functions. The following devices
are commonly found in the process industries.
a. Control Valves
b. Pumps
c. Motors
d. Pneumatic Cylinders
e. Hydraulic Cylinders
f. Actuators
rticipant Handbook
g. Positioners
h. Electrical Power Controllers – Phase Angle Control, Variable Frequency Drives
i. Dampers, Fluid Couplings, Gates and Burner TiltsEtc.
We will look at some of these in detail in this unit.
1.5.3
1.5.3Control
ControlValves
Valves
Control valve used for final control element in a control loop is a special valve that controls fluid flow
in Control
responsevalve
to used for final control
the controller signal.element in a control
Fluid flow loop
variation is is a special valve
accomplished bythat controls
altering thefluid
flowflow in
responsebetween
restriction to the controller signal.
control valve Fluid
plug andflow
seat variation
by movingisthe
accomplished
control valvebyplug.
altering
Full the
openflow restriction
position
ofbetween control
control valve valve plug
signifies and seat
maximum by(minimum
flow moving therestriction)
control valve plug.
closed Full open
position positionvalve
of control of control
valve signifies
signifies min flowmaximum
(maximumflow (minimum restriction) closed position of control valve signifies min flow
restriction)
(maximum restriction).
Figure
Figure 1.26
1.26 - A- control
A controlloop
loopwith
with control
control valve
valveasasfinal
finalcontrol element
control element
Control Valves operate in different process media such as liquids, gases slurries etc. The valves are
Control Valves operate in different process media such as liquids, gases slurries etc. The valves are
exposed to high temperatures and pressures. Process media can be difficult to handle in terms of
exposed to high temperatures and pressures. Process media can be difficult to handle in terms of
corrosiveness and high velocity. Control valves have to be designed suitably considering all these
corrosiveness and high velocity. Control valves have to be designed suitably considering all these
factors.
factors.
Control Valves Accessories

Valve Actuator
A Control Valve are operated by an important accessory called a Valve Actuator. A valve actuator is
the mechanism (powered by electric, pneumatic or hydraulic source) for opening and closing a valve.
Actuators may only open and close the valve, or may have capability to arbitrary position it fore fine
control of the flow. Valve actuators may include position encoders or switches to provide valve
position feedback. 43
Control Valves usually have provision to move the valve mechanically, usually with a hand wheel, in
case of loss of motive power or other malfunction in the system.

Valve Actuator
A Control Valve are operated by an important accessory called a Valve Actuator. A valve actuator is
the mechanism (powered by electric, pneumatic or hydraulic source) for opening and closing a valve.
Actuators may only open and close the valve, or may have capability to arbitrary position it fore
fine control of the flow. Valve actuators may include position encoders or switches to provide valve
position feedback.
Control Valves usually have provision to move the valve mechanically, usually with a hand wheel, in
case of loss of motive power or other malfunction in the system.
Valve Positioner
A Valve Positioner is an electro-pneumatic device that provides the pressure input to a Valve Actuator
and ensures that the actuator actually reaches the position that the controller commands. Thus, a
positioner provides a linear relationship between the control signal and the actual position of the
valve. The need for a positioner arises because of limitations in actuator designs, various sources of
frictions, changing flow and pressure in the lines and the unpredictable process dynamics – which
lead to a situation where a given actuator pressure results in different intermediate positions of the
valve – not counting the fully open or closed positions.
Valve positioners require their own high pressure source, and are able to overcome the low pressure
situations inside the actuators.
1.5.3.1 Types of Control Valves

Common types of control valves seen in the process industries are:
a) Globe Valves
b) Rotary-Butterfly valves
c) Rotary-Ball/Plug valves
Control valves usually come as an assembly, with the valve accessories mounted integrally in a
rigid and compact manner to simplify the installation and use of valves. The control valve assembly
typically consists of:
a. The valve body
b. The internal trim parts
c. An actuator to provide the motive power to operate the valve
d. Additional valve accessories, which can include
i. Positioner
ii. Transducer
iii. Supply pressure regulator
iv. Manual operators
v. Snubbers
vi. Limit switches
44
i. Positioner,
ii. Transducer,
iii. Supply pressure regulator,
iv. Manual operators, Junior Instrumentation
v. Snubbers Technician (Process Control)
vi. Limit switches.
Figure
Figure 1.271.27 shows
shows thethe parts
parts of of a typical
a typical GlobeControl
Globe ControlValve
Valveassembly:
assembly:
a) Body
a) b) Body
Bonnet with gland packing assembly
c) Actuatorwith gland packing assembly
b) Bonnet
c) Actuator
Figure 1.27 - Showing major parts of a globe control valve

Figure 1.27 - Showing major parts of a globe control valve
Motion-balance
Motion-balancepositioner
positioner
57
Figure 1.28 - Motion-balance positioner

45
Figure 1.29
Figure 1.29- Pressure
- Pressure to
to current controller
current controller
58
Figure 1.30 - Internal parts of a control valve

Figure 1.30 - Internal parts of a control valve
46
Figure 1.31 Rotary –Butterfly Control Valve

Figure 1.32 - A modern Digital Valve Controller (Valve Positioner). It displays useful diagnostic messages
Figure 1.32 - A modern Digital Valve Controller (Valve Positioner). It displays useful diagnostic
messages
1.5.3.2 Overview of Important Control Valve Terminology
Figure 1.32 - A modern Digital Valve Controller (Valve Positioner). It displays useful diagnostic
1. messages
Capacity: It is the rate of flow through a valve under stated condition.
2. Cv – Valve Coefficient: It is the unit of measurement to define the capacity of a valve. Cv
is defined as the number of US gallons of water at 60 degrees Fahrenheit that will flow
through a given flow restriction with a pressure drop of 1 psi across it.
3. Rated CV: Value of Cv at full open position.
Note: Flow = Cv X Square root of (Differential pressure across control valve) divided by
specific gravity of the fluid (Simple expression only).
4. Leakage: Quantity of fluid passing through an assembled valve when the control valve is in
the closed position (ref to ANSI B-16 –104-1976).
60
60
47
Note: Flow = Cv X Square root of (Differential pressure across control valve) divided by
specific gravity of the fluid (Simple expression only)
4. Leakage: Quantity of fluid passing through an assembled valve when the control valve is in
the closed position (ref to ANSI B-16 –104-1976).
1.5.3.3 Control Valve Characteristics

1.5.3.3 Control Valve Characteristics
The flow characteristic of a control valve is the relationship between the flow rate through the valve
and valve travel as the valve travel is varied from 0 to 100%.
The flow characteristic of a control valve is the relationship between the flow rate through the valve
and There are basically
valve travel as thethree
valvecharacteristics
travel is varied from 0 to 100%.
a) basically
There are Linear three characteristics
b) Equal percentage
a) Linear
b) c) Quickpercentage
Equal opening
c) Quick opening
Figure1.33
Figure 1.33--Typical
Typical Control
ControlValve
ValveFlow
FlowCharacteristics
Characteristics

Valve Actuator
A Control Valve is operated by an important accessory called a Valve Actuator. A valve actuator is the
mechanism (powered by electric, pneumatic or hydraulic source) for opening and closing a valve.
Actuators may only open and close the valve, or may have capability to arbitrary position it fore
fine control of the flow. Valve actuators may include position encoders or switches to provide valve
position feedback. 61
Control Valves may have provision to move the valve mechanically, usually with a hand wheel, in case
of loss of motive power or other malfunction in the system.
Valve Positioner
A Valve Positioner is an electro-pneumatic device that provides the pressure input to a Valve Actuator
and ensures that the actuator actually reaches the position that the controller commands. Thus, a
positioner provides a linear relationship between the control signal and the actual position of the
valve. The need for a positioner arises because of limitations in actuator designs, various sources of
frictions, changing flow and pressure in the lines and the unpredictable process dynamics – which
lead to a situation where a given actuator pressure results in different intermediate positions of the
valve – not counting the fully open or closed positions.
Valve positioners require their own high pressure source, and are able to overcome the low pressure
situations inside the actuators.
48
1.5.3.4 Safety Feature in Control Valves

Control Valves are designed for safe operation in case of controller or actuator power failure. The
type of default behavior under such condition is dependent on the type of process. The Process
Engineer makes the choice of the type of protection needed under Power Loss, which can be one of
the following:
• Closed on Failure: The valve moves to Closed position when the actuating power is lost.
• Open on Failure: The valve moves to Open position when the actuating power is lost.
• Fail-Safe: User defined condition to protect the process on actuating power failure - can leave
the Valve in fully closed, fully open, or keep in the last position.
1.5.4 Variable Frequency Drive

1.5.4 Variable
A Variable FrequencyFrequency Drive
Drive (VFD) is a type of controller that controls motor by varying frequency
and voltage to the motor. It is also known by other terminologies - Variable Speed Drive (VSD),
A Variable
AdjustableFrequency Drive(ASD)
Speed Drive (VFD)etc.
is a type of controller that controls motor by varying frequency and
voltage to the motor. It is also known by other terminologies - Variable Speed Drive (VSD), Adjustable
KeyDrive
Speed point (ASD)
of a VFD
etc.is to provide energy savings. As an example, if we have to control flow of water
for a certain application, then it can be done in two ways:
Key point of a VFD is to provide energy savings. As an example, if we have to control flow of water for
a certain i. application,
Control pump
thenspeed
it can be done in two ways:
ii. Modulating the flow using control valves
i. Control pump speed
It turns out that controlling the pump is an easier, more energy efficient and less expensive
ii. Modulating
solution rather than the
the flow
optionusing control
(ii). VFD can valves
be used for pump control, thereby saving energy.
It turns out that controlling the pump is an easier, more energy efficient and less expensive solution
rather than the option (ii). VFD can be used for pump control, thereby saving energy.
Figure 1.34 - A VFD controlling a Damper

Figure 1.34 - A VFD controlling a Damper
It is interesting to note that in the above example the VFD is an FCE, in the sense that it receives the
control command to
It is interesting from the
note Process
that Controller.
in above exampleHowever,
the VFD isitan
is FCE,
a closed
in theloop Controller
sense in itself,
that it receives theas it
usescontrol
a pressure transducer to sense the process variable and control it.
command from the Process Controller. However, it is a closed loop Controller in itself, as
it uses a pressure transducer to sense the process variable and control it.
49
1.5.5 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Programmable Logic Controllers are powerful, modular, industrial ruggedized systems designed for
1.5.5 Programmable
monitoring Logic
and control of industrial Controller
processes (PLC)Input / Output devices and commonly
using standard
understood programming logic.
Programmable Logic Controllers are powerful, modular, industrial ruggedized systems designed
PLCs
forevolved fromand
monitoring thecontrol
traditional Relay Logic
of industrial basedusing
processes control and retain
standard Inputsome of the
/ Output terminology
devices and
andcommonly
notationsunderstood
– however,programming
in terms oflogic.
implementation, they use the most modern concepts and
technologies.
PLCs evolved from the traditional Relay Logic based control and retain some of the terminology
PLCsand notations
consist – however,
of the following in terms of
essential implementation, they use the most modern concepts and
modules:
technologies.
1. Processor and Memory module, with Real-time Clock and Operating System, ports for
PLCs consist of the following
connecting essential
to a computer modules:
or laptop
2. 1. Communication
Processor and Memory Modulemodule,
– one orwith
moreReal-time
of RS232,Clock andEthernet,
RS485, OperatingFiber
System, ports
optics, WiFifor
connecting to a computer
3. Power supply (with redundancy) or laptop
2. Communication Module – one or more of RS232, RS485, Ethernet, Fiber optics, WiFi
4. 3. Backplane
Power supply and(with
Expansion Chassis
redundancy)
5. 4. HMI (Human
Backplane andMachine
ExpansionInterface)
Chassis – a touch screen based LCD display for operator interaction
6. 5. Analog
HMI (Human Input Machine
Module Interface)
– Voltage,– aCurrent
touch screen
(4-20mA based
etc.),LCD display
may acceptfor sensors
operatorlike
interaction
Thermocouples, RTDs directly
6. Analog Input Module – Voltage, Current (4-20mA etc.), may accept sensors like
7. Analog Output Module – Voltage, Current (4-20mA)
Thermocouples, RTDs directly
8. 7. Programmable
Analog Output ModuleTimers – Voltage, Current (4-20mA)
9. 8. Pulse Counter Inputs
Programmable Timers
9. Pulse Counter Inputs
10. Digital Inputs – logic and Potential free contacts
10. Digital Inputs – logic and Potential free contacts
11. Digital outputs – Logic (opto-isolated), Potential free Relay contacts
11. Digital outputs – Logic (opto-isolated) , Potential free Relay contacts
The capacity of each module varies and the vendors offer many variations for each type of module to
suitThe capacity
different of each module varies and the vendors offer many variations for each type of module
applications.
to suit different applications.
Using the variety of Analog and Digital inputs and outputs, together with counting and timing
Using the variety of Analog and Digital inputs and outputs, together with counting and timing
capabilities – any type of control system can be implemented.
capabilities – any type of control system can be implemented.
PLC programming device is used to configure the logic circuits and also make changes. PLCs come
PLC programming device is used to configure the logic circuits and also make changes. PLCs come
with logic design software, which runs on any computer. The final program can be tested in simulation
with logic design software, which runs on any computer. The final program can be tested in
mode and then downloaded to the PLC. Software includes common control blocks such as PID control
simulation mode and then downloaded to the PLC. Software includes common control blocks such
andassupport for communication protocols such as MODBUS.
PID control and support for communication protocols such as MODBUS.
Figure
Figure1.35
1.35--AAtypical PLCsystem
typical PLC system
50
64
1.5.6
1.5.6Distributed Controlsystem
Distributed Control System (DCS)
(DCS)
A Distributed
A Distributed Controlsystem
Control systemisisbasically
basically aa computer
computer controlled
controlled system. All the
system. All the controllers
controllers are
are
distributed geographically and functionally.
distributed geographically and functionally.
TheThe field
field devices
devices such
such asas transmitter’svalves
transmitter’s valvesetc.
etc.communicate
communicatewithwith controllers
controllers usually
usuallyininaaseparate
separate
building called plant interface building, or in part of a control room (in smaller plants). Controllers
building called plant interface building, or in part of a control room (in smaller plants). Controllers are
areconnected
connectedtotomonitors
monitorsand andother
otherinterfaces.
interfaces.Control room
Control roomoperator
operatoroperates onon
operates thethe
monitor
monitorandand
is
able to control plant by changing set points of controllers or taking emergency action
is able to control plant by changing set points of controllers or taking emergency action by sending by sending
commands.
commands. HeHe hastherefore
has thereforewindow
windowof of the
the process.
process. For
Forexample
examplethe thedistance from
distance a field
from device
a field to
device
controller location
to controller location could
could be
be about
about 22 km.
km. Control
Control room
room to
to controller
controller location
locationfrom
fromplant
plantinterface
interface
building could be 1 km.
building could be 1 km.
Figure
Figure 1.361.36 - SupervisoryControl
- Supervisory Control &
& Data Acquisition
AcquisitionControl
Control[SCADA] -Member
[SCADA] of DCS
-Member offamily
DCS family
Notes
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65
51
Unit Objectives
At the end ofParticipant
this unit,Handbook
you will be able to:
Unit 1.6: Connections & Isolations Practices in Process Control
1. Describe various hardware related to Instrumentation connections and Isolations
Unithardware
2. Identify 1.6 - Connections
items & Isolations Practices in Process Control
Unit Objectives
AtUnit Objectives
the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1.6.1 Connections
At 1. Describe
the end of thisvarious
& Isolations
hardware
unit, you related
will be able to: to Instrumentation connections and Isolations
2. we
In this module Identify hardware items
1. present various
Describe various devices
hardware used
related in instrumentation
to Instrumentation connections
connections and Isolationsand isolations. This
will enable the2. reader
Identify to actually
hardware items recognize and identify these components during his plant
visits/work.
1.6.1 Connections & Isolations
1.6.1 Connections
In and Isolations
this module we present various devices used in instrumentation connections and isolations. This
will enable the reader to actually recognize and identify these components during his plant
In this module we present various devices used in instrumentation connections and isolations. This
visits/work.
will enable the reader to actually recognize and identify these components during his plant visits/
work.
Figure 1.37 - Pressure transmitter installation- note impulse lines connection

Figure 1.38
Figure-1.38
An -Instrument
An InstrumentElectrical Power
Electrical Power isolator
isolator tripsthe
trips when when
ratedthe rated
current current is exceeded
is exceeded
Figure 1.38 - An Instrument Electrical Power isolator trips when the rated current is exceeded
52
Figure 1.39 - Different types of Fuses

1.6.2Electrical
1.6.2 Electrical Cabling
Cabling – Earthing
– Earthing
1.6.2 Electrical Cabling – Earthing
In electrical terms, earthing, commonly known as grounding, protects personnel, component and wires
Inelectrical
electrical
Induring power terms,
terms, earthing,
earthing,
spikes commonly known
commonly
and faults. known as
asgrounding,
grounding,protects
protectspersonnel,
personnel,component and wires
component
during power spikes and faults.
and wires during power spikes and faults.
Figure 1.40 - Proper Earthing

Notes
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68
68
53
Figure
Figure 1.41- Arrangement
1.41 - Arrangement for air
airsupply
supplytotoindividual instrument
individual instrument
Notes
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69
54
Unit 1.7 - Plant Safety & Security
Unit Objectives
1. Explain the concepts of safety in instrumentation
2. Describe Fire Triangle, Hazards and safety procedures
3. Describe classification of Hazardous areas in plants
4. Describe Enclosures for Hazardous areas
5. Describe the concept of Safety Instrumented System (SIS)
6. Describe the basic Security requirements in an industrial plant
1.7.1 Safety Principles

Process plants have a complex environment where there are a large number of activities happening
round the clock which can include handling of high temperatures, toxic and hazardous chemicals,
high pressure steam and fluids, high pressure gas and air, very fine and toxic powders, dust, fumes,
exhausts and a number of other potentially harmful and dangerous materials. These are required
inputs for the process to work and the plants are carefully designed to prevent the exposure of these
materials to the working personnel. There are heavy equipment and material being moved on the
surface and overhead, using cranes. The heavy equipment handling these can fail under exceptional
situations and large loads can fall on the shop floor causing damage to equipment and physical injury
to people. There are elaborate safety equipment, interlocks installed and the operating procedures
are defined and displayed which are meant to protect the people, process and the plant from any
harm.
However, occasionally equipment fail, people overlook safety guidelines, unknown and unforeseen
sequence of events happen which cause accidents. Many such accidents can be traced to people not
following recommended procedures and guidelines – sometimes, they are in a hurry to complete the
day’s work, at other times the capacity or rating of equipment is exceeded, or people are too tired or
disturbed to notice things that should raise alarms.
I t is therefore of utmost importance for everyone in the plant, and especially for the Junior
Instrumentation Technician, who is entering a new environment for the first time as a full time
workman, to be fully conversant with the safety related requirements and guidelines and to
follow these conscientiously at all times.
He has to be aware of the chemicals that are present in the environment and of operations which can
lead to incidents of fire and explosion. He must know the basic concept of Fire Triangle, Hazardous
Area classification, safety enclosures, and simple Emergency Shutdown Systems. These are discussed
in detail in the following sections.
55
1.7.2 The Fire

1.7.2Triangle
The Fire Triangle
Figure 1.42 The
Figure FireTriangle
1.42 - The Fire Triangle
The Fire Triangle

The isFire
also calledis aalso
Triangle Hazard
called Triangle. Explosive
a Hazard Triangle. atmospheres
Explosive atmospherescan can be
be created with flammable
created with
gases, mists or vapors or by combustible dusts. If their quantity is sufficient and mixed with air (to get
flammable gases, mists or vapors or by combustible dusts. If their quantity is sufficient and mixed
with air (to get the oxygen), along with a source of ignition then an explosion can occur.
the oxygen), along with a source of ignition then an explosion can occur.
The three sides of triangle represent Fuel, Oxygen and Ignition Source.
The three sides of triangle represent fuel, oxygen and ignition source.
An explosion can only occur, when these three factors come together
If any of these could create a fire by itself, then the process won’t work and the plant would not
An explosion can only occur, when these three factors come together.
be there.
If any of theseThis also means

could that:
create a fire by itself, then the process won’t work and the plant would not be
there.  Fuel: must be present (optimum quantity with right composition of mixture). The fuel can
be in the form of a flammable liquid, vapor, or even as combustible dust.
This also means that:
 Oxygen Supply: As it is an explosive atmosphere at atmospheric conditions, the surrounding
air contains about 20 percent oxygen.
• Fuel: must be present (optimum quantity with right composition of mixture). The fuel can
 An Ignition Source exists in the environment:
be in the form of a flammable liquid, vapor, or even as combustible dust.
1. Electric arcs and sparks.
• Oxygen Supply: As it is an explosive atmosphere at atmospheric conditions, the surrounding
2. Flames and Hot gases.
air contains about 20 percent oxygen.
3. Hot surfaces (Electrostatic sparks / Static electricity and many more)
• An Ignition Source exists in the environment:
1. Electric arcs and sparks.
2. Flames and Hot gases.
3. Hot surfaces (Electrostatic sparks / Static electricity and many more)
1.7.3 Hazard Area Classification

Hazardous areas are divided into Zones (European
72 and IEC classification) or Divisions (North American
method) according to the probability of a potentially explosive atmosphere being present-usually
specified as number of hours per year:
1. An area in which hazardous mixture is virtually present continuously is called Zone for
gases and Zone 20 for Dusts
2. An area in which a hazardous mixture is highly probable to occur in normal operation is
called Zone 1 for gases and Zone 21 for Dusts
3. An area in which a hazardous mixture is not likely to occur in normal operation is called
Zone 2 for gases and Zone 22 for Dusts
Note: Instruments and instrument enclosures should follow the above standard. For example you will
have to use an explosion proof enclosure in Zone 1.
56
1.7.4 Safety
1.7.4 Safety Instrumented
Instrumented System
System (SIS) (SIS)
It is a system composed of sensors, logic solver and final control elements designed and installed
It istoaprotect
systempersonnel,
composedequipment
of sensors,andlogic solver and by
environment final controlthe
“moving” elements
processdesigned
to a safe and
state.installed to
protect personnel, equipment and environment by “moving” the process to a safe state.
In the figure 1.43 below you will notice there are two independent systems –Basic process control
In the
systemfigure 1.43controls
which below youthis will notice
section there
of the are two
process independent
& Safety systems
Instrumented –BasicThe
system. process
SIS iscontrol
the
system which controls this section of the process & Safety Instrumented system.
independent “Watch dog” which will only act when predetermined conditions are violated. The SIS is the
independent “Watch dog” which will only act when predetermined conditions are violated.
Basic Process control systems are PIC and its control valve. Safety Instrumented System (SIS) is a
Basic Process
system controlofsystems
composed sensors, are
logicPIC and its control
controllers valve. valve.
and shutdown Safety Instrumented System (SIS) is a
system composed of sensors, logic controllers and shutdown valve.
Figure1.43
Figure 1.43 Safety Instrumented System
- Safety Instrumented System(SIS)
(SIS)
1.7.5 Security Practices

Security practices vary from industry to industry. Here we provide an overview of common Security
Practices in Industry. The technician is advised to read and understand the security policies of his
company and consult the Supervisor if there are any queries.
1.7.5.1 Basic Principles of Security Practices

1. Physical security. It is important to provide physical security and access control to the
various computer rooms.
2. Software protection: The computer network needs to be projected with the firewall,
encryption, password control, antivirus software, etc.
3. Network protection: Those Computers which are attached to critical systems may be de-
linked from local area network (LAN) and the Internet. Do not install or run programs
which are not authorized.
1.7.5.2 Cyber Security for IT and Process Operations

CCTV Camera Surveillance video cameras
Monitoring Remotely – A DVR (Digital Video Recorder) or NVR (Network Video Recorder)
Work Safety – Security cameras may be positioned as per standard SOP on this subject
74
57
Notes
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58
Technician (Process
Junior Instrumentation Technician Control)
(Process Control)
Unit 1.8 - Standards, Symbols & Terminology in Process Control
Unit Objectives
Unit 1.8: Standards, Symbols & Terminology in Process Control
1. Explain ISA symbols and P& I Diagram.
Unit Objectives
2. Describe Standards’ Authorities for Process Instrumentation.
1. Explain ISA symbols and P& I Diagram.
1.8.1 Standards, Symbols and Terminology Used in Process
2. Describe Standards’ Authorities for Process Instrumentation.
Control
1.8.1 Standards, Symbols & Terminology Used in Process
Most process industries use ISA symbols and standards. The symbols enable understanding the Piping
Control
and Instrumentation diagram which is probably the most important diagram for any one working in
a Process industry.
Most process industries use ISA symbols and standards. The symbols enable understanding the Piping and
This chapter presents
Instrumentation description
diagram of ISA Symbols
which is probably andimportant
the most P & I Diagrams with
diagram forexplanation and associated
any one working in a Process
standards.
industry.
This chapter presents description of ISA Symbols and P & I Diagrams with explanation and associated
standards
1.8.1.1 ISA Symbols & Standards
1.8.1.1 ISA Symbols & Standards
P&ID –Diagram
P&ID –Diagram
The P&ID represents pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical, instrument items in the same diagram.
The P&IDare
Symbols represents pneumatic,
defined in hydraulic,
the ISA S5.1 standard.electrical, instrument items in the same diagram.
Symbols are defined in the ISA S5.1 standard.
Some of the pneumatic or hydraulic symbols are shown below:
Some of the pneumatic or hydraulic symbols are shown below:
Figure 1.44
Figure - The
1.44 - TheP&ID
P&IDrepresents pneumatic,hydraulic,
represents pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical,
electrical, instrument
instrument itemsitems
59
77
Instrumentation
Instrumentation identification
identification
Figure 1.45 - Instrumentation Identification
Example of P&ID
1. Flow Transmitter - FT 501

2. Temperature Transmitter - TT 501
3. Control Valve - FV 501
4. Position Switch - High Level - ZSH 501 A
Figure
Figure 1.46
1.46 - SchematicDiagram
- Schematic Diagram
78
60
Table 1.2 ISA S5.1 General Instrument (or function) symbols

Table 1.2 ISA S5.1 General Instrument (or function) symbols
Notes
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79
61
62
2. Site Readiness and
Instrument Usability –
Process Control
Unit 2.1 - Instructions relating to Process Plant
Unit 2.2 - Processes regarding Work Permits, Check Sheets &
Formats
Unit 2.3 - Plant Working and Instrumentation Documents
Unit 2.4 - Assist Servicing of Field Instrumentation and
Control valves
Unit 2.5 - Assist in Routine Checks for Online Analyzers and
Analyzer House
Unit 2.6 - Identify and Locate DCS & PLC Devices
Unit 2.7 - Identify and Locate Trouble in Packaged Units
Unit 2.8 - Locate Fire and Gas Detection System and Maintain
Unit 2.9 - Site Guidelines of Field Installations
Unit 2.10 - Guidelines regarding House Keeping and Lighting
Unit 2.11 - Monitor and Maintain Consumables and Perform
Follow-up
IAS / N0300

1. Follow Instructions relating to Process Plant
2. Follow Processes regarding Work Permits, Check Sheets & Formats
3. Read and follow Plant working and instrumentation documents
4. Assist Instrumentation Technician in Servicing of Field Instrumentation and Control valves
5. Assist Instrumentation Technician in routine checks for Online Analyzers and Analyzer
House
6. Identify and locate DCS & PLC devices
7. Identify and Locate trouble in Packaged Units - Boilers, Heaters, Compressors, Chillers etc.
8. Locate Fire and Gas Detection system and Maintain under guidance
9. Follow Site Guidelines of Field Installations
10. Follow Guidelines regarding House Keeping and Lighting
11. Monitor and maintain Consumables and perform follow-up
64
UNIT 2.1 - Follow Instructions Relating to Process Plant
Unit Objectives
1. Identify and locate process package units such as Boilers, compressors, heaters, chillers
including equipment location /lay out etc. Junior Instrumentation Technician (Process Control)
2. Describe various Work Permits and their purpose
3. Describe various Formats and Check Sheets
4. Follow Instructions and Directives for Field Instrumentation and controls
5. Recognize and locate Control Valves
6. Recognize and locate Online Analyzers and Analyzer House
2.1.1
7. Process
In theRecognize
above simple
and package
diagram
locateofDCS, units
a boiler,
PLC the
such as Boilers, compressors,
Blue color represents Boiler Feed water which is outside
systems
the tubes. Fuel and air mixture is fired at the firebox and the heat is transferred to boiler feed water
heaters,
8. chillers
Recognize
which becomes including
and locate
steam shown in grey colorequipment
Fire and Gas
above water level.location
Alarm systems /laya steam
The vessel is called out drumetc.
9. Follow Safety, Health, Environment and emergency procedures
Process Package Units
In theInabove
ProcessYouPlants
must
simple while
knowthethat
diagram main
of plant itemswater
amaintaining
boiler, are designed
the Blue level by and
color levelinstalled,
represents a number
measurement
Boiler Feed andofcontrol
other items
water is veryare
which is outside
“bought
critical.out Process
Atand
no stagePackage units”
water level for example
should a Boiler
go firebox
below the unit.
the tubes. Fuel air mixture is fired at the andtubes.
the heatIf that happens the to
is transferred tubes willfeed
boiler be water
whichAdamaged
steam boiler
becomes because
steam of excessive
produces steam
shown at heat.
in greyvariousYou
color must recognize
pressures
above water andSteam
as designed.
level. locate
The iscritical
vesselusedisbyinstruments
Process
called on the
and/or
a steam used
drum
for rotating
boiler a steam turbine that rotates a generator to produce electricity, or rotate a pump for
package.
example.
You
Apartmust
fromknow
Boiler,that maintaining
there water
are many other level Packages
Process by level measurement and
in the Plant, such as control is very critical.
Air Compressor,
At no stage
Chillerwater
etc. level should go below the tubes. If that happens the tubes will be damaged because
of excessive heat. You must recognize and locate critical instruments on the boiler package.
Apart from Boiler, there are many other Process Packages in the Plant, such as Air Compressor, Chiller etc.
Figure
Figure 2.1
2.1 -- AA steam
steam boiler
boiler
65
2.1.2 Work Permits
Work Permit System describes procedures and guidelines system to carry out jobs of inspection,
testing, maintenance, alternation, repair, construction in safest possible manner.
• Every job on the plant requires a Work Permit.

• Do not work on any installation without reading the permit to work thoroughly and ensuring
that you are in the correct location.
There are seven (7) types of Work Permits used in chemical plants. Find out what are the types and
color codes used in your industry:
Sl. Type Usage Color

1. Hot work & Vehicle Entry For use of or generating local source of Pink, Light Green &
Permit ignition, vehicle and engine operated White
equipment entry to hazardous areas.
2. Clearance & Cold Work For all general maintenance works (no Yellow & White
Permit. ignition source)
3. Dyke cutting & Excavation Dyke Cutting. Pink, Light, Green &
Permit White
4. Road Cutting & Blockage Road Cutting, Road Blockage Pink, Yellow & Light
Permit Green
5. Vessel Entry/ Vessel Box For personnel entry into confined space. Yellow & White
Up/Excavation Permit
6. Work at Height Permit Work at Height Yellow & White
7. Rediation Work Permit Radiation related work Pink & White
Figure 2.2 - Type of Permits
Notes
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66
2.1.3 Formats and Check Sheets

In instrumentation Maintenance formats and check sheets are used. This practice ensures uniformity
in execution of instrumentation maintenance tasks.
Junior Instrumentation technician must know how to use various formats and check sheets used in
instrumentation maintenance. He understands the purpose of these formats and check sheets.
Field Audit Check Sheet - control valve
In this example, we are auditing a Control Valve Installation, a control valve installation means the
control valve is installed in the process pipe line and it is active in the control loop.
Note as above a work permit has to be first obtained and returned after the audit as per procedure.
A Typical Control Valve (Control Valve with a Sliding Stem) audit sheet can be as follows, Ref Figure
below:
Table 2.1 Example of a Field Audit Check Sheet for a Control Valve
S. Description of Activity Yes/No Remarks

No
1 Air Pressure for I/P (current to pressure converter) 1.5Kg/cm2 ok?
2 Air Pressure for Positioner 2 Kg/cm2 ok?
3 Leakage of Instrument Air line?
4 Looseness of Linkages of valve Positioner?
5 Leakage of Gland
6 Leakage of Bonnet Valve Flanges?
7 Any deterioration in control valve thermal insulation?
8 Is there any flange leak? Is there any flange leak.
9 Are the valve accessories such as valve Positioner ok without any
visible damage and gauges intact
10 Is the manual operator (if installed) integrity with the control valve
ok
11 Movement of the Control Valve- Smooth?
12 Any from abnormal noise the control valve installation
13 Do you observe any installation deterioration due to environment
effects such as corrosion or water ingress Do you observe any
installation deterioration due to environment effects such as
corrosion or water ingress
67
2.1.4 Instructions and Directives for Field Instrumentation

and Controls
Every large sized - Process plant, Thermal Plant (Power generation Plants) - has several sections which
the Junior Instrumentation technician must be aware and he must ask doubts related to instructions
and directives if he is not clear of the purpose. Junior Instrumentation Technician must Recognize and
locate field instruments such as for Temperature, Pressure, Level, Flow, control valves interfaces etc.
(a) Normal field instrumentation and control which for conventional loops and connected to
alarm system.
(b) Critical field instrumentation and control which are connected to an Emergency Shutdown
system known today as Safety Instrumented Systems.
(c) On line analyzers & Fire & Gas Systems
(d) Compressor & Turbine Instrumentation.
A Directive is an executive order in the mandatory category on, for example a procedure.
A Plant Instruction is usually confined to a particular plant or an area in the plant.
Junior Instrumentation Technician must know about Directives applicable to his unit through guidance
of his supervisor
Example:
• Do not operate any valve – particularly Isolation valves without checking with Instrumentation
technician or supervisor.
• Do not adjust configuration while assisting Instrumentation technician during field checks
without checking with him.
2.1.5 Recognize and Locate Control Valves

Junior Instrumentation Technician must
1. Know and recognize various types of Control valves and the accessories which belong to
them. He must have an idea of their working principle
2. Know how to locate a control valve using working documents.
3. Be able to read control valve nameplate and relate to its data sheet.
4. Recognize different types of valve Positioner.
5. Whenever in doubt, the technician must clear his doubt with supervisor/trainer.
There are two parts to this sub title. First is to know various types of control valve and its accessories,
second to know how to locate the control valve.
68
4. Recognize different types of valve Positioner.
5. Whenever in doubt, the technician must clear his doubt with supervisor/trainer.
Junior
There are two parts to this sub title. First is to know various types of control valve andInstrumentation
its accessories,
second to know how to locate the control valve. Technician (Process Control)
For details of various control valves and accessories refer to Module 1 of this Handbook, Control
For details
Valve of various control valves and accessories refer to Module 1 of this Handbook, Control
section.
Valve section.
Forlocating
For locatingcontrol
controlvalves
valvesuse
use the
the following
following documents:
documents:
•  P&I P&Idiagram,
diagram,
 Instrument Index,
• Instrument Index,
 Location diagram.
• Location diagram.
Once control valve is located the name plate should be studied, which has all the important data in
Once control valve is located the name plate should be studied, which has all the important data in
it for the control valve. Browse through the Control Valve data sheet and Vendor manual if required.
it for the control valve. Browse through the Control Valve data sheet and Vendor manual if required.
Figure 2.32.3
Figure - Typical
- TypicalControl
Control Valve Nameplate
Valve Name plate
2.1.6 Recognize, Locate, Online Analyzers and Analyzer House

Online Analyzers & Analyzer House
Junior Instrumentation technician recognizes locates
a) Analyzer sample handling system -identifies all the hardware items such as pressure
reducers sample coolers etc. 89
b) Main units of Detector and Electronic units.
c) Analyzer house and has an overview of items installed in it and their purpose & procedure
for entry.
d) Special gas cylinders used for calibration.
On line analyzers are divided into two parts
a) On Line Gas Analyzers
b) On Line Liquid Analyzers
After Sample Conditioning process, the gas or liquid is sent to the detector unit – output of detector
unit goes to electronics unit and output of electronics go to receivers in separate panels or to control
room. Analyzer house is usually found in large scale Plants including Fertilizers, Petrochemicals and
Refineries.
Please refer to Unit 1.7, Online Analyzer section for more details.
69
2.1.7 Recognize and locate DCS, PLC
2.1.7.1 Distributed Control System (DCS)

This description will be only an overview.
Distributed Control System is (DCS) is basically a computerized control A system where sensor/
transmitters connect to autonomous digital controllers and whose output go to various control valves
etc. and also to the control room monitors which are called HMIs Human Machine Interface. From
this Control station the Process operator is able operate the plant make changes in set points of
controllers etc.- refer to Module 1 for more details
1. Junior Instrumentation must know that there are two sections – Field and Control Room
sections.
2. Must recognize all the items in the block diagram – and also must locate these items.
3. Must know that in some plants the control room section is a combination of Plant
Interface Building and control room monitors location. He should recognize and locate
Plant interface building and control room.
4. Must ask questions during his visit to control room to understand purpose of hardware
and location.
5. Must Know procedure for entering Control Room and Plant interface building.
2.1.7.2 Programmable Logic Controller

In a typical water treatment plant there are number of operations like operating valves periodically
according to a certain program. This is possible using a PLC which is basically a rugged industrial
computer control systems. The PLC keeps monitoring the status of various switches on the input side
and valves and lamps on the output side. The cyclic operation is possible because of a program which
is configured.
Refer to Module 1 for more description of PLC.
There are specific plant directive/Instructions to be followed before entering Plant Interface Buildings
and Control Rooms.
1. Junior Instrument Technician Recognizes and identifies the location of the main units of
PLC – in the field or in the Plant interface Building (or similar location).
2. Recognizes the overall path from sensor to electronics unit and output back to the solenoid
valves and control valves in the field.
3. Identifies field unit junction boxes and PIB.
4. Recognizes the main electronic units of DCS and PLC in the PIB (or similar enclosure)/
control room.
5. Follows directive/Instructions before entering Plant Interface Buildings and Control Rooms.
Technician is encouraged to ask questions for understanding the working of the DCS and PLC systems.
70
2.1.8 Recognize and locate Fire and Gas systems
Junior Instrumentation Technician Recognizes the main unit and detectors purpose and locates
after guidance since the systems are very complex. Must know a very basic overview of how the
system operates - Must know specific plant directive/Instructions before entering monitoring
2.1.8 Recognize and Locate Fire and Gas systems
control room / special enclosures related to Fire and Gas Detection system
Junior Instrumentation Technician Recognizes the main unit and detectors purpose and locates after
guidance since the
Fire and Gas Detection systemsare
systems are very complex.
found in allMust know a very
Chemical basicThe
Plants. overview of how the system
complexities vary from plant
operates - Must know specific plant directive/Instructions before entering monitoring control room /
to Plant –for example
special enclosuresinrelated
large Oil and
to Fire refineries usually
Gas Detection system.the Fire and Gas Detection is a totally
independent
Firesystem and a watch
and Gas Detection systemsdog.
are found in all Chemical Plants. The complexities vary from plant to
Plant –for example in large Oil refineries usually the Fire and Gas Detection is a totally independent
Fire and Gas Detection
system and a watchsystem
dog. monitors flame, smoke, toxic gas detection via a network of
complex sensors. The
Fire and Gas fire and
Detection Gas
system Detection
monitors system
flame, smoke, toxichas the facility
gas detection of initiating
via a network system shut
of complex
sensors. The fire and Gas Detection system has the facility of initiating system shut downs in the plant
downs in the plant and special actions like water spray /deluge etc.
and special actions like water spray /deluge etc.
Figure 2.4 - Fire Detection Control Systems

Figure 2.4 - Fire Detection Control Systems
Key points: The central unit titled “Detection & control Panel” receives inputs and sends outputs.
Inputs include gas Detectors, Ultra Violet/Infrared Detectors for Flame/fire, Heat Detectors, and
Key points:Smoke
The central
Detectorsunit titled “Detection
etc. Outputs & control
include initiating Panel”
shut downs, audiblereceives
and visibleinputs
alarms,and sends outputs.
automatic
sprinkler/deluge
Inputs include system. Ultra Violet/Infrared Detectors for Flame/fire, Heat Detectors, and
gas Detectors,
Smoke Detectors etc. Outputs include initiating shut downs, audible and visible alarms, automatic
sprinkler/deluge system.
71
2.1.9 Safety, Health, Environment (SHE) and Emergency

Procedures
Junior Instrumentation Technician recognizes and must know the various SHE procedures and
purpose followed in the plant.
Plants have several SHE emergency procedures, for example:
(a) Procedure in the event of Fire.
(b) Procedure in the event of major leak from plant.
(c) Procedure on use of special gas masks.
(d) Hazardous area classification for plant areas.
(e) Directives on exposure limits to Hazardous liquids and Gases.
(f) Procedure for First Aid and minor accidents.
 Read all Safety messages on display and follow instructions.

 Do not direct Instrument air on your hands, legs or clothes to blow off dust. IT is not safe,
since minute metal particles on your dress or in the working environment can enter your
body through your skin when forced with air.
 Do not enter any enclosed space like a tank or vessel to check instrument systems etc.
without ensuring you have an authorized Permit to work - Vessel entry.
Notes
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72
Unit 2.2 - Work Permits, Check Sheets and Formats
Unit Objectives
1. Understand the procedure of obtaining permit to work and return
2. Understand purpose of Check sheets
2.2.1 Follow rules regarding various permits to work and use

the right one depending on the job undertaken.
Part of the permit to work system has been covered in sub section 2.1.2
Junior Instrumentation Technician Must:

1. know the procedure of obtaining permit to work and return:
Process Supervisor will issue necessary work permit to Instrumentation Supervisor
who will then explain details of permit & procedure and hand over the same to Junior
Instrumentation Technician.
2. Know how to choose the right permit. The choice of permit depends on the type of work. For
example:
a. Normal working in plant – WHITE permit.
b. Drilling, Grinding, Welding, Gas cutting in plant - RED Permit or Fire Permit.
c. Excavation work for underground cables and pipe work etc.-EXCAVATION Permit.
d. Electrical Isolation and Energizing Permit and Clearances.
e. Working at Height Permit - For all working at heights of 2M or above a permit for “Working
at Height” is required.
The Junior Instrumentation Technician is required to enquire and familiarize himself thoroughly with
the different kind of work permits in the plant they work in, and when to use these.
2.2.2 Understand Purpose of Check Sheets
Junior Instrumentation Technician Must:

1. Know to use the right check sheet for the prescribed task
2. Complete check list entries with guidance form Instrumentation Technician
73
Junior Instrumentation Technician Must Remember that:

1. Site Hygiene Check Sheets - are concerned with proactive steps to ensure integrity of
various instrumentation installations.
2. Calibration Check Sheets - are used during calibration; it is good practice to record calibration
results before calibration adjustments and another after calibration adjustment.
3. Preventive Maintenance Check Sheets – facilitate doing a preventive maintenance job.
Notes
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74
Unit 2.3 - Plant working and instrumentation documents
Unit Objectives
1. Locate specific control loop or Instrumentation
2. Read and use plant drawings and documents to locate instrument tags and understand the
installation and the interconnections.
3. Read and understand the P& I Diagram of the basic process.
2.3.1 Follow Plant Working and Instrumentation Documents

The purpose of the “Working “Instrumentation documents is to facilitate the association of instrument
tag or system to a document or a set of documents.
Junior Instrumentation Technician must refer to Module 1 section 3 which contains information about
ISA symbols, standards and notes on P & I diagram.
Junior Instrumentation Technician must Read and Use the Plant working document relevant to a
particular Instrument tag/control loop he/she is working on, as required, relating to-Main Process
Plants, Package units such as Boilers, Heaters, Compressors Chillers etc.
P & I Diagram
a) This is a diagram which shows the interconnection of process equipment and
instrumentation used to control the process.
b) In the process industry, a standard set of symbols is used to prepare drawings of processes.
Instrument symbols used in these drawings are generally based on ISA. (Refer to Module
1 for more details)
2.3.2 Read and Use the Instrumentation Document

Must know to use the following drawings/documents to locate instrument tags and understand
interconnections, installation. He must know how to read and understand the cause and effect
diagram for trips and alarms
The documents include:
a) P and I diagram (already discussed above.)
b) Instrument Index
c) Data Sheets
d) Hook Up diagram
e) Loop diagram
f) Instrument lay out diagram.
g) Wiring Diagrams
h) Cause and Effect diagram
75
2.3.2.1 Instrument Index

2.3.2.1 Instrument index
This includes number of physical instruments (example field instruments, physical alarm & indicator,
controller
This etc.number of physical instruments (example field instruments, physical alarm & indicator,
includes
controller etc.
This document is prepared in the project stage and continues to be updated during life of a plant.
This document is prepared in the project stage and continues to be updated during life of a plant.
Its content includes, for example:
Its content includes, for example:
a) Tag no. -Loop no.-Type of Instrument-Location-Service description-P&ID-number.-Line
a) Tagnumber
no. -Looporno.-Type of Instrument-Location-Service
Equipment description-P&ID-number.-Line
No.-I/O i.e. input/output type-Control number
system -Range or set pointor
Equipment No.-I/O i.e. input/output type-Control system -Range or set point
2.3.2.2 Hook-up
Hook-upDrawing
drawing
This
Thisisisaadetailed drawing
detailed showing
drawing a standard
showing installation
a standard of instrument
installation with its
of instrument accessories
with in a correct
its accessories in a
manner for optimum performance.
correct manner for optimum performance.
Figure 2.5 - Hook - up drawing

Figure 2.5 - Hook - up drawing
Note that hook up drawing gives details of all material. One can prepare bill of material using these
hookthat
Note up diagrams.
hook up drawing gives details of all material. One can prepare bill of material using these hook
up diagrams.
100
76
Figure
Figure2.62.6
- Example of Hook
- Example up drawing
of Hook for Pressure
up drawing transmitter
for Pressure transmitter
Note the numbers represent various connections fitting which are tabulated in the hook up drawing
Note the
(not shown here)numbers represent various connections fitting which are tabulated in the
hook up drawing (not shown here)
2.3.2.3
2.3.2.3 Instrument
Instrument Laylay
outout drawing
Drawing
ThisThis drawing
drawing is alsoisisalso
is also alsoknown
known as
as Instrument
Instrument location
locationplan.
plan.
TheThe
drawing shows
drawing the
shows theexact
exactposition
position of each
eachinstrument
instrumentwith
with reference
reference to plant
to plant lay out.
lay out.
Figure 2.7 - A Typical Instrument Lay out in Process plant

Figure 2.7 - a Typical Instrument Lay out in Process plant
101
77
2.3.2.4 Wiring Diagram
Wiring diagrams are extensively used in instrumentation example wiring from transmitters to
controllers, from switches to trip logic circuit etc. Wiring involves cables junction boxes wires etc.
2.3.2.5 Cause and Effect Diagram

Example of a Simple Cause & Effect Diagram
Cause and effect diagram is used in trip logic. This diagram refers to a tag no and it describes if there
is a deviation that produces an effect (e.g. an alarm is initiated).
Table 2.2 Cause and effect Diagram
Tag No Description Cause Effect Remarks

PSH131 Reactor 101 High Pressure > 45 psig Initiates Visual & Audible Alarm only
Pressure alarms in control room
PSHH142 Reactor 101 Extra Pressure >50 psig Shuts Reactor Trip valve Trip duty
High Pressure XV101 & initiates visual and
audible alarms in control
room
TSHH 132 Reactor 101 Temperature> 120°C Shuts Reactor Trip valve Trip duty
Extra High XV101 & initiates visual and
Temperature audible alarms in control
room
Notes
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78
Unit 2.4 - A
ssist Servicing of Field Instrumentation and Control Valves
Unit Objectives
1. Respond to maintenance requests and assist Instrumentation technician.
2. Consult various vendor documents and other working documents to collect relevant information.
3. Understand the procedure for overhaul of control valve to be able to assist the
Instrumentation technician
4. Assist in preparation for Control Valve overhaul.
5. Understand the procedure for hydraulic testing and final stroke testing.
6. Understand Routine preventive maintenance job sequence for control valves.
7. Understand procedures and interdisciplinary involvement, right from disconnection from
process line, overhaul, Testing, Stroke testing, reconnection, line up to process and hand over.
8. Understand conventional Pneumatic actuators, such as diaphragm and Piston actuators.
9. Locate specific control loop or Instrumentation
10. Read and use plant drawings and documents to locate instrument tags and understand the
installation and the interconnections
Introduction
This section has two sub sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.2. The focus is on attending day to day maintenance
requests on field instruments, control loops including control valve.
The role of Junior Instrumentation Technician is to observe, learn and understand the process plant
and to assist the Instrumentation Technician in performing various maintenance jobs in the plant.
Instrumentation Technician has the responsibility to prepare for the job, understand maintenance
requests, understand criticality of job and time factor for completion and execute it, with assistance
from the Junior Instrumentation Technician.
The Junior Instrumentation Technician is thus and understudy to the Instrumentation Technician and
he learns by observing, following instructions diligently and by asking relevant questions.
2.4.1 Assisting Servicing of Field Instrumentation under Guidance

Attend to maintenance requests along with Instrumentation technician and observe and take notes
as to how problems are resolved.
This includes:
• Measurement sensors and associated impulse lines/sensor cables
• Pneumatic/electronic transmitters
• Controllers and control room receivers
• Control valves and other final control elements.
79
Job Content and key points

a) Learn about and assist in Maintenance Requests during normal plant operation, covering
the range from sensors transmitters, controllers, receivers and checks on installed control
valves.
b) Learn about and assist in Planned Shutdown Maintenance Requests.
c) Learn about and assist in unplanned maintenance demands such as Break down
Maintenance Requests – learn about the criticality of the job and the limited time available
to complete it.
d) Following Key points to focus on and develop reflexes for them while he assists
Instrumentation.
i. Know the criticality of the process operation in the zone of Maintenance.
ii. Know Safety precautions and working with the correct Permit to work.
iii. Refer to the correct document and organize appropriate tools and test equipment,
spares and consumables.
iv. Seek assistance from other depts., and to be Proactive - Particularly workshop Crane
department, Electrical and Mechanical departments.
v. Know and be aware of the negative impact of incorrect diagnosis and/ or
unsatisfactory workmanship on the plant operation.
vi. Return permits as per procedure and do necessary entries in the maintenance data
base after completion of jobs under maintenance requests.
2.4.2 Assisting in Servicing of Control Valves

Junior Instrumentation Technician does not work independently. He assists the Instrumentation
Technician during basic overhaul and testing.
Scope: Basic Control Valve Overhaul & Testing
Types of control valves:
Cage type, Butterfly, Rotary control valves, Control Valve accessories, Solenoid Valves, Fail safe shut
down devices, Pneumatic and Digital Valve positioners
Involves use of Control Valve Data Sheet and control Valve characteristics i.e. quick opening, equal
percentage, Linear.
Key point to note:
1. Learn about Routine Preventive Maintenance job sequence for control valves.
2. Learn about maintenance procedures and interdisciplinary involvement which involves
the full cycle:
a. Disconnection from process line
b. Overhaul
c. Testing
d. Stroke testing
e. Reconnection,
f. Line up to process and
g. Hand over.
80
3. Learn about overhaul of conventional control valves such as Globe Control Valves, Butterfly,
Ball rotary control valves.
4. Learn about conventional Pneumatic actuators, such as diaphragm and Piston actuators.
5. Learn about all control valve accessories like valve positioners, trip solenoid valves, Fail
safe actions and associated hardware etc.
Basic Control Valve Overhaul & Testing

It is required that the plant SOP and Vendor Manual is followed for overhaul and testing.
Basic Control valve overhaul and testing has six stages.
Key Points during overhaul and testing

1. The working area must be absolutely clean and free from any grit and dirt which should
not get into valve or valve parts – otherwise they will cause abrasion and erosion of the
valve.
2. Any bolts, fasteners and fixtures used for the valves must be of approved types, as specified
in the valve manual. Do not use bolts, nuts, studs etc. from the general stores.
3. MOC – Material of construction of all parts of the control Valve must be as specified in the
manual. This is vital, because a control valve is exposed to various environments, corrosive
process media, wide range of pressures and temperatures and the material plays a critical
part in the performance and the life of the valve.
4. Before starting overhaul inspect the valve ‘as-is-where is’ basis and record your
observations for maintenance history. Keep in mind any specific problems reported by the
process department (this will be available in the shutdown list).
5. Follow SOP/Vendor manual. Work only under Supervisor’s guidance.
6. Before commencing dismantling:
a. Mark the parts orientation before dismantling, such as mark at body, bonnet, yoke,
Actuator chambers casing.
b. Note down the threads upper side and lower side of coupling.
7. Important step
The fixtures such as bolts and studs for body bonnet and gland must be soaked using
special recommended easing solvents. After specified soak duration, slowly open with the
right tools – since hasty action will break the stud and removal of the broken bit from the
body is a very arduous task. Consult SOP/Vendor manual, supervisor and use prescribed
torque wrench and torque value wherever applicable.
8. Record every detail of overhaul, problems encountered, resolved in the maintenance
history of the control valve.
81
Unit 2.5 - Assist in Routine Check of Analyzers and Analyzer House
Unit Objectives
1. Understand working principle and location of ON line Analyzers.
2. Understand role of analyzer in the particular process and its criticality.
3. Identify all components of sampling system, their function and routines.
4. Identify all components of main Analyzer system, their function and routines.
5. Understand how to connect Zero and Span Gas Cylinders and set up for calibration.
6. Understand lay out, safety precautions and procedures in the Analyzer House.
2.5.1 Assist Instrumentation Technician for Routine Check of

Analyzers and Analyzer House
The Junior Instrumentation Technician assists the Instrumentation Technician and other senior
colleagues for routine maintenance jobs on Analyzers.
Junior Instrumentation Technician assists in carrying out routine checks of:
• Analyzer sampling system,
• Sensor and electronics Receivers and accessories in Analyzer house,
• Cylinders storage and procedures,
• Analyzer House
Notes
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82
Unit 2.6 - Identify & Locate DCS & PLC Devices
Unit Objectives
1. Locate and identify field devices and interfaces including junction boxes of DCS and PLC
2. Locate and identify various units of DCS and PLC.
3. Understand Symbols and use of “Working Instrumentation “Documents.
4. Connect an instrumentation tag and or interfaces to appropriate document/drawing and
identify and locate in relevant plant area.
5. Understand typical hardware, interfaces and connections in a typical Process
Instrumentation environment.
2.6.1 Identify and locate DCS & PLC Devices

Refer to Section 2.1.7 for more details. The technician is required to:
1. Study plant drawings and instrument documents, so as to be able to locate and identify all
field devices and interfaces including junction boxes of DCS and PLC systems.
2. Locate and identify various units of DCS and PLC – these are the essential electronic
instruments for plant monitoring and control. There are usually several of these in a plant,
distributed at different locations for ease of connection to the process, minimal wiring,
high redundancy and reliability and optimal performance.
2.6.2 Locate Field Devices and Identify the Interface Units

There are a large number of Field devices and Interfaces. Interfaces are necessary to make connection
with the device and to convey the device signal from the source to the measurement or processing
unit. There are many standards for the interfaces – such as RS-485, HART etc. We have covered only
a few in the Module 1, and for these items images are given below with a brief note. This will enable
the reader to get a visual idea of the field devices, connection and interfaces.
One of the key learning requirements for the Junior Instrumentation Technician is to get thoroughly
acquainted with the devices used in the plant, how they look and what interfaces they use. These
include:
1. Understanding Symbols used for devices in the “Working Instrumentation” Documents.

2. Ability to connect an instrumentation tag and or interfaces to appropriate document/
drawing and identify and locate in relevant plant area.
83
Participant Handbook Junior Instrumentation Technician (Process Control)
3. Understanding of P&ID Symbols, Instrumentation documents and standards. Refer to

Module 1 Section 1.3 and Module 2 Section 2.4 for further details.
4. Understanding of typical hardware and interfaces and connections in a typical Process
Instrumentation environment.
Figure 2.8 - A Flow Measurement Installation with an orifice plate type flow sensing device and a
Figure 2.8 - A differential
Flow Measurement Installation
pressure type flow with an orifice plate
transmitter. Notetype
theflow sensing device
connection and a differential
details
pressure type flow transmitter. Note the connection details
Figure 2.8 - A Flow Measurement Installation with an orifice plate type flow sensing device and a
differential pressure type flow transmitter. Note the connection details
Figure
Figure 2.92.9 - TypicalJunction
- Typical Junction Box
Boxdetails
details
Figure 2.9 - Typical Junction Box details
Figure 2.10 - Pneumatic air boosters 1:1

113
84
113
Figure 2.11 - Safety barriers are used where an electronic instrument has to be installed in a
FigureFigure
2.11 - Safety
2.11 -barriers
hazardous are used
SafetyNote
area. barriers whereisan
are used
‘Ex’ area electronic
where aninstrument
a Hazardous electronic
area whichhas to be installed
instrument
has in abe
has to
inflammable hazardous
installedarea.
atmosphere. in a Note
‘Ex’ area is a Hazardous area which has inflammable atmosphere.
hazardous area. Note ‘Ex’ area is a Hazardous area which has inflammable atmosphere.
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.12- Safety
- SafetyBarrier (Source:MTL)
Barrier (Source: MTL)
Figure 2.12 - Safety Barrier (Source: MTL)
Notes
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85
Unit Objectives
1. Understand Basic Process operation and instrumentation in the Package Unit.
2. To associate Tag of Instrument with hardware and location.
3. Use the Vendor Documentation Package.
2.7.1 Locate and Identify Trouble in Package Units –Boilers,

Heaters, Compressors, and Chillers etc.
Junior Instrumentation Technician accompanies the Instrumentation Technician on inspection rounds
in different areas of the plant, where he observes the layout of the plant, location of various packaged
units, their connections to the plant, their functioning and watches the people who operate and
manage them. He reads the relevant documents to understand the details of each packaged unit and
correlates these with the actual machines. He has to become familiar with the various sub systems
inside it, the major controls and indicators and other distinguishing characteristics of the plant. He
must read the specifications of the packaged units and understand its significance. He has to become
familiar with the looks, the vibration and noise, the smell of the fuel, exhaust and other material
used and with the general environment. He develops this feel by unobtrusively observing, asking
questions, taking notes and verifying the information in the documents with the real life machines.
In short, he learns on the job and does preparatory work, does disconnection, connection mounting
and search for items in documents while he is assisting the Instrumentation Technician.
This leads to the following knowledge about the plant:
1. Understanding of basic Process operation and instrumentation in the Packaged Unit.
2. Ability to associate Tag of Instrument with hardware and location.
3. Ability to use the Vendor Documentation Package for finding the relevant information.
4. Ability to identify and locate:
a. Electric Power supply isolation points
b. Pneumatic supply isolation points.
c. Emergency alarm location and how to operate.
d. Critical Field instruments – location and purpose.
e. Critical control valves – location and purpose.
Also refer to Section 2.1.1 for more details.
What are Packaged Units?

• A Process package unit is basically a subset of the main process plant. For example you can
have a Boiler package unit from a Process Package vendor ABC.
86
What are Packaged
 A Process package unit is Units?
basically a subset of the main process plant. For example you can
 have a Boilerpackage
A Process packageunit
unitisfrom a Process
basically Package
a subset vendor
of the mainABC.
process plant. For example you can
have a Boiler package unit from a Process Package vendor ABC.
Salient Points related to Process Package unitsTechnician Maintenance (Process Control)
Salient
Salient
Junior
Points
Instrumentation
related
Pointsmust
related to
to Process
Process
acquire familiarity
Package
about thePackage
units
basic processunits
Maintenance
Maintenance
operation, role of the package
unit in the
Junior plant and its criticality,
Instrumentation instrumentation
must acquire hardware
familiarity about /systems
the basic and
process documentation.
operation, He should
role of the package
recognize
Junior
unit all
in the critical loops
Instrumentation related to
must acquire
plant and its criticality, the packaged unit and
familiarity about
instrumentation locate
the basic
hardware them.
process
/systems andoperation, role ofHe
documentation. theshould
package
unit in the plant and its criticality, instrumentation hardware /systems
recognize all critical loops related to the packaged unit and locate them. and documentation. He should
recognize all critical loops related to the packaged unit and locate them.
Figure 2.13 - Typical Boiler Package unit with its Burner management controls. Note all the hardware
Figure and
Figure 2.13 connections
2.13 Typical
- TypicalBoiler are compact
BoilerPackage
Packageunit
unit on
with the
its
with itspackage.
Burner Usually the
management
Burner package
controls.
management Noteisallon
controls. a skid.
the
Note hardware and connec-
all the hardware
tions are compact on the package. Usually the package is on a skid.
and connections are compact on the package. Usually the package is on a skid.
Figure
Figure 2.142.14 - A typical
- A typical SkidSkid
Figure 2.14 - A typical Skid
Notes
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87
Unit Objectives
1. Understand the basics of Fire & Gas detection System and its role.
2. Identify and locate detectors, electronics unit and display monitors and other receivers.
3. Describe procedures for routine check and must do these tasks under direct supervision of
Instrumentation technician.
4. Assist the Instrumentation Technician during routine checks under full supervision of
Instrumentation supervisor and specialist technician for Fire & Gas System.
Introduction
Fire and Gas detection systems are deployed to continuously monitor plant activity and in case of
hazardous conditions initiate appropriate actions if this option is required.
All plants have Fire and gas detection system, however the systems vary in complexity depending on
the plant requirements. In Refineries and large petrochemical complex the system is very complex
and manned by specialist engineers and technicians.
Fire, Gas and Smoke detectors are the sensing elements and are connected to their Detection
Electronics Units. These Detection-Electronic units send outputs to the Display monitors and alarm
system and to control unit for emergency action such as sprinklers/deluge etc. These systems require
a high level of expertise and detailed design and integration to perform effectively.
Fire and gas detection system provides early and reliable detection of Fire or Gas, where such events
are likely to occur, alerts personnel and initiates protective actions automatically or manually upon
operator activation.
Figure 2.15 below shows general classification of detectors used in Fire and Gas detection system.
Notes
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88
2.8.1 Locate Fire and Gas Detection System and Maintain
under Guidance
Junior Instrumentation Technician will locate the main field devices, identify interface units and assist
Instrumentation Technician to perform maintenance work on the system.
Figure 2.15 - Basic classifications of Detectors
Figure 2.15 - Basic classifications of Detectors
Notes
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89
Unit 2.9 - Site Guidelines of Field Installations
Unit Objectives
1. Check for any visual damage or tampering on installations and assess their potential to
create breakdowns in instrumentation hardware and systems.
2. Describe the areas which are more vulnerable to such onslaught or issues.
3. Assess the integrity of installation by means of regular audits and checks on installations.
4. Assess how such defects can be corrected - either through preventive maintenance or
through opportunistic maintenance
5. Check for visible loss of installation integrity, such as damage to an instrument by a foreign
object or inadvertent denting caused by a nearby work.
6. Check for visible loose bolting, visible ambient vibration loosening clamps of impulse lines
etc.
7. Check for onset of corrosion on instruments and fixtures.
8. Detect improper connection from an unknown source with temporary wiring.
9. Detect broken or disconnected earth wiring.
10. Detect Explosion Proof enclosure with missing bolts/ partially open covers and missing
explosion proof glands.
2.9.1 Check for Visual Damage, Tampering

The Junior Instrumentation Technician performs visual checks in areas of the plant as a part of
the daily routine or when asked by the Instrumentation Technician or the Supervisor. The Junior
Instrumentation Technician records his observation in log books or other specified documents.
a) Check for visible damage to specified Instruments (in an inventory list or otherwise
provided by the Supervisor) caused by impact of an external body.
b) Check for any prominent damage to Accessories of the specified Instruments caused by
impact of an external body.
c) Check for water ingress in indoor working area due to seepage, roof leaks or damaged
windows.
d) Check for misuse of installation by other agencies for example, using instrument installation
as support or for scaffolding build up.
e) Check for prominent deterioration due to environment for example, corrosion / proximity
to hot surfaces / process leaks etc.
During daily routines it is important to pick up signs of visual damage and/or tampering. Observation
followed by reporting and corrective action will save a potential break down.
90
During daily routines it is important to pick up signs of visual damage and/or tampering.
Observation followed by reporting and corrective action will save a potential break down.
DamageDamage
occursoccurs usually
usually whenwhen another
another agency
agency is is workingbeside
working beside the
theinstallation,
installation,it isit possible thatthat the
is possible
the damage occurred
damage occurred such as: such as:
a) Denting of covers of instruments or damage to copper tube or wires.
a) Denting of covers of instruments or damage to copper tube or wires.
b) Diaphragm seal type transmitters for example, the differential pressure transmitter with
b) Diaphragm seal typeseals
remote diaphragm transmitters
are prone tofordamage.
example, the differential pressure transmitter with
remote diaphragm seals are prone to damage.
c) Control valve Positioners and limit switches are prone to damage particularly during
c) Control valve from
movement Positioners and limit switches
site to instrumentation are prone
workshop to damage
since handling particularly
is done by crane during
movement
operations.from site totoinstrumentation
It is prudent workshop
protect these devices during thissince handling is done by crane
transportation.
operations. It is prudent to protect these devices during this transportation.
d) Tampering is not very common but leaving instrument open without fixing cover is a bad
d) Tampering
practice, isbut
notfrequent
very common
- this willbut leaving
affect instrument open
the measurement/ without
control systemfixing cover is a
life and
bad practice, but frequent - this will affect the measurement/ control system life and
performance.
performance.
e) Closing the junction box after work and securing all bolts are the basics of good practice.
e) Closing the junction
An open junctionbox boxwill
after
makework and securing
the circuit alltobolts
vulnerable areTampering
failure. the basics of goodtopractice.
is difficult
differentiate from a shoddy job.
An open junction box will make the circuit vulnerable to failure. Tampering is difficult to
differentiate from a gland
f) Look for improper shoddy job.
connections on a junction box – figure 2.16 below shows correct
f) method of fixing glands, and also connections
Look for improper gland connections on a junction not following
box –this.
figure 2.16 below shows correct
method
g) Images ofbelow
fixingare glands, andtoalso
provided connections
enable reader to getnot following
a practical ideathis.
of the various situations
g) mentioned above.
Images below are provided to enable reader to get a practical idea of the various situations
mentioned above.
Figure 2.16Figure 2.16 -glands

- Improper Improper glands - igniter
- Electronic Electronic
wireigniter wire and Thermocouple
and Thermocouple connectionconnection are to damage
are vulnerable
vulnerable to damage
123
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.17 - Differential - Differential
pressure pressure
transmitter- transmitter-
note the two note the two
capillary capillary
from the seal diaphragm are
from the seal vulnerable
diaphragm arefor vulnerable
damage. for damage.
Note Limit
Note: Limit switches
switchesononcontrol
controlvalve.
valve.These
Thesearearevulnerable
vulnerable forfor
damage
damage particularly during
particularly transit
during transit
91
Figure 2.17 - Differential pressure transmitter- note the two capillary from the seal diaphragm are
Figure 2.17 - Differential pressure transmitter- note the two capillary from the seal diaphragm are
Participant Handbook vulnerable for damage.
vulnerable for damage.
Note Limit switches on control valve. These are vulnerable for damage particularly during transit
Note Limit switches on control valve. These are vulnerable for damage particularly during transit
Figure 2.18 - Open Junction box – note the vulnerability of exposed terminal
Figure 2.182.18
Figure - Open Junction
- Open Junctionbox
box–– note thevulnerability
note the vulnerabilityofof exposed
exposed terminal
terminal
Figure
Figure2.19
2.19 -- Fixing
Fixingcable
cableglands
glands
Figure 2.19 - Fixing cable glands
Note thecorrect
Note correct method of of fixing cable
cable glands -- during
during monitoring you should look for this type of
Notethe
the correct method
method of fixing
fixing cable glands
glands - during monitoring you should
monitoring you should look
look for
for this
this type
typeof
of
perfection
perfection in the status of glands on the instrument you are monitoring.
perfection in
in the
the status of glands
status of glandsononthe
theinstrument
instrumentyou youare
aremonitoring.
monitoring.
Notes
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92
2.9.2 Check for any Visible Loss of Integrity
What is Installation integrity?

Installation integrity refers to how well a field device or an instrument is mounted and connected for
the desired purpose. Integrity means that the instrument and the installation is in a healthy working
condition.
There are several factors that need to be considered – mechanical, electrical, safety, accessibility,
identification etc. including the following:
1. The device/instrument is installed following recommended procedure which makes it
a. Secure (rigidly fixed) using appropriate frames, fixtures, bolts.
b. Accessible
c. Protected from the environment by appropriate IP class enclosure.
d. Is protected from inadvertent damage
e. Is electrically safe – has no exposed terminals carrying high voltage, is earthed/
grounded, ESD protected
2. Its cabling is properly done using the right type and size of cable with appropriate cable
glands.
3. The cable is properly terminated on the terminal blocks, connectors, sockets or other
approved devices.
4. Cable has marker ferrules, labels, tags or other identifiers.
5. Cable termination is done with approved lugs or terminals.
6. The device/instrument name, label or name plate and serial number can be easily read.
7. The device/instrument is correctly connected to approved power source, if applicable.
8. The device/instrument can be read and / or adjusted easily.
Anything that causes the above conditions to be disturbed, can be said to affect the installation
integrity.
Checking for Installation integrity

1. Look for any visible damage to an instrument (such as a field transmitter) by a foreign
object, such as inadvertent denting caused by nearby work.
2. Look for unusual vibrations which can cause loosening of bolts, loosening of clamps of
impulse lines etc.
3. Look for onset of corrosion on instruments and fixtures.
4. Look for any unusual appearance, breakage or foreign objects fallen in/on/around the
installation which is likely to cause or lead to instrument malfunction.
a) Check for improper closure of junction boxes, panels, cable termination.
b) Check for improper tubing /impulse piping connection
c) Check for unauthorized /unexplained cable connection disconnection
d) Check for unauthorized /unexplained process impulse lines/instrument air
connection/disconnection
93
2.9.3 Where to Look for Issues?

The Junior Instrumentation Technician will do well to look at the following areas for possible issues:
Tips about performing Visual Checks

1. Look for any ongoing or recently concluded construction activity in the plant area under
your jurisdiction. Scaffolding support pole, crane hook, masonry or any mechanical
framework can fall or hit any instrument (such as a transmitter) or a junction box and
damage it.
2. Look for deterioration of installation due to corrosion particularly in fertilizer plants, acid
plants and plants in coastal sites (saline corrosion). Also note improper instrument covers
during heavy rains.
3. Look for small leaks and heavy leaks in the installations, impulse lines and control valve
gland packing particularly.
4. Feel for ambient vibration while you walk on platforms, structures – this vibration is
transmitted through out structure and it affects instrument mounting, impulse lines etc.
As a result of vibration, bolts become loose or fall off, which leads to unstable mounting of
the concerned device and ultimately to the device falling off and causing damage to itself
as well as to other objects.
5. Do a thorough check on installation affected by vibration.
6. Check for status of clamps on impulse lines.
Figure 2.20 - Typical impulse line leak

Figure 2.20 -- Typical
Figure 2.20 Typical impulse
impulse line
line leak
leak
Figure 2.21 - Check for effects of vibration in such installations

94
2.9.4 Check for potential electrical problems due to deviation
Technician (Processfrom
Control)
standard electrical practices
2.9.4 Check for Potential Electrical Problems Due to Deviation
from Standard Electrical Practices
1. Detect any improper connection from an unknown source with temporary wiring.
2. Detect any broken or disconnected earth wiring.
1. Detect any improper connection from an unknown source with temporary wiring.
3. Inspect
2. DetectExplosion
any broken Proof enclosures. Ensure
or disconnected earth no deviations in explosion proof enclosures and
wiring.
intrinsic safety installation with special focus on bolting integrity
3. Inspect Explosion Proof enclosures. Ensure no deviations in explosion proof enclosures
anda. intrinsic
Look forsafety
any missing bolts/with
installation partially open
special covers
focus and missing
on bolting explosion proof glands.
integrity
4. Checka. for
Look for any
unused missing
flood bolts/plug
light /field partially open covers
connections and missing
with trailing cable. explosion proof glands.
4. a)Check
Check forforunused flood light
bare, untagged or/field plug connections
un-insulated wires with trailing cable.
b) a)
CheckCheck
for anyfor modifications
bare, untagged or or un-insulated
deviation wires proof enclosures and intrinsic safety
in explosion
b) Check for
installation any
with modifications
special or deviation
focus on bolting in explosion proof enclosures and intrinsic
integrity
safety installation with special focus on bolting integrity
Figure
Figure2.22
2.22- -Missing
Missing Bolts Notacceptable
Bolts Not acceptable
Tips about Performing Visual Checks

1. Junior Instrumentation Technician notices a new connection and a newly laid cable to
the junction box/Instrument. This is an opportunity for him to consult instrumentation
documents, seek advice from supervisor and trace cable to the source. He should record
his findings and correct the wiring or remove temporary wiring as guided by supervisor.
2 Earth wire connection is important for most electronic instruments. For example for an
electromagnetic flow meter earth connection is very important. Check for earth integrity
is to be performed frequently.
3 An explosion proof enclosure has entirely different construction as compared to the
normal weather proof enclosure. This is because the enclosure is designed to withstand
an explosion inside. Therefore gland, bolts and box designs are different. It is therefore
important to always close the explosion proof enclosure properly with all glands tightened
and all screws and bolts in place.
Remember: Any opening or loose bolts in the enclosure will cause the explosion inside to spread
out and cause explosion of the whole area.
129
95
Unit 2.10 - Guidelines Regarding House Keeping and Lighting
Unit Objectives
1. Check for Potential Hazards at work place
2 Check for flood light connected by nonstandard temporary cable-Informs supervisor.
3. Identify between flame proof and non flame proof flood lights. Informs supervisor in case
a non flame proof flood light is used in a Hazardous Area of the Plant.
2.10.1 House Keeping

The House Keeping refers to keeping the entire chain of sensors, wiring, junction boxes, instruments,
controllers and actuators in good order so that the processes can be monitored and controlled
accurately and safely. Everything should be clean, tightened, accessible and protected from water/
dust/physical damage.
The following points are specifically checked in the context of Safety Housekeeping:
1. Obstruction in instrumentation workshop under control of Instrumentation department is
a safety hazard. Therefore clear up after finishing jobs.
2. Grease and oil on the floor is a serious trip/fall hazard. Degreasing Floor as per routine of
cleaning department. Warning Boards to be displayed.
3. Temporary bare wire on floor connected to an unknown source is a safety hazard.
4. Disconnected wires whether live or unpowered – unknown status of power source and
location.
If required, additional sockets may be installed in the work area, with voltages marked. The Junior
Instrumentation Technician makes note of the requirement and passes it on the seniors for action.
2.10.2 Flood Light & Temporary Wiring

The Junior Instrumentation Technician checks indoors and outdoors for lighting and their operation.
The purpose is to detect any unsafe temporary wiring of lighting or any wrong type of light fitting,
make note of it and report it to the Supervisor. Specifically, the following points are noted:
1. Checks for flood lights connected by nonstandard temporary cable.
2. Learns to distinguish between flame proof and non flame proof flood lights.
3. Checks for any non flame proof flood light is used in a Hazardous Area of the Plant.
Further points to notice and report:
1. Flood lights for work in Hazardous have the specification of being Flame proof. Standard
flood lights cannot be used here. Report if you notice any such occurrence.
2. Unused and unclaimed Flood lights, if any, must be brought to Electrical Department’s
notice.
96
3. Checks for any non flame proof flood light is used in a Hazardous Area of the Plant.
Further points to notice and report:
1. Flood lights for work in Hazardous have the specification of being Flame proof.
Junior Standard flood
Instrumentation
lights cannot be used here. Report if you notice any such occurrence.
2. Unused and unclaimed Flood lights, if any, must be brought to Electrical Department’s notice.
What
Whatare
areStandard
Standardand
andFlame
FlameProof
ProofFlood
FloodLights?
Lights?
Figure 2.23 - A Standard Flood Light

Figure 2.23 - A Standard Flood Light
Figure 2.24 - A Flame Proof Flood Light

Figure 2.24 - A Flame Proof Flood Light
Notes
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97
Unit 2.11 - Monitor and Maintain Consumables and Follow-up
Unit Objectives
1. Check for consumables wastage and consumable liquid spillage at work.
2. Keep track of consumables availability and inform supervisor of shortage.
3. Report any unusual items found which may be even outside boundary of work.
2.11.1 Maintenance of Consumables

Consumables of various kinds, such as lubricants, cleaning fluid and powder, cotton waste etc.
are used in the plant. It is important to properly use these – from safety and cost points of view.
Consumable liquid spillage at work poses safety hazard, apart from creating an unclean environment.
Similarly, unnecessary wastage leads to material being unavailable when needed – which holds work.
Monitor and maintain Consumables and perform follow-up

1. Check consumption and storage of consumables.
2. Check for excessive consumption /visible wastage of cleaning solvents, lubrication oil and
grease and report
3. Check for excessive consumption of other related consumables such as waste cloth and
gloves
4. Check for proper storage of solvent and waste cloth (potential fire hazard).
Description
1. Junior Instrumentation Technician becomes aware of safety aspects as well cost saving.
2. Junior instrumentation technician becomes proactive by informing supervisor regarding
wastage or shortage of consumables. This becomes particularly important during major
shut downs.
2.11.2 Perform Follow up

Assist Instrumentation technician to complete follow up action as per assigned areas of responsibility
and stipulated instructions. Items found unusual outside this boundary to be reported to supervisor.
Assist Instrumentation technician to complete entry of relevant site Readiness check sheet and obtain
required approval /endorsement. Replace protective covers which have been removed
98
2.11.3 Unusual Items Posing Security Issues

Apart from normal work in plant, certain security issues may surface while taking rounds of the plant.
Junior Instrumentation Technician should be aware of this and act as per instructions given by the
management. Example of these situations are:
1. Unknown items such as unidentified bag, sealed cartons etc.
2. Any new, unfamiliar hardware
3. Unknown persons near installation and curious about installation.
4. Theft of parts and hardware.
These points could turn out to be serious security issues and in all cases Instrumentation Supervisor
needs to be informed.
Notes
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99
100
3. Preventive
Maintenance -
Process Control
Unit 3.1 -
What is Preventive Maintenance?
Unit 3.2 -
Obtain PM-work Permit
Unit 3.3 -
Assist in Organizing PM-Preparatory tasks
Unit 3.4 -
Assist in Executing PM Schedule
Unit 3.5 -
Assist in Preparing PM-Process List
Unit 3.6 -
Assist in Planning PM Schedule
Unit 3.7 -
Assist in Performing PM Visual Checks & Actions
Unit 3.8 -
Assist in Completing PM schedule
Unit 3.9 -
Assist in Preparing PRM List
Unit 3.10 -
Assist in Listing PMs to be Performed during Shut
Down
nit 3.11 - Assist in Following up PM Consolidated List
U
IAS / N0201

1. Explain what Preventive Maintenance means
2. To assess the health of the plant and detect any likely failures in future
3. To prevent likely failures from occurring
4. To perform preventive maintenance regularly to improve its performance and also
decrease the chances of an unexpected failures.
5. Obtain PM-work permit
6. Organize PM-Preparatory tasks
7. Execute PM Schedule
8. Prepare PM-Process List
9. Plan PM Schedule
10. Perform PM Visual Checks & Actions
11. Complete PM schedule
12. Prepare PRM List
13. List PMs to be performed during Shut down
14. Follow up PM consolidated list
102
UNIT 3.1 - What is Preventive Maintenance?
Unit Objectives
1. Explain the purpose of Preventive Maintenance
2. Describe the activities involved in Preventive Maintenance
3.1 What is Preventive Maintenance?

Instrumentation is required to monitor the state of the processes and to control it in real time to
achieve the desired end products. Needless to say, the instrumentation in a modern process plant is
highly complex and involves a large number of components and sub systems which are closely tied to
the processes that are controlled.
As discussed in Module 1, the process control equipment include sensors, detectors, transmitters,
instruments, control systems, actuators, valves and the associated junction boxes, wiring and
terminations. The sensors and actuators are connected to the process equipment physical – to sense
and to actuate devices.
For the process to work smoothly as planned, all parts of the instrumentation and control systems
have to be healthy and working as designed. Many parts are subject to normal wear and tear and
must be replaced at appropriate times. Some parts may have more than normal degradation – owing
to a large number of factors such as the process environment, material ageing, and fatigue as well
as due to vibrations, misalignments, mishandling or damage caused by improper use or abuse.
Since components are interconnected, one component failing may affect others and there may be
a cascading effect. Thus a minor failure such as a sensor or switch malfunction can lead to serious
issues – resulting in stoppage of a part of the process plant.
Preventive Maintenance (PM) is a designed as a planned routine activity performed to detect any
adverse conditions relating to the equipment and its accessories, the wiring and connections and to
rectify these so as to avoid instrument unavailability or breakdown.
PM improves performance and availability of the systems and leads to better compliance to quality
and regulatory standards.
Preventative maintenance is performed regularly on all sensors, detectors, transmitters, instruments,
control systems, actuators, valves and the associated junction boxes, wiring and terminations and all
connections to process equipment to reduce the probability of anything failing.
PM is performed on healthy equipment – so that it remains healthy. It is based on the philosophy that
‘Prevention is Better than Cure’.
103
3.1.1 Role of the Junior Instrumentation Technician in PM

The Junior Instrumentation Technician is not directly involved in executing Preventive Maintenance
activities. He assists the Instrumentation Technician in PM tasks and thereby learns about the
Maintenance environment in a Process industry. He gradually learns on the job and acquires the
knowledge and skills essential for his progression to Instrumentation Technician.
The Junior Instrumentation Technician has to observe the Instrumentation technician, during various
steps, procedures, time targets, preparation, execution, and lining up system and hand over.
During assisting Instrumentation Technician he should fully participate in the work by offering support
as asked and listed below:
a. Recognize and locate items.
b. Read Instrument tag and cross check with relevant Instrument document.
c. Check whether wiring is intact and inform Instrumentation Technician
d. Locate loose connection in tubing or bolting and tighten these only after informing the
Instrumentation Technician.
e. Minor disconnections and connections as and when directed by Instrumentation
Technician.
f. Preparation for PM by collecting relevant spares, consumables, documents, tools and test
equipment from the stores and other locations.
g. Replacement of some part by an identical part when directed by the Instrument Technician.
Notes
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104
UNIT 3.2 - Obtain PM - work permit
Unit Objectives
1. Obtain work permit (mandatory) from the Process supervisor before commencing
maintenance work.
3.2 Obtain PM - Work Permit

The Junior Instrumentation Technician is required to become familiar with the forms and processes
relating to work permits. Refer to Module 2 for more details on ‘Permits to work’ which are generic
for process plants. The Junior Instrumentation Technician must enquire and learn about the exact
forms and procedures applicable for the plant he/she is employed in.
The activities relating to work permits are:

1. Learn about Various types of Permits to work applicable in the plant and use the right
permit for the job.
2. Know about the sequence of activities between granting of permit to returning of the
permit after completion of the job. It is important to return the permit – which is required
for accountability and ensuring the safety of personnel.
a. It must be noted that many activities are performed at heights, in hazardous areas
or in locations which have difficult working conditions – such as heat, cold, humid,
vibrations, noise, fumes, exhausts etc. While there are adequate and elaborate
safety precautions and supervision for working in such areas, the completion of work
and returning of work the permit is a critical activity for confirming that the person
returned safely from the work area.
b. If a work permit is not returned by the end of the day, it may require an enquiry and
search or tracing of the person, depending on the plant practices. If it is found that
the job was completed but the technician was negligent about returning the permit
then it will reflect adversely on the technician and may lead to disciplinary work.
c. If a work permit is lost it must be reported immediately, as the permit may be
misused.
d. Do not transfer the work permit to anyone else.
3. Understand and follow the directives written in the Permit to work, relating to safety
precautions.
4. Ensure that the work place is left tidy after the job, per plant norms. Even if you found
the workplace untidy while starting your work, it is your duty to leave it clean – report
any unusual lack of cleanliness or cluttering in the work area and get support from the
concerned department.
105
Unit 3.3 - Assist in Organizing PM - Preparatory Tasks
Unit Objectives
1. Check sheets and related documents Tools and tackles and calibrating equipment.
2. Personal protective safety equipment
3.3 Organizing PM-Preparatory Tasks

Junior Instrumentation assists the Instrumentation Technician in planning and organizing the PM
work. This involves:
• Noting the instrumentation items on the list for that Day’s Preventive Maintenance schedule.
• Keeping ready
a) Check list, Working document, Vendor, Manual, Data Sheet as required for the day’s
PM work
b) Collect all test equipment that will be needed for the day
c) Collect all tools that will be needed for the day
d) Collect any special personal protective equipment needed for the day
106
UNIT 3.4 - Assist in Executing PM-Schedule
Unit Objectives
1. Assist in Executing PM Schedule
2. Assist in Executing PM jobs as per available PM Schedule.
3.4 Assist in Executing PM-Schedule

Junior Instrumentation assists Instrumentation Technician in executing the PM-Schedule, He
participates, observes and learns on the job. It is assumed that the Preventive Maintenance Schedule
has already been prepared by the Instrumentation Technician.
It is assumed that the planning for organizing tools, spares, and related documents has been
completed so that the job can be started after receiving permit to work.
The activities include:

1. Receive permit to work for the preventive maintenance jobs for the day from the
instrumentation supervisor.
2. Understand the criticality of control loop and installation.
3. Use appropriate SOP/Vendor Manual wherever required.
4. Observes and records the status of the installation and/or the instruments before he starts
on preventive maintenance work under guidance.
5. Complete preventive maintenance tasks as per directions and procedure.
6. Cross checks the behavior/performance of the installation and gets approval from the
Instrument Technician.
7. Cleans up the area.
8. Returns the work permit.
107
UNIT 3.5 - Assist in Preparing PM-Process List
Unit Objectives
1. Include jobs based on routine installation audits and transfer to Preventive maintenance
2. Transfer Process Department observations and defect register entries on Instrumentation
defects in the list.
3.5 Assist in Preparing PM-Process List

Junior Instrumentation assists the Instrumentation Technician in Preparing PM-Process List. He
participates, observes and learns on the job.
The list of jobs in the preventive maintenance list consists of two parts
1. Preventive maintenance job list documented on the basis of SOPs, Failures and
manufacturer’s recommendations.
a. Preventive maintenance jobs are added based on installation audit findings.
2. Jobs from Process Dept. observation list which are in nature of preventive maintenance
jobs.
Notes
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108
UNIT 3.6 - Assist in Planning – PM Schedule
Unit Objectives
1. Describe details of PM jobs planned for next day covering spares, tools, test equipment,
relevant documents.
2. Describe the spares and consumables required.
3. Organize tools and test equipment for the task.
4. Organize Check Sheets, SOPs, and Vendor Manuals etc. relevant for the PM jobs.
5. List visits to installations that have PM jobs next day and inform Instrumentation supervisor
for any scaffolding requirement
6. Assist in Planning PM Schedule and to plan for next day’s preventive maintenance schedule
3.6 Assist in Planning – PM Schedule

This task involves planning for next day’s Preventive maintenance tasks.
Junior Instrumentation assists the Instrumentation Technician in preparing the PM Plan.
This includes all preparation including test equipment, spares, consumables, and check sheet, SOP
and vendor manuals as applicable.
Planning steps include:

1. Detailed information and preparation about PM jobs planned for next day covering -
spares, tools, test equipment and relevant documents.
2. Requirements of spares and consumables. These items are to be issued from stores after
discussing with Instrumentation Supervisor.
3. Collect tools and test equipment for the task.
4. Organize and collect Check Sheets, SOPs, and Vendor Manuals etc. relevant for the PM
jobs.
5. Visit installations that have PM jobs next day and inform the Instrumentation supervisor
for any scaffolding requirements
6. Separate planning is required when assistance from other agencies is required, such as
scaffolding for access of installation (from Site Services department)
Note: Permit to work has to be taken only on the day of the job.
109
UNIT 3.7 - Assist in Performing PM-Visual Checks & Action
Unit Objectives
1. Assist in performing routine PM Visual Checks & Actions
3.7 Performing PM-Visual Checks & Action

This section of Preventive Maintenance Checks is a product of daily routine visual check on plant
instrumentation installations. By addressing the points which emerge from these audits potential
failures can be mitigated.
This task involves performing PM Visual Checks & Actions on daily routine.
Junior Instrumentation assists the Instrumentation Technician in performing PM Visual Checks and
Actions.
PM-Visual Checks & action include the following steps:

1. Carry out Visual Checks of all items in the plant area under the jurisdiction of the
Instrumentation Technician and record observations. Note any deviation from the normal.
2. For any defects or out of the normal situation, determine the logical action to correct the
defect.
3. Take corrective actions wherever possible or else transfer the job to the shutdown list.
What to include in Visual Checks?

a. Check for abnormal noise and locate source.
b. Check for abnormal vibration – locate source. Correct if possible or inform Supervisor.
c. Check for looseness in impulse line clamps, and instrument mounting due to ambient
vibration and tighten bolts under guidance.
d. Check for gland leak and arrest if possible. Read SOP/Vendor Manual for arresting gland
leak on control valves. If not possible, inform supervisor and transfer to shut down list.
e. Take care while tightening gland packing of control valves. Careless tightening can damage
the studs in the gland packing assembly causing leaks and requiring a shutdown of the
installation.
f. Check for Instrument air leaks. Arrest leak, following recommended procedure. If not
possible inform supervisor and transfer to shut down list.
g. Check for control valve bonnet and body flange leaks. Correct/transfer to breakdown list
h. Check for poor electric integrity like exposed terminal and open enclosure - rectify.
• Do not tighten any terminal without taking supervisor’s permission. The act of
tightening may affect the circuit operation in some cases.
110
Visual Checks contd....

i. Check pneumatic and electric connections to solenoid valve. Check for proper insertion
and integrity of cable glands.
j. Check for any abnormal heating of solenoid valve.
• If solenoid valve is overheating inform supervisor immediately
k. Check for loose pneumatic connections. Rectify defects under guidance.
l. Check for pneumatic connections in Pneumatic transmitters and or I/P converters. Check
for looseness and rectify.
m. Check for integrity of valve positioner’s feedback link/connection
n. Check for environment impact, water ingress/corrosion rectifies fault.
o. Check out for likely water ingress in installations due to rain/ water. Reinforce protection
as required.
p. Inspect installation for impact of corrosion.
• Inspection must be followed by arresting corrosion progress. Inform Supervisor if
anything abnormal.
q. Check for loose bolting and rattling in control valve and accessories including manual
operator - Rectify fault.
Notes
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111
UNIT 3.8 - Assist in Completing PM schedule
Unit Objectives
1. Mark entry into scheduled PM list for jobs as complete or not complete
2. Make entry in the preventive maintenance schedule data base.
3. Transfer pending preventive maintenance jobs to “opportunistic maintenance register’
4. Transfer pending preventive maintenance jobs requiring installation shut down to
Opportunistic Maintenance register-shut down category.
3.8 Completion of PM Schedule

Junior Instrumentation assists Instrumentation technician to complete the PM schedule, participates
and learns on the job.
The Complete PM schedule tasks include:

1. Marking every preventive maintenance jobs scheduled as complete or not complete,
stating reasons.
2. Making entry in the preventive maintenance schedule data base.
3. Updating the database records daily since Preventive Maintenance is an ongoing job.
4. Transferring pending preventive maintenance jobs scheduled, to “Opportunistic
Maintenance Register”, stating reasons.
5. Transferring pending preventive maintenance jobs requiring installation shut down to
Opportunistic Maintenance register-shut down category.
Notes
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UNIT 3.9 - Assist in Preparing PRM List
Unit Objectives
1. Understand which smart instruments have this diagnostic message display option.
2. Read diagnostic message from transmitter or digital valve controller and record in PRM
register
3.9 Assist in Preparing PRM (Proactive Reliability

Maintenance) List
Junior Instrumentation Technician assists Instrumentation technician to complete the PRM List,
participates and learns on the job.
Proactive Reliability Maintenance (PRM) is best described as processes to diagnose basic or root
causes of failures. Recurrent failures must be examined in this light.
Preparing PRM List involves:

1. Understanding which smart instruments have this diagnostic message display option.
a. The Junior Instrumentation Technician gets the required information and guidance
from the Junior Instrumentation Technician and / or Supervisor.
2. Reading the diagnostic messages from transmitter or digital valve controller.
3. Noting down the message codes.
4. Decoding messages, using the appropriate documents, and recording in PRM register.
Example of Diagnostic message
Modern Smart Transmitters and Digital Valve Controllers have facility of displaying diagnostic messages
and alerts which can be noted from instrument display. This assists Preventive maintenance in many
ways for example:
• A smart transmitter gives the following message “Status PT 3011# Sensor Over Temperature”-
This could mean transmitter body is hot.
113
UNIT 3.10 - Assist in Listing PM to be taken during Shut downs
Unit Objectives
1. Listing uncompleted PM jobs for opportunistic short shut down or during planned shut
downs
2. Extract PM jobs listed in opportunistic shut down register or planned shutdown register
and execute jobs.
3. Make entries in relevant maintenance data base.
3.10 Listing PM to be taken during Shut down

Junior Instrumentation Technician assists Instrumentation Technician in listing PM to be taken during
Shut downs. Participates and learns on the job.
Listing PM to be taken during Shut down involves:

1. Include preventive maintenance jobs during annual shut down or opportunistic shut down
list.
2. Preventive maintenance jobs that required a shutdown must be listed in a separate register
.
3. Preventive Maintenance jobs that could not be carried out as per schedule should be
carried out during an opportunistic short shut down or during planned shut downs.
4. Extract preventive maintenance jobs listed in opportunistic shut down register or planned
shutdown register and execute jobs.
5. Make entries in relevant maintenance data base.
114
UNIT 3.11 - Assist in Following up Consolidated PM List
Unit Objectives
1. Check status of the master list of PM jobs in data base against the specified target dates
2. Close jobs completed with remarks
3. Flag pending jobs in the list.
3.11 Following up Consolidated PM List

Junior Instrumentation Technician assists Instrumentation Technician in following up on consolidated
preventive maintenance list and closes the list with appropriate status and remarks. Participates in
the activity and learns on the job.
Following up consolidated PM list involves:

1. Checking the status of the master list of Preventive Maintenance jobs in the Instrumentation
department data base against the specified target dates
2. Close jobs completed with remarks as required.
3. Flag up pending jobs in the list. Work on pending jobs and try to close. Transfer to shutdown
list if not feasible to close.
4. In all cases update the Instrumentation Technician / Supervisor on a routine basis and
support him in follow up action.
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116
4. Task Reporting –
Process Control
Unit 4.1 - Task Reporting – Normal
Unit 4.2 - Task Reporting – Faults
Unit 4.3 - Task Reporting – Preventive Maintenance (PM)
Unit 4.4 - Task Reporting - Unusual Occurrence
Unit 4.5 - Task Reporting - Theft
Unit 4.6 - Task Reporting - Security Breach
IAS / N0103

1. Report completed task per organization process.
2. Report faults/issues
3. Perform entry of preventive maintenance check lists/reports
4. Report unusual events
5. Report any theft in related to instruments and accessories
6. Report suspicious movements and unauthorized access around instrumentation
installations
118
Unit 4.1 - Task Reporting – Normal
Unit Objectives
1. Report normally completed task per organization process.
4.1 Perform Task Reporting - Normal

Normal task reporting includes the routine instrumentation related activities, as defined in the
organization SOP. This may include:
• Record keeping in log book or other document as defined by the SOP
• Preparing report of Site Inspection and Visual Check performed of all sensors, instruments,
control panels, junction boxes, wiring, cabling and other accessories
• Filing report for each Work Permit taken and completed, as required in the SOP.
• Communicating the report to Instrumentation Technician, Supervisor and/or other
designated persons in the organization as defined in the SOP.
• Preparing any other report, such as daily work orders processed along with details of
types etc., number of hours of normal work and overtime - as defined in the organization
process.
For reports use the formats specified by the organization.
119
Unit 4.2 - Task Reporting – Faults
Unit Objectives
1. Notice and Record faults of different types
2. Report faults of different types per organization process
4.2.1 What are Faults?

Junior Instrumentation Technician is required to recognize various fault conditions that occur. To do
this, the technician must be familiar with sensors, instruments, controllers, final control elements,
junction boxes, wiring and accessories. He must also be familiar with the methods of using and
maintaining these. These topics are covered in other units.
This unit is concerned with Reporting of faults – fault isolation and correction is dealt with in Preventive
and Corrective Maintenance sections.
Fault is any condition that prevents the monitoring of any process parameter or its control. Something
needs to be done to set the situation right.
Some of the common faults found in the plants are:
1. Poor, Intermittent or No Connections: Faults caused by loose terminals, poor connections,
broken or defective wires/cables.
2. Faults caused by any physical damage (which is visible) to sensors, instruments, other
equipment or accessories - such as dented body, broken mounting bracket, broken gauge
or meter, broken head of thermocouple or RTD, broken terminals, broken junction box etc.
3. Physical damage of Indicator, Push buttons, Switches etc.
4. Limit switch not actuating
5. Dirty relay contact, relay chatter, stuck relay
6. No current in the current loop transmitters – normally caused by wire breakage, open
terminals or defective power supply. A defective power supply will cause many transmitters
to fail.
7. Digital Input /output error reported by PLC
8. Analog input / Output error reported by PLC
9. Pule counter error reported by PLC
10. Communication error reported by PLC
11. HMI not working
12. Other generic faults, such as:
• Sparking on electrical socket
• Burning smell
• Overheating
• Excessive vibration/noise
120
4.2.2 Perform Task Reporting - Faults

When a fault is noticed it needs to be recorded - in a manner prescribed in the SOP. The reporting of
faults of different types is performed as prescribed in the SOP.
While reporting faults, include all details of the fault – such as:
a. Date / Time / Location
b. Device/Instrument name
c. Identification number
d. Physical Damage found
e. Fault details
f. Other affected devices/instruments/systems/accessories
g. Whether this is a recurring fault
Notes
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Unit 4.3 - Task Reporting – Preventive Maintenance (PM)
Unit Objectives
1. Report Preventive Maintenance task per organization process
4.3 Task Reporting – Preventive Maintenance (PM)

The Junior Instrumentation Technician performs PM as per organizational SOP. This is discussed in
more detail in a separate unit. Here we are limited to reporting of PM activities.
PM is a planned activity and hence a schedule is prepared for carrying this out. A preventive
maintenance checklist is generally made per SOP which states what activities need to be performed
and when.
The reporting of PM activities as per check list is to be done.
Notes
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Unit 4.4 - Task Reporting – Unusual Occurrence
Unit Objectives
1. Report unusual occurrences per organization process
4.4 Perform Task Reporting - Unusual Occurrence

Junior Instrumentation Technician should report on noticing any unusual occurrence relating to the
sensors, instrumentation and other equipment and accessories as per organizational SOP.
It is expected that the Junior Instrumentation Technician is observant and is aware of all activities and
incidents that happen in the plant working area. Unusual occurrence could be:
• Overheating
• Burning smell of wire or plastic
• Visible changes in instrumentation or control elements
• Accessories not in proper place / missing
• Environment temperature is too high / cold
• Excessive dust or debris fallen on instruments or sensors
• Cable cut / damaged
• Cable trench / cable covers removed
• Water seepage / rain water flooding
• Chemical seepage / flooding
• Smoke / Discharge of gas
• Leakage of water / liquid / gas / air from pipes
• Device / Instrument moved / removed / handled in unauthorized manner
• Missing label, notice, warning
• Wrong label / Notice / Warning / Defacing of label
• Protective cover missing / removed
• Unauthorized use / misuse of equipment or accessories
• Instrument / Accessory painted or marked in unauthorized manner
While reporting the incident provides as much details as available.
123
Unit 4.5 - Task Reporting – Theft
Unit Objectives
1. Report theft of instrumentation equipment and accessories per organization process
4.5 Perform Task Reporting - Theft

The Junior Instrumentation Technician should keep an eye on the inventory of equipment and
accessories in his jurisdiction. For this purpose a copy of inventory must be maintained.
The Junior Instrumentation Technician should report any missing item or theft of any item of
instrumentation in his area as per SOP.
Before reporting any missing or stolen, the technician must make sure that no one has removed it for
the purpose of maintenance / repairing / replacement. A return items check with the Stores must be
performed. If missing, the incident must be reported, per SOP.
Again, for reporting theft all details must be noted and included in the report, including when it was
last seen.
Notes
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Unit 4.6 - Task Reporting – Security Breach
Unit Objectives
1. Report Security Breach per organization process
4.6 Perform Task Reporting - Security Breach

Junior Instrumentation Technician should report any type of suspicious movement of new/unknown/
unauthorized person(s) in the plant area or instrumentation workshop.
It is expected that the Junior Instrumentation Technician has the knowledge of the security processes
and guidelines of the organization. It is also expected that the technician knows his/her co-workers.
The security norms must be followed by the Junior Instrumentation Technician and all other
employees of the organization. It will help the organization to stop any unwanted situation and keep
the premises safe and secure.
Suspicious or unknown person or activity in the plant / instrumentation workshop area covers:
• Suspicious person is any person not authorized to be in the area. Verify if the person has any
genuine reason to be in the area.
• Suspicious activity is any act by any person which does not appear to be a part of the SOP or
other authorized maintenance or approved purpose.
• The suspicious/unknown person may be someone important like a customer or authorized
visitor and hence be polite and for the purpose of his/her presence and security authorization.
• Prompt reporting of suspicious activities can help to prevent loss of equipment or damage to
equipment.
125
126
5. Safety, Health and
Environment (SHE) –
Process Control
Unit 5.1 - Follow SHE Instructions
Unit 5.2 - Follow SHE for Personal Protection
Unit 5.3 - Support SHE - Audit
IAS / N0105

1. Define and describe of SHE Instructions Follow SHE Instructions.
2. Describe SHE for Personal Protection Directives.
3. Describe Reporting for SHE Audits
128
Unit 5.1 - Follow SHE Instructions
Unit Objectives
1. Understand SHE instructions and know the procedures to follow
2. Understand people related SHE instructions covering accidents and near misses
3. Drive safely
4. Use fire safety equipment
5. Administer First Aid
6. Use personnel protective equipment
7. Understand various types of permits to work such as Normal, Fire Permit, excavation
permit etc.
8. Understand Fire triangle, explosion, fire etc.
9. Understand Hazardous area classification; explosion proof enclosures and intrinsic safety.
10. Understand the difference in instruments for hazardous areas and non-hazardous areas.
5.1 Safety, Health and Environment (SHE) in a Process Control

Plant
The focus is on the awareness about the Safety, Health and Environment factors of working in a
Process Control environment. It also describes responsibility of Instrumentation Technicians who are
working in the process plants.
Normally the process plants have a central SHE department that is responsible for these matters and
formulates the policies and directives for the plant.
Junior Instrumentation Technician is required to be familiar with SHE instructions given by the central
SHE dept.
Knowledge of personnel protective devices and the correct use of these is vital for individual safety.
There is SHE team in the plant who oversee and audit various installations in the plant and the work
area. It is their responsibility as a team to observe and act to resolve safety and health related issues.
Every Process industry has fire drills, emergency mock drills, safety talks, safety exhibition, safety quiz
competition etc. The workforce is encouraged to take full advantage of these opportunities to make
the Process Plants safer.
129
5.1.1 Understand and Follow SHE Instructions
What are the SHE Instructions about?

• Understanding SHE instructions and following prescribed procedures – for example Site
emergency – how do you respond?
• Understanding people related SHE instructions covering understanding of accidents and near
misses.
• Understanding and practicing safety in driving.
• Attending prescribed SHE mandatory training sessions including Drills, administering First Aid.
• Understanding purpose and use of each personal protective equipment, such as safety shoes,
gloves, goggles, helmets, safety masks, breathing air apparatus etc.
• Understanding various types of permits to work such as Normal, Fire Permit, excavation
permit etc.
• Understanding Fire triangle and hence explosion, fire etc. Understanding Hazardous area
classification; explosion proof enclosures and intrinsic safety. Remembering that instruments
can be mounted in both hazardous areas as well as non-hazardous areas.
To Do:
• Interpret and follow formal Instructions from SHE Dept.
• Includes People related safety (example prevention of accidents, safety in driving). Participate
in the prescribed drills including familiarization of personal protective equipment, fire
extinguisher and first aid.
• Follow instructions on Work permit - Normal Permit, Fire permit, excavation permit. Hazardous
Area Classification, Fire and explosion hazards.
Notes
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Unit 5.2 - SHE for Personal Protection Directives
Unit Objectives
1. Describe SHE Personal Protection Directives
5.2.1 SHE for Personal Protection Directives
What are the Personal Protection Directives?

Use right personal protective equipment at all times, appropriate for the work and the work area.
This includes:
1. Use safety shoes and helmet at all times in plant
2. Use ear muffs in prescribed high decibel areas (where there is noise pollution, for example,
where there are a number of rotary machines like turbo compressors operating singly or
together)
3. Adapt right posture during lifting of heavy objects. This is to avoid strain on your back and
keep you fit.
4. Use correct gas mask/breathing air apparatus as per area and directives
5. Use Safety goggles
6. Use the correct gloves
• Note there are separate gloves for working on hot objects and chemicals
Notes
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Unit 5.3 - Reporting – SHE Audits
Unit Objectives
1. Check for leaks
2. Check for unsafe scaffolding and temporary installations
3. Check for correct storage of cleaning solvents and consumable such as waste cloth
4. Check safe working in crane movement area. Ensure helmet is worn.
5. Check housekeeping including oil and water spillages on floor
6. Check for improper bolting or open enclosures / jnction boxes.
5.3.1 Reporting – SHE Audits

SHE audit brings out issues related to Safety, Health and Environment
For example,
a. A person standing on a scaffolding without wearing a safety belt is vulnerable – can fall
from a height and injure himself
b. A chlorine line leak can be dangerous as the inhalation of this gas is unhealthy and could
seriously affect the person and many others in the vicinity, or may be the whole plant.
c. A boiler stack with black smoke reflects unburnt fuel going up the stack and causing
environment pollution. This is likely to have compliance issues as well.
What to check for SHE Audit?

1. Check for leaks
2. Check for unsafe scaffolding and temporary installations
3. Check for correct storage of cleaning solvents and consumable such as waste cloth
4. Check safe working in crane movement area. Ensure helmet is worn.
5. Check housekeeping including oil and water spillages on floor
6. Check for improper bolting or open enclosures / junction boxes.
132
6. Work Effectively
With Teams
Unit 6.1 - Creating team environment
Unit 6.2 - Clear Communication and Working with
Colleagues
Unit 6.3 - Working cooperatively and Team Decision Making
Unit 6.4 - Demonstrating a Sense of Responsibility
Unit 6.5 - Respect for People, Opinion, Custom &
Preferences
Unit 6.6 - Working with Teams of Other Organizations
IAS / N2105

1. Create a healthy and productive team environment
2. Communicate effectively - give and receive
3. Work cooperatively
4. Participate in team decision making
5. Demonstrate Sense of Responsibility
6. Show respect for people, opinions, customs and preferences
7. Work across organization boundaries
134
UNIT 6.1 - Creating Team Environment
Unit Objectives
1. Create a healthy and productive team environment
Introduction
Junior Instrumentation Technician spends most of his working hours in the designated areas of the
plant or instrumentation workshop and keeps in close touch with the Instrumentation Technician
he reports to. He also communicates with his colleagues on a daily basis, and with the Supervisor
on needs basis. He needs to interact with other people in the organization occasionally – such as HR
department, Finance, Maintenance, Support, Security etc. He may also interact with the customers
occasionally. This involves team work and interpersonal relationships. As the person grows in the
career, the domain of interaction widens. In fact, the success in career depends to a great extent on
being a successful team player. It is therefore of importance to understand what it means to work
effectively in teams.
6.1 Creating Team Environment

To get the most out of the team, you have to create a positive work environment for the entire team.
When people feel encouraged, accepted and happy, they become more motivated and perform
better. Some of the ways of creating positive team environment are:
• Engage in meaningful (in-person) dialog: When you make the effort to connect with your
team members in person
• Show your appreciation: Praising someone about their good work not only motivates them
but also creates a positive atmosphere in the team
• Listen to everyone’s ideas- Each person has some ideas, bringing their own experience and
perspectives to the part of the project they’re focused on.
• Trust your team members: Trust is essential for healthy working relationship and team
efficiency.
135
UNIT 6.2 - Clear Communication and Working with Colleagues
Unit Objectives
1. Establish Clear Communication and Work with Colleagues
6.2 Clear Communication and Working with Colleagues

Junior Instrumentation Technician is required to communicate with team members, seniors, as well
as people who belong to other departments or other organizations. To fulfill these requirements,
Junior Instrumentation Technician should be equipped with various communication skills i.e. face to
face, telephonic and written communication. Clarity of communication is very important.
6.2.1 Working with Supervisor

Supervisor, foreman, facilitator are the various job titles of a lower management level, primarily
based on authority over a worker or charge of a workplace.
Getting to know the supervisor
It may take some time and effort to know your supervisor and have a good working relationship. It is
important to talk with your supervisor about how you can work most effectively with him/her.
Notes
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6.2.2 Working with Colleagues

Colleagues are the people you work with in your department but they can also belong to other
departments or divisions of the company.
Junior Instrumentation Technician should understand the importance of sharing information with
colleagues in line with the organizational policies and processes.
6.2.3 Communication Etiquettes

Communication Etiquettes are the rules or accepted norms of addressing, speaking, listening and in
general exchanging information and ideas in a pleasant and professional manner. Proper etiquettes
go a long way in establishing healthy workplace relationship and promoting efficiency.
Carry out commitments
When making a commitment about time taken for maintenance or time taken to prepare the report
appropriate time taken to finish the task should be kept in mind and appropriately communicated.
Commitment which cannot be met should never be communicated or promised. Once committed
the technician should stick to the commitment made.
Offering explanations for inadequacy
Instead of saying ‘No’ immediately, provide an explanation as to why you do not agree. Make effort
to understand what the other person is trying to say and then reach a logical conclusion.
6.2.4 Communicational Workplace

Some of the ways to communicate effectively at workplace are:
Open Meetings
Open meetings are meetings in which the team talks about what and how they feel towards a
particular topic. Properly conducted, this approach can be very effective.
Emails
Ensuring that communication is documented is very essential. In case of any change in the schedule,
process or any approval to be taken it is best done on emails as there is a trail left which can be
referred to later.
One on One Meetings
People understand better when you talk to them on a one-on-one basis where the communication is
clearly directed to a particular person. Ensure that you maintain eye contact with the person so that
the message sinks in.
137
UNIT 6.3 - Working cooperatively and Team Decision Making
Unit Objectives
1. Work with team members
2. Participate in team decision making
6.3 Working Cooperatively and Participating in Team Decisions
6.3.1 The Team

A team is a group of people having a common goal. Although a Junior Instrumentation Technician
works individually in the plant and in the instrumentation workshop, he is always a part of the team
in his organization.
6.3.2 Team Members

There are various members in the lab that will be working with you. Your team members may not
all be Junior Instrumentation Technicians – they may be Assistants, Supervisors, Support staff, Stores
and Finance persons – or anyone else.
Different people in the team have different roles and the team has to work together supporting each
other to achieve the combined goals, targets and objectives. Cooperation is of utmost importance –
as there as always conflicting demands on people and they need to accommodate and adjust their
work so as to enable everyone to achieve their purpose in a non-confrontational way.
The team have to frequently make collective decisions, relating to the work schedule, targets, methods,
processes, work times, reporting, compliance and other issues. There will always be conflicting views
on all issues and it is required that each person makes his/her point of view in a logical manner and
listens to what others say. Whatever decision the team takes, all members are expected to align with
it and support it – whether this was in conflict with what they suggested.
138
UNIT 6.4 - Demonstrating a Sense of Responsibility
Unit Objectives
1. Demonstrating a Sense of Responsibility
6.4 Demonstrating a Sense of Responsibility

Accountability and responsibility are two important aspects of working in the industry.
It is important to understand these terms and practice it in your workplace.
The job role and work assignment defines the expectations the company has from you.
Proper fulfilment of these affects your performance in the eyes of the Supervisor or the Manager.
However, there are situations when you find something is going wrong for which you are not directly
responsible or accountable, which will have negative impact on the team, department or the company.
You demonstrate a sense of responsibility when you step in and try to correct the situation.
It may involve your taking a spot decision for which you may not be authorized.
The reaching out of your defined bounds and taking a step in the interest of the company, with
due reasoning, is generally appreciated by companies and it helps to demonstrate your leadership
qualities.
Notes
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139
UNIT 6.5 - Showing Respect for Colleagues, Opinions, Customs

and Preferences
Unit Objectives
1. Show Respect for Colleagues, Opinions, Customs and Preferences
2. Resolve conflict situations amicably
6.5 Respect for People, Opinion, Custom & Preferences

There will be different types of people in your team that will work alongside you. Each individual will
have different opinions and world views. These differences may be based on:
• Sex
• Age
• Caste
• Religion
• Region
• Economic Status
While you have every right to practice your customs and express your views, it is also imperative that
you respect the views, opinions and customs of other team members. If you do not respect these
and offend the values/beliefs of people around you, then the organization policies may question and
penalize you, which may involve legal actions following the laws of the land.
Notes
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140
6.5.1 Conflict Resolution

There may be situations in the workplace involving a conflict between two individuals (which may
or may not involve you). Hence it is important to understand the various conflict situations and
resolution mechanisms.
Forcing
This involve pushing ones (may be yours) viewpoint without consideration for other persons point of
view. While showing disagreement with a view is not incorrect, taking an irretrievable stand and not
listening and taking into account the merits of alternative suggestion is not helpful in general.
Win-Win (Collaborating)
In this situation a mutually beneficial stand is taken between two individuals where both of the
parties benefit.
Compromising
This looks for a mutually acceptable solution which does not fully satisfy the demands of either party,
but enables the work to go on.
Withdrawing
The individual accepts the outcome without further argument or steps back and removes himself /
herself from the conflict situation.
Notes
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UNIT 6.6 - Working with Teams of Other Organizations
Unit Objectives
1. Work with teams of other organizations
2. Collaborate across organization
6.6 Working with Teams of Other Organizations

Junior Instrumentation Technician should try to:
• Understand the work that teams from other organizations in the premises do. This may
involve technical support, cleaning, security and infrastructure maintenance which may be
outsourced. Each team will demand some attention or have requests for stoppage of work or
suggest a temporary unavailability or work around, which will require you to alter or replan
your work.
• Cooperate with the other teams in the premises to get the work done smoothly with minimal
impact on the work.
• Support the collaborative working environment in the premises in the interest of overall
delivery of the organization.
6.6.1 Collaborative approach

Everyone needs to support the organizational goals, and members of a good team will always support
each other, even at the busiest times.
Offering help and advice
There will be times when you need to offer a colleague some help with a task. Always offer help
quietly and with a smile making sure that your work is not impacted.
Asking for support
There is no harm in asking for support if you are not able to proceed with your tasks. During
maintenance if there is a complex situation that you have not handled earlier then feel free to speak
to your team members or supervisor and ask for support.
Accepting help
Sometimes a colleague may offer you advice or help and you may feel that it is unnecessary.
Gratuitously accept the help when needed and in case you feel that help is not needed explain the
reason politely. Do not hesitate to say thank you.
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Notges
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144
7. Employability and
Entrepreneurship Skills
Unit 7.1 – Personal Strengths & Value Systems
Unit 7.2 – Digital Literacy: A Recap
Unit 7.3 – Money Matters
Unit 7.4 – Preparing for Employment & Self Employment
Unit 7.5 – Understanding Entrepreneurship
Unit 7.6 – Preparing to be an Entrepreneur
145

1. Explain the meaning of health
2. List common health issues
3. Discuss tips to prevent common health issues
4. Explain the meaning of hygiene
5. Discuss the purpose of Swacch Bharat Abhiyan
6. Explain the meaning of habit
7. Discuss ways to set up a safe work environment
8. Discuss critical safety habits to be followed by employees
9. Explain the importance of self-analysis
10. Discuss motivation with the help of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
11. Discuss the meaning of achievement motivation
12. List the characteristics of entrepreneurs with achievement motivation
13. List the different factors that motivate you
14. Discuss the role of attitude in self-analysis
15. Discuss how to maintain a positive attitude
16. List your strengths and weaknesses
17. Discuss the qualities of honest people
18. Describe the importance of honesty in entrepreneurs
19. Discuss the elements of a strong work ethic
20. Discuss how to foster a good work ethic
21. List the characteristics of highly creative people
22. List the characteristics of highly innovative people
23. Discuss the benefits of time management
24. List the traits of effective time managers
25. Describe effective time management technique
26. Discuss the importance of anger management
27. Describe anger management strategies
28. Discuss tips for anger management
29. Discuss the causes of stress
30. Discuss the symptoms of stress
31. Discuss tips for stress management
32. Identify the basic parts of a computer
33. Identify the basic parts of a keyboard
34. Recall basic computer terminology
35. Recall the functions of basic computer keys
36. Discuss the main applications of MS Office
37. Discuss the benefits of Microsoft Outlook
38. Discuss the different types of e-commerce
39. List the benefits of e-commerce for retailers and customers
40. Discuss how the Digital India campaign will help boost e-commerce in India
41. Describe how you will sell a product or service on an e-commerce platform
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42. Discuss the importance of saving money

43. Discuss the benefits of saving money
44. Discuss the main types of bank accounts
45. Describe the process of opening a bank account
46. Differentiate between fixed and variable costs
47. Describe the main types of investment options
48. Describe the different types of insurance products
49. Describe the different types of taxes
50. Discuss the uses of online banking
51. Discuss the main types of electronic funds transfers
52. Discuss the steps to prepare for an interview
53. Discuss the steps to create an effective Resume
54. Discuss the most frequently asked interview questions
55. Discuss how to answer the most frequently asked interview questions
56. Discuss basic workplace terminology
57. Discuss the concept of entrepreneurship
58. Discuss the importance of entrepreneurship
59. Describe the characteristics of an entrepreneur
60. Describe the different types of enterprises
61. List the qualities of an effective leader
62. Discuss the benefits of effective leadership
63. List the traits of an effective team
64. Discuss the importance of listening effectively
65. Discuss how to listen effectively
66. Discuss the importance of speaking effectively
67. Discuss how to speak effectively
68. Discuss how to solve problems
69. List important problem solving traits
70. Discuss ways to assess problem solving skills
71. Discuss the importance of negotiation
72. Discuss how to negotiate
73. Discuss how to identify new business opportunities
74. Discuss how to identify business opportunities within your business
75. Explain the meaning of entrepreneur
76. Describe the different types of entrepreneurs
77. List the characteristics of entrepreneurs
78. Recall entrepreneur success stories
79. Discuss the entrepreneurial process
80. Describe the entrepreneurship ecosystem
81. Discuss the purpose of the Make in India campaign
82. Discuss key schemes to promote entrepreneurs
83. Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship and risk appetite
84. Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship and resilience
85. Describe the characteristics of a resilient entrepreneur
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86. Discuss how to deal with failure

87. Discuss how market research is carried out
88. Describe the 4 Ps of marketing
89. Discuss the importance of idea generation
90. Recall basic business terminology
91. Discuss the need for CRM
92. Discuss the benefits of CRM
93. Discuss the need for networking
94. Discuss the benefits of networking
95. Discuss the importance of setting goals
96. Differentiate between short-term, medium-term and long-term goals
97. Discuss how to write a business plan
98. Explain the financial planning process
99. Discuss ways to manage your risk
100. Describe the procedure and formalities for applying for bank finance
101. Discuss how to manage your own enterprise
102. List important questions that every entrepreneur should ask before starting an enterprise
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Unit 7.1 - Personal Strengths & Value Systems
Unit Objectives
1. Explain the meaning of health
2. List common health issues
3. Discuss tips to prevent common health issues
4. Explain the meaning of hygiene
5. Discuss the purpose of Swacch Bharat Abhiyan
6. Explain the meaning of habit
7. Discuss ways to set up a safe work environment
8. Discuss critical safety habits to be followed by employees
9. Explain the importance of self-analysis
10. Discuss motivation with the help of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
11. Discuss the meaning of achievement motivation
12. List the characteristics of entrepreneurs with achievement motivation
13. List the different factors that motivate you
14. Discuss the role of attitude in self-analysis
15. Discuss how to maintain a positive attitude
16. List your strengths and weaknesses
17. Discuss the qualities of honest people
18. Describe the importance of honesty in entrepreneurs
19. Discuss the elements of a strong work ethic
20. Discuss how to foster a good work ethic
21. List the characteristics of highly creative people
22. List the characteristics of highly innovative people
23. Discuss the benefits of time management
24. List the traits of effective time managers
25. Describe effective time management technique
26. Discuss the importance of anger management
27. Describe anger management strategies
28. Discuss tips for anger management
29. Discuss the causes of stress
30. Discuss the symptoms of stress
31. Discuss tips for stress management
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7.1.1 Health, Habits, Hygiene: What is Health?

As per the World Health Organization (WHO), health is a “State of complete physical, mental, and social
well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” This means being healthy does not simply
mean not being unhealthy – it also means you need to be at peace emotionally, and feel fit physically. For
example, you cannot say you are healthy simply because you do not have any physical ailments like a cold
or cough. You also need to think about whether you are feeling calm, relaxed and happy.
Common Health Issues

Some common health issues are:
• Allergies
• Asthma
• Skin Disorders
• Depression and Anxiety
• Diabetes
• Cough, Cold, Sore Throat
• Difficulty Sleeping
• Obesity
Tips to Prevent Health Issues

Taking measures to prevent ill health is always better than curing a disease or sickness. You can stay
healthy by:
• Eating healthy foods like fruits, vegetables and nuts
• Cutting back on unhealthy and sugary foods
• Drinking enough water everyday
• Not smoking or drinking alcohol
• Exercising for at least 30 minutes a day, 4-5 times a week
• Taking vaccinations when required
• Practicing yoga exercises and meditatio
How many of these health standards do you follow? Tick the ones that apply to you.
1. Get minimum 7-8 hours of sleep every night.
2. Avoid checking email first thing in the morning and right before you go to bed at night.
3. Don’t skip meals – eat regular meals at correct meal times.
4. Read a little bit every single day.
5. Eat more home cooked food than junk food.
6. Stand more than you sit.

7. Drink a glass of water first thing in the morning and have at least 8 glasses of water through
the day.
8. Go to the doctor and dentist for regular checkups.
9. Exercise for 30 minutes at least 5 days a week.
10. Avoid consuming lots of aerated beverages.
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What is Hygiene?
As per the World Health Organization (WHO), “Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to
maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases.” In other words, hygiene means ensuring that you
do whatever is required to keep your surroundings clean, so that you reduce the chances of spreading
germs and diseases.
For instance, think about the kitchen in your home. Good hygiene means ensuring that the kitchen is
always spick and span, the food is put away, dishes are washed and dustbins are not overflowing with
garbage. Doing all this will reduce the chances of attracting pests like rats or cockroaches, and prevent the
growth of fungus and other bacteria, which could spread disease.
How many of these health standards do you follow? Tick the ones that apply to you.
11. Have a bath or shower every day with soap – and wash your hair with shampoo 2-3 times a
week.
12. Wear a fresh pair of clean undergarments every day.
13. Brush your teeth in the morning and before going to bed.
14. Cut your fingernails and toenails regularly.
15. Wash your hands with soap after going to the toilet.
16. Use an anti-perspirant deodorant on your underarms if you sweat a lot.
17. Wash your hands with soap before cooking or eating.
18. Stay home when you are sick, so other people don’t catch what you have.
19. Wash dirty clothes with laundry soap before wearing them again.
20. Cover your nose with a tissue/your hand when coughing or sneezing.
See how healthy and hygienic you are, by giving yourself 1 point for every ticked statement! Then take a
look at what your score means.
Your Score
0-7/20: You need to work a lot harder to stay fit and fine! Make it a point to practice good habits daily and
see how much better you feel!
7-14/20: Not bad, but there is scope for improvement! Try and add a few more good habits to your daily
routine.
14-20/20: Great job! Keep up the good work! Your body and mind thank you!
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan

We have already discussed the importance of following good hygiene and health practices for ourselves.
But, it is not enough for us to be healthy and hygienic. We must also extend this standard to our homes,
our immediate surroundings and to our country as a whole.
The ‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ (Clean India Mission) launched by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi on
2nd October 2014, believes in doing exactly this. The aim of this mission is to clean the streets and roads
of India and raise the overall level of cleanliness. Currently this mission covers 4,041 cities and towns
across the country. Millions of our people have taken the pledge for a clean India. You should take the
pledge too, and do everything possible to keep our country clean!
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What are Habits?

A habit is a behaviour that is repeated frequently. All of us have good habits and bad habits. Keep in mind
the phrase by John Dryden: “We first make our habits, and then our habits make us.” This is why it is so
important that you make good habits a way of life, and consciously avoid practicing bad habits.
Some good habits that you should make part of your daily routine are:
• Always having a positive attitude
• Making exercise a part of your daily routine
• Reading motivational and inspirational stories
• Smiling! Make it a habit to smile as often as possible
• Making time for family and friends
• Going to bed early and waking up early
Some bad habits that you should quit immediately are:
• Skipping breakfast
• Snacking frequently even when you are not hungry
• Eating too much fattening and sugary food
• Smoking, drinking alcohol and doing drugs
• Spending more money than you can afford
• Worrying about unimportant issues
• Staying up late and waking up late
Tips
• Following healthy and hygienic practices every day will make you feel good mentally and physically.
• Hygiene is two-thirds of health – so good hygiene will help you stay strong and healthy!
7.1.2: Safety: Tips to Design a Safe Workplace

Every employer is obligated to ensure that his workplace follows the highest possible safety protocol.
When setting up a business, owners must make it a point to:
• Use ergonomically designed furniture and equipment to avoid stooping and twisting
• Provide mechanical aids to avoid lifting or carrying heavy objects
• Have protective equipment on hand for hazardous jobs
• Designate emergency exits and ensure they are easily accessible
• Set down health codes and ensure they are implemented
• Follow the practice of regular safety inspections in and around the workplace
• Ensure regular building inspections are conducted
• Get expert advice on workplace safety and follow it
Non-Negotiable Employee Safety Habits
Every employee is obligated to follow all safety protocols put in place by the employer. All employees
must make it a habit to:
• Immediately report unsafe conditions to a supervisor
• Recognize and report safety hazards that could lead to slips, trips and falls
• Report all injuries and accidents to a supervisor
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• Wear the correct protective equipment when required

• Learn how to correctly use equipment provided for safety purposes
• Be aware of and avoid actions that could endanger other people
• Take rest breaks during the day and some time off from work during the week
Tips
• Be aware of what emergency number to call at the time of a workplace emergency
• Practice evacuation drills regularly to avoid chaotic evacuations
7.1.3 Self Analysis – Attitude, Achievement Motivation:

What is Self-Analysis?
To truly achieve your full potential, you need to take a deep look inside yourself and find out what kind
of person you really are. This attempt to understand your personality is known as self-analysis. Assessing
yourself in this manner will help you grow, and will also help you to identify areas within yourself that
need to be further developed, changed or eliminated. You can better understand yourself by taking a
deep look at what motivates you, what your attitude is like, and what your strengths and weaknesses are.
What is Motivation?
Very simply put, motivation is your reason for acting or behaving in a certain manner. It is important to
understand that not everyone is motivated by the same desires – people are motivated by many, many
different things. We can understand this better by looking at Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Famous American psychologist Abraham Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. He
believed that people have five types of needs, ranging from very basic needs (called physiological needs)
to more important needs that are required for self-growth (called self-actualization needs). Between the
physiological and self-actualization needs are three other needs – safety needs, belongingness and love
needs, and esteem needs. These needs are usually shown as a pyramid with five levels and are known as
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Self-fulfillment
Self -
needs
actualization:
achiving one's full
potential, including
creative activities
Esteem needs:
prestige and feeling of Psychological
accomplishment needs
Belongingness and love needs:

intimate relationships, friends
Safety needs:
Security, safety Basic
needs
Physiological needs:
food, water, warmth, rest
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As you can see from the pyramid, the lowest level depicts the most basic needs. Maslow believed that our
behaviour is motivated by our basic needs, until those needs are met. Once they are fulfilled, we move to
the next level and are motived by the next level of needs. Let’s understand this better with an example.
Rupa comes from a very poor family. She never has enough food, water, warmth or rest. According to
Maslow, until Rupa is sure that she will get these basic needs, she will not even think about the next level
of needs – her safety needs. But, once Rupa is confident that her basic needs will be met, she will move
to the next level, and her behaviour will then be motivated by her need for security and safety. Once
these new needs are met, Rupa will once again move to the next level, and be motivated by her need for
relationships and friends. Once this need is satisfied, Rupa will then focus on the fourth level of needs –
her esteem needs, after which she will move up to the fifth and last level of needs – the desire to achieve
her full potential.
Understanding Achievement Motivation

We now know that people are motivated by basic, psychological and self-fulfillment needs. However,
certain people are also motivated by the achievement of highly challenging accomplishments. This is
known as Achievement Motivation, or ‘need for achievement’.
The level of motivation achievement in a person differs from individual to individual. It is important that
entrepreneurs have a high level of achievement motivation – a deep desire to accomplish something
important and unique. It is equally important that they hire people who are also highly motivated by
challenges and success.
What Motivates You?

What are the things that really motivate you? List down five things that really motivate you. Remember
to answer honestly!
I am motivated by:
Characteristics of Entrepreneurs with Achievement Motivation

Entrepreneurs with achievement motivation can be described as follows:
• Unafraid to take risks for personal • Very persistent when it comes to achieving
accomplishment goals
• Love being challenged • Extremely courageous
• Future-oriented • Highly creative and innovative
• Flexible and adaptive • Restless – constantly looking to achieve more
• Value negative feedback more than • Feel personally responsible for solving
positive feedback problems
Think about it:
• How many of these traits do you have? • Can you think of entrepreneurs who display
these traits?
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What is Attitude?
Now that we understand why motivation is so important for self-analysis, let’s look at the role our
attitude plays in better understanding ourselves. Attitude can be described as your tendency (positive or
negative), to think and feel about someone or something. Attitude is the foundation for success in every
aspect of life. Our attitude can be our best friend or our worst enemy. In other words:
“The only disability in life is a bad attitude.”
When you start a business, you are sure to encounter a wide variety of emotions, from difficult times and
failures to good times and successes. Your attitude is what will see you through the tough times and guide
you towards success. Attitude is also infectious. It affects everyone around you, from your customers to
your employees to your investors. A positive attitude helps build confidence in the workplace while a
negative attitude is likely to result in the demotivation of your people.
How to Cultivate a Positive Attitude?

The good news is attitude is a choice. So it is possible to improve, control and change our attitude, if we
decide we want to! The following tips help foster a positive mindset:
• Remember that you control your attitude, not the other way around
• Devote at least 15 minutes a day towards reading, watching or listening to something positive
• Avoid negative people who only complain and stop complaining yourself
• Expand your vocabulary with positive words and delete negative phrases from your mind
• Be appreciative and focus on what’s good in yourself, in your life, and in others
• Stop thinking of yourself as a victim and start being proactive
• Imagine yourself succeeding and achieving your goals
What Are Your Strengths and Weaknesses?
Another way to analyze yourself is by honestly identifying your strengths and weaknesses. This will help
you use your strengths to your best advantage and reduce your weaknesses.
Note down all your strengths and weaknesses in the two columns below. Remember to be honest with
yourself!
Strengths Weaknesses
Tips
• Achievement motivation can be learned.
• Don’t be afraid to make mistakes.
• Train yourself to finish what you start.
• Dream big.
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7.1.4 Honesty & Work Ethics: What is Honesty?

Honesty is the quality of being fair and truthful. It means speaking and acting in a manner that inspires
trust. A person who is described as honest is seen as truthful and sincere, and as someone who isn’t
deceitful or devious and doesn’t steal or cheat. There are two dimensions of honesty – one is honesty in
communication and the other is honesty in conduct.
Honesty is an extremely important trait because it results in peace of mind and builds relationships that
are based on trust. Being dishonest, on the other hand, results in anxiety and leads to relationships full
of distrust and conflict.
Qualities of Honest People

Honest individuals have certain distinct characteristics. Some common qualities among honest people are:
1. They don’t worry about what others think of them. They believe in being themselves – they don’t
bother about whether they are liked or disliked for their personalities.
2. They stand up for their beliefs. They won’t think twice about giving their honest opinion, even if they
are aware that their point of view lies with the minority.
3. They are think skinned. This means they are not affected by others judging them harshly for their
honest opinions.
4. They forge trusting, meaningful and healthy friendships. Honest people usually surround themselves
with honest friends. They have faith that their friends will be truthful and upfront with them at all
times.
5. They are trusted by their peers. They are seen as people who can be counted on for truthful and
objective feedback and advice.
Importance of Honesty in Entrepreneurs
One of the most important characteristics of entrepreneurs is honesty. When entrepreneurs are honest
with their customers, employees and investors, it shows that they respect those that they work with. It is
also important that entrepreneurs remain honest with themselves. Let’s look at how being honest would
lead to great benefits for entrepreneurs.
• Honesty and customers: When entrepreneurs are honest with their customers it leads to stronger
relationships, which in turn results in business growth and a stronger customer network.
• Honesty and employees: When entrepreneurs build honest relationships with their employees, it
leads to more transparency in the workplace, which results in higher work performance and better
results.
• Honesty and investors: For entrepreneurs, being honest with investors means not only sharing
strengths but also candidly disclosing current and potential weaknesses, problem areas and solution
strategies. Keep in mind that investors have a lot of experience with startups and are aware that all
new companies have problems. Claiming that everything is perfectly fine and running smoothly is a
red flag for most investors.
• Honesty with oneself: The consequences of being dishonest with oneself can lead to dire results,
especially in the case of entrepreneurs. For entrepreneurs to succeed, it is critical that they remain
realistic about their situation at all times, and accurately judge every aspect of their enterprise for
what it truly is.
What are Work Ethics?
Being ethical in the workplace means displaying values like honesty, integrity and respect in all your
decisions and communications. It means not displaying negative qualities like lying, cheating and stealing.
Workplace ethics play a big role in the profitability of a company. It is as crucial to an enterprise as high
morale and teamwork. This is why most companies lay down specific workplace ethic guidelines that
must compulsorily be followed by their employees. These guidelines are typically outlined in a company’s
employee handbook.
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Elements of a Strong Work Ethic

An entrepreneur must display strong work ethics, as well as hire only those individuals who believe in and
display the same level of ethical behavior in the workplace. Some elements of a strong work ethic are:
• Professionalism: This involves everything from how you present yourself in a corporate setting to the
manner in which you treat others in the workplace.
• Respectfulness: This means remaining poised and diplomatic regardless of how stressful or volatile
a situation is.
• Dependability: This means always keeping your word, whether it’s arriving on time for a meeting or
delivering work on time.
• Dedication: This means refusing to quit until the designated work is done, and completing the work
at the highest possible level of excellence.
• Determination: This means embracing obstacles as challenges rather than letting them stop you, and
pushing ahead with purpose and resilience to get the desired results.
• Accountability: This means taking responsibility for your actions and the consequences of your
actions, and not making excuses for your mistakes.
• Humility: This means acknowledging everyone’s efforts and had work, and sharing the credit for
accomplishments.
How to Foster a Good Work Ethic?
As an entrepreneur, it is important that you clearly define the kind of behaviour that you expect from
each and every team member in the workplace. You should make it clear that you expect employees to
display positive work ethics like:
• Honesty: All work assigned to a person should be done with complete honesty, without any deceit or lies.
• Good attitude: All team members should be optimistic, energetic, and positive.
• Reliability: Employees should show up where they are supposed to be, when they are supposed to
be there.
• Good work habits: Employees should always be well groomed, never use inappropriate language,
conduct themselves professionally at all times, etc.
• Initiative: Doing the bare minimum is not enough. Every team member needs to be proactive and
show initiative.
• Trustworthiness: Trust is non-negotiable. If an employee cannot be trusted, it’s time to let that
employee go.
• Respect: Employees need to respect the company, the law, their work, their colleagues and
themselves.
• Integrity: Each and every team member should be completely ethical and must display above board
behaviour at all times.
• Efficiency: Efficient employees help a company grow while inefficient employees result in a waste of
time and resources.
Tips
• Don’t get angry when someone tells you the truth and you don’t like what you hear.
• Always be willing to accept responsibility for your mistakes.
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7.1.5 Creativity & Innovation : What is Creativity?

Creativity means thinking outside the box. It means viewing things in new ways or from different
perspectives, and then converting these ideas into reality. Creativity involves two parts: thinking and
producing. Simply having an idea makes you imaginative, not creative. However, having an idea and
acting on it makes you creative.
Characteristics of Highly Creative People

Some characteristics of creative people are:
• They are imaginative and playful • They detest rules and routine
• They see issues from different angles • They love to daydream
• They notice small details • They are very curious
• They have very little tolerance for boredom
What is Innovation?
There are many different definitions of innovation. In simple terms, innovation means turning an idea
into a solution that adds value. It can also mean adding value by implementing a new product, service or
process, or significantly improving on an existing product, service or process.
Characteristics of Highly Innovative People

Some characteristics of highly innovative people are:
• They embrace doing things differently
• They don’t believe in taking shortcuts
• They are not afraid to be unconventional
• They are highly proactive and persistent
• They are organized, cautious and risk-averse
Tips
• Take regular breaks from your creative work to recharge yourself and gain fresh perspective.
• Build prototypes frequently, test them out, get feedback, and make the required changes.
7.1.6 Time Management: What is Time Management?

Time management is the process organizing your time, and deciding how to allocate your time between
different activities. Good time management is the difference between working smart (getting more done
in less time) and working hard (working for more time to get more done).
Effective time management leads to an efficient work output, even when you are faced with tight
deadlines and high pressure situations. On the other hand, not managing your time effectively results in
inefficient output and increases stress and anxiety.
Benefits of Time Management
Time management can lead to huge benefits like:
• Greater productivity • Higher efficiency
• Better professional reputation • Reduced stress
• Higher chances for career advancement • Greater opportunities to achieve goals
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Not managing time effectively can result in undesirable consequences like:

• Missing deadlines • Inefficient work output
• Substandard work quality • Poor professional reputation
• Stalled career • Increase in stress and anxiety
Traits of Effective Time Managers

Some traits of effective time managers are:
• They begin projects early • They break tasks into steps with specific deadlines
• They set daily objectives • They continually review long term goals
• They modify plans if required, to • They think of alternate solutions if and when required
achieve better results
• They are flexible and open-minded • They ask for help when required
• They inform people in advance if • They create backup plans
their help will be required
• They know how to say no
Effective Time Management Techniques

You can manage your time better by putting into practice certain time management techniques. Some
helpful tips are:
• Plan out your day as well as plan for interruptions. Give yourself at least 30 minutes to figure out your
time plan. In your plan, schedule some time for interruptions.
• Put up a “Do Not Disturb” sign when you absolutely have to complete a certain amount of work.
• Close your mind to all distractions. Train yourself to ignore ringing phones, don’t reply to chat
messages and disconnect from social media sites.
• Delegate your work. This will not only help your work get done faster, but will also show you the
unique skills and abilities of those around you.
• Stop procrastinating. Remind yourself that procrastination typically arises due to the fear of failure or
the belief that you cannot do things as perfectly as you wish to do them.
• Prioritize. List each task to be completed in order of its urgency or importance level. Then focus on
completing each task, one by one.
• Maintain a log of your work activities. Analyze the log to help you understand how efficient you are,
and how much time is wasted every day.
• Create time management goals to reduce time wastage.
Tips
• Always complete the most important tasks first.
• Get at least 7 – 8 hours of sleep every day.
• Start your day early.
• Don’t waste too much time on small, unimportant details.
• Set a time limit for every task that you will undertake.
• Give yourself some time to unwind between tasks.
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7.1.7 Anger Management: What is Anger Management?

Anger management is the process of:
1. Learning to recognize the signs that you, or someone else, is becoming angry
2. Taking the best course of action to calm down the situation in a positive way
Anger management does not mean suppressing anger.
Importance of Anger Management

Anger is a perfectly normal human emotion. In fact, when managed the right way, anger can be considered
a healthy emotion. However, if it is not kept in check, anger can make us act inappropriately and can lead
to us saying or doing things that we will likely later regret.
Extreme anger can:
• Hurt you physically: It leads to heart disease, diabetes, a weakened immune system, insomnia, and
high blood pressure.
• Hurt you mentally: It can cloud your thinking and lead to stress, depression and mental health issues.
• Hurt your career: It can result in alienating your colleagues, bosses, clients and lead to the loss of
respect.
• Hurt your relationships: It makes it hard for your family and friends to trust you, be honest with you
and feel comfortable around you.
This is why anger management, or managing anger appropriately, is so important.
Anger Management Strategies

Here are some strategies that can help you control your anger:
Strategy 1: Relaxation
Something as simple as breathing deeply and looking at relaxing images works wonders in calming down
angry feelings. Try this simple breathing exercise:
3. Take a deep breath from your diaphragm (don’t breathe from your chest)
4. Visualize your breath coming up from your stomach
5. Keep repeating a calming word like ‘relax’ or ‘take it easy’ (remember to keep breathing deeply while
repeating the word)
6. Picture a relaxing moment (this can be from your memory or your imagination)
Follow this relaxation technique daily, especially when you realize that you’re starting to feel angry.
Strategy 2: Cognitive Restructuring
Cognitive restructuring means changing the manner in which you think. Anger can make you curse, swear,
exaggerate and act very dramatically. When this happens, force yourself to replace your angry thoughts
with more logical ones. For instance, instead of thinking ‘Everything is ruined’ change your mindset and
tell yourself ‘It’s not the end of the world and getting angry won’t solve this’.
Strategy 3: Problem Solving
Getting angry about a problem that you cannot control is a perfectly natural response. Sometimes, try as
you may, there may not be a solution to the difficulty you are faced with. In such cases, stop focusing on
solving the problem, and instead focus on handling and facing the problem. Remind yourself that you will
do your best to deal with the situation, but that you will not blame yourself if you don’t get the solution
you desire.
Strategy 4: Better Communication
When you’re angry, it is very easy to jump to inaccurate conclusions. In this case, you need to force
yourself to stop reacting, and think carefully about what you want to say, before saying it. Avoid saying
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the first thing that enters your head. Force yourself to listen carefully to what the other person is saying.
Then think about the conversation before responding.
Strategy 5: Changing Your Environment
If you find that your environment is the cause of your anger, try and give yourself a break from your
surroundings. Make an active decision to schedule some personal time for yourself, especially on days
that are very hectic and stressful. Having even a brief amount of quiet or alone time is sure to help calm
you down.
Tips for Anger Management

The following tips will help you keep your anger in check:
• Take some time to collect your thoughts before you speak out in anger.
• Express the reason for your anger in an assertive, but non-confrontational manner once you have
calmed down.
• Do some form of physical exercise like running or walking briskly when you feel yourself getting angry.
• Make short breaks part of your daily routine, especially during days that are stressful.
• Focus on how to solve a problem that’s making you angry, rather than focusing on the fact that the
problem is making you angry.
Tips
• Try to forgive those who anger you, rather than hold a grudge against them.
• Avoid using sarcasm and hurling insults. Instead, try and explain the reason for your frustration in a
polite and mature manner.
7.1.8 Stress Management: What is Stress?

We say we are ‘stressed’ when we feel overloaded and unsure of our ability to deal with the pressures
placed on us. Anything that challenges or threatens our well-being can be defined as a stress. It is
important to note that stress can be good and bad. While good stress keeps us going, negative stress
undermines our mental and physical health. This is why it is so important to manage negative stress
effectively.
Causes of Stress
Stress can be caused by internal and external factors.
Internal causes of stress
• Constant worry • Pessimism

• Rigid thinking • Negative self-talk
• Unrealistic expectations • All in or all out attitude
External causes of stress
• Major life changes • Difficulties at work or in school

• Difficulties with relationships • Financial difficulties
• Having too much to do • Worrying about one’s children and/or family
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Symptoms of Stress
Stress can manifest itself in numerous ways. Take a look at the cognitive, emotional, physical and
behavioral symptoms of stress.
Cognitive Symptoms Emotional Symptoms

• Memory problems • Depression
• Concentration issues • Agitation
• Lack of judgement • Irritability
• Pessimism • Loneliness
• Anxiety • Anxiety
• Constant worrying • Anger
Physical Symptoms Behavioral Symptoms

• Aches and pain • Increase or decrease in appetite
• Diarrhea or constipation • Over sleeping or not sleeping enough
• Nausea • Withdrawing socially
• Dizziness • Ignoring responsibilities
• Chest pain and/or rapid heartbeat • Consumption of alcohol or cigarettes
• Frequent cold or flu like feelings • Nervous habits like nail biting, pacing etc.
Tips to Manage Stress

The following tips can help you manage your stress better:
• Note down the different ways in which you can handle the various sources of your stress.
• Remember that you cannot control everything, but you can control how you respond.
• Discuss your feelings, opinions and beliefs rather than reacting angrily, defensively or passively.
• Practice relaxation techniques like meditation, yoga or tai chi when you start feeling stressed.
• Devote a part of your day towards exercise.
• Eat healthy foods like fruits and vegetables. Avoid unhealthy foods especially those containing large
amounts of sugar.
• Plan your day so that you can manage your time better, with less stress.
• Say no to people and things when required.
• Schedule time to pursue your hobbies and interests.
• Ensure you get at least 7-8 hours of sleep.
• Reduce your caffeine intake.
• Increase the time spent with family and friends.
Tips
• Force yourself to smile even if you feel stressed. Smiling makes us feel relaxed and happy.
• Stop yourself from feeling and thinking like a victim. Change your attitude and focus on being
proactive.
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UNIT 7.2 - Digital Literacy - A Recap
Unit Objectives
1. Identify the basic parts of a computer
2. Identify the basic parts of a keyboard
3. Recall basic computer terminology
4. Recall the functions of basic computer keys
5. Discuss the main applications of MS Office
6. Discuss the benefits of Microsoft Outlook
7. Discuss the different types of e-commerce
8. List the benefits of e-commerce for retailers and customers
9. Discuss how the Digital India campaign will help boost e-commerce in India
10. Describe how you will sell a product or service on an e-commerce platform
7.2.1 Computer and Internet basics:

Basic Parts of a Computer
Monitor
Power
Button
Mouse
Keyboard

Fig.7.2.1. Parts of a Computer
• Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer. It interprets and carries out program
instructions.
• Hard Drive: A device that stores large amounts of data.
• Monitor: The device that contains the computer screen where the information is visually displayed.
• Mouse: A hand-held device used to point to items on the monitor.
• Speakers: Devices that enable you to hear sound from the computer.
• Printer: A device that converts output from a computer into printed paper documents.
Basic Parts of a Keyboard
Caps Backspace
Shift Space Enter Arrow Keys

Fig.7.2.2. Parts of a Keyboard
• Arrow Keys: Press these keys to move your cursor.

• Space bar: Adds a space.
• Enter/Return: Moves your cursor to a new line.
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• Shift: Press this key if you want to type a capital letter or the upper symbol of a key.
• Caps Lock: Press this key if you want all the letters you type to be capital letters. Press it again to
revert back to typing lowercase letters.
• Backspace: Deletes everything to the left of your cursor.
Basic Internet Terms
• The Internet: A vast, international collection of computer networks that transfers information.
• The World Wide Web: A system that lets you access information on the Internet.
• Website: A location on the World Wide Web (and Internet) that contains information about a specific
topic.
• Homepage: Provides information about a website and directs you to other pages on that website.
• Link/Hyperlink: A highlighted or underlined icon, graphic, or text that takes you to another file or
object.
• Web Address/URL: The address for a website.
• Address Box: A box in the browser window where you can type in a web address.
Tips
• When visiting a .com address, there no need to type http:// or even www. Just type the name of
the website and then press Ctrl + Enter. (Example: Type ‘apple’ and press Ctrl + Enter to go to www.
apple.com)
• Press the Ctrl key and press the + or - to increase and decrease the size of text.
• Press F5 or Ctrl + R to refresh or reload a web page.
7.2.2 MS Office and Email: About MS Office

MS Office or Microsoft Office is a suite of computer programs developed by Microsoft. Although meant
for all users, it offers different versions that cater specifically to students, home users and business users.
All the programs are compatible with both, Windows and Macintosh.
Most Popular Office Products
Some of the most popular and universally used MS Office applications are:
• Microsoft Word: Allows users to type text and add images to a document.
• Microsoft Excel: Allows users to enter data into a spreadsheet and create calculations and graphs.
• Microsoft PowerPoint: Allows users to add text, pictures and media and create slideshows and
presentations.
• Microsoft Outlook: Allows users to send and receive email.
• Microsoft OneNote: Allows users to make drawings and notes with the feel of a pen on paper.
• Microsoft Access: Allows users to store data over many tables.
Why Choose Microsoft Outlook?
A popular email management choice especially in the workplace, Microsoft Outlook also includes an
address book, notebook, web browser and calendar. Some major benefits of this program are:
• Integrated search function: You can use keywords to search for data across all Outlook programs.
• Enhanced security: Your email is safe from hackers, junk mail and phishing website email.
• Email syncing: Sync your mail with your calendar, contact list, notes in OneNote and…your phone!
• Offline access to email: No Internet? No problem! Write emails offline and send them when you’re
connected again.
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Tips
• Press Ctrl+R as a shortcut method to reply to email.
• Set your desktop notifications only for very important emails.
• Flag messages quickly by selecting messages and hitting the Insert key.
• Save frequently sent emails as a template to reuse again and again.
• Conveniently save important emails as files.
7.2.3 E-Commerce: What is E-Commerce?

E-commerce is the buying or selling of goods and services, or the transmitting of money or data,
electronically on the internet. E-Commerce is the short form for “electronic commerce.”
Examples of E-Commerce
Some examples of e-commerce are:
• Online shopping • Electronic payments

• Online auctions • Internet banking
• Online ticketing
Types of E-Commerce
E-commerce can be classified based on the types of participants in the transaction. The main types of
e-commerce are:
• Business to Business (B2B): Both the transacting parties are businesses.
• Business to Consumer (B2C): Businesses sell electronically to end-consumers.
• Consumer to Consumer (C2C): Consumers come together to buy, sell or trade items to other
consumers.
• Consumer-to-Business (C2B): Consumers make products or services available for purchase to
companies looking for exactly those services or products.
• Business-to-Administration (B2A): Online transactions conducted between companies and public
administration.
• Consumer-to-Administration (C2A): Online transactions conducted between individuals and public
administration.
Benefits of E-Commerce
The e-commerce business provides some benefits for retailers and customers.
Benefits for retailers:
• Establishes an online presence
• Reduces operational costs by removing overhead costs
• Increases brand awareness through the use of good keywords
• Increases sales by removing geographical and time constraints
Benefits for customers:
• Offers a wider range of choice than any physical store
• Enables goods and services to be purchased from remote locations
• Enables consumers to perform price comparisons
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Digital India Campaign

Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched the Digital India campaign in 2015, with the objective of offering
every citizen of India access to digital services, knowledge and information. The campaign aims to improve
the country’s online infrastructure and increase internet connectivity, thus boosting the e-commerce
industry.
Currently, the majority of online transactions come from tier 2 and tier 3 cities. Once the Digital India
campaign is in place, the government will deliver services through mobile connectivity, which will help
deliver internet to remote corners of the country. This will help the e-commerce market to enter India’s
tier 4 towns and rural areas.
E-Commerce Activity
Choose a product or service that you want to sell online. Write a brief note explaining how you will use
existing e-commerce platforms, or create a new e-commerce platform, to sell your product or service.
Tips
• Before launching your e-commerce platform, test everything.
• Pay close and personal attention to your social media.
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UNIT 7.3 - Money Matters
Unit Objectives
1. Discuss the importance of saving money
2. Discuss the benefits of saving money
3. Discuss the main types of bank accounts
4. Describe the process of opening a bank account
5. Differentiate between fixed and variable costs
6. Describe the main types of investment options
7. Describe the different types of insurance products
8. Describe the different types of taxes
9. Discuss the uses of online banking
10. Discuss the main types of electronic funds transfers
7.3.1 Personal Finance – Why to Save?: Importance of Saving

We all know that the future is unpredictable. You never know what will happen tomorrow, next week or
next year. That’s why saving money steadily through the years is so important. Saving money will help
improve your financial situation over time. But more importantly, knowing that you have money stashed
away for an emergency will give you peace of mind. Saving money also opens the door to many more
options and possibilities.
Benefits of Saving
Inculcating the habit of saving leads to a vast number of benefits. Saving helps you:
• Become financially independent: When you have enough money saved up to feel secure you can
start making your choices, from taking a vacation whenever you want, to switching careers or starting
your own business.
• Invest in yourself through education: Through saving, you can earn enough to pay up for courses
that will add to your professional experience and ultimately result in higher paying jobs.
• Get out of debt: Once you have saved enough as a reserve fund, you can use your savings to pay off
debts like loans or bills that have accumulated over time.
• Be prepared for surprise expenses: Having money saved enables you to pay for unforeseen expenses
like sudden car or house repairs, without feeling financially stressed.
• Pay for emergencies: Saving helps you deal with emergencies like sudden health issues or emergency
trips without feeling financially burdened.
• Afford large purchases and achieve major goals: Saving diligently makes it possible to place down
payments towards major purchases and goals, like buying a home or a car.
• Retire: The money you have saved over the years will keep you comfortable when you no longer
have the income you would get from your job.
Tips
• Break your spending habit. Try not spending on one expensive item per week, and put the money
that you would have spent into your savings.
• Decide that you will not buy anything on certain days or weeks and stick to your word.
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7.3.2 Types of Bank Accounts, Opening a

Bank Account: Types of Bank Accounts
In India, banks offer four main types of bank accounts. These are:
• Current Accounts
• Savings Accounts
• Recurring Deposit Accounts
• Fixed Deposit Accounts
Current Accounts
Current accounts offer the most liquid deposits and thus, are best suited for businessmen and companies.
As these accounts are not meant for investments and savings, there is no imposed limit on the number
or amount of transactions that can be made on any given day. Current account holders are not paid any
interest on the amounts held in their accounts. They are charged for certain services offered on such
accounts.
Savings Accounts
Savings accounts are meant to promote savings, and are therefore the number one choice for salaried
individuals, pensioners and students. While there is no restriction on the number and amount of deposits
made, there are usually restrictions on the number and amount of withdrawals. Savings account holders
are paid interest on their savings.
Recurring Deposit Accounts
Recurring Deposit accounts, also called RD accounts, are the accounts of choice for those who want to
save an amount every month, but are unable to invest a large sum at one time. Such account holders
deposit a small, fixed amount every month for a pre-determined period (minimum 6 months). Defaulting
on a monthly payment results in the account holder being charged a penalty amount. The total amount
is repaid with interest at the end of the specified period.
Fixed Deposit Accounts
Fixed Deposit accounts, also called FD accounts, are ideal for those who wish to deposit their savings
for a long term in return for a high rate of interest. The rate of interest offered depends on the amount
deposited and the time period, and also differs from bank to bank. In the case of an FD, a certain amount
of money is deposited by the account holder for a fixed period of time. The money can be withdrawn
when the period expires. If necessary, the depositor can break the fixed deposit prematurely. However,
this usually attracts a penalty amount which also differs from bank to bank.
Opening a Bank Account

Opening a bank account is quite a simple process. Take a look at the steps to open an account of your
own:
Step 1: Fill in the Account Opening Form
This form requires you to provide the following information:
• Personal details (name, address, phone number, date of birth, gender, occupation, address)
• Method of receiving your account statement (hard copy/email)
• Details of your initial deposit (cash/cheque)
• Manner of operating your account (online/mobile banking/traditional via cheque, slip books)
Ensure that you sign wherever required on the form.
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Step 2: Affix your Photograph

Stick a recent photograph of yourself in the allotted space on the form.
Step 3: Provide your Know Your Customer (KYC) Details
KYC is a process that helps banks verify the identity and address of their customers. To open an account,
every individual needs to submit certain approved documents with respect to photo identity (ID) and
address proof. Some Officially Valid Documents (OVDs) are:
• Passport • Driving License

• Voters’ Identity Card • PAN Card
• UIDAI (Aadhaar) Card
Step 4: Submit All your Documents
Submit the completed Account Opening Form and KYC documents. Then wait until the forms are processed
and your account has been opened!
Tips
• Select the right type of account. • Fill in complete nomination details.
• Ask about fees. • Understand the rules.
• Check for online banking – it’s convenient! • Keep an eye on your bank balance.
7.3.3 Costs: Fixed vs Variable: What are Fixed and

Variable Costs?
Fixed costs and variable costs together make up a company’s total cost. These are the two types of costs
that companies have to bear when producing goods and services.
A fixed cost does not change with the volume of goods or services a company produces. It always remains
the same.
A variable cost, on the other hand, increases and decreases depending on the volume of goods and
services produced. In other words, it varies with the amount produced.
Differences Between Fixed and Variable Costs

Let’s take a look at some of the main differences between fixed and variable costs:
Criteria Fixed Costs Variable Costs

Meaning A cost that stays the same, regardless of A cost that changes when the output
the output produced. changes.
Nature Time related. Volume related.
Incurred Incurred irrespective of units being Incurred only when units are produced.
produced.
Unit cost Inversely proportional to the number of Remains the same, per unit.
units produced.
Examples Depreciation, rent, salary, insurance, tax Material consumed, wages, commission on
etc. sales, packing expenses, etc.
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Tips
• When trying to determine whether a cost is fixed or variable, simply ask the following question: Will
the particular cost change if the company stopped its production activities? If the answer is no, then
it is a fixed cost. If the answer is yes, then it is probably a variable cost.
7.3.4 Investment, Insurance and Taxes: Investment

Investment means that money is spent today with the aim of reaping financial gains at a future time. The
main types of investment options are as follows:
• Bonds: Bonds are instruments used by public and private companies to raise large sums of money
– too large to be borrowed from a bank. These bonds are then issued in the public market and are
bought by lenders.
• Stocks: Stocks or equity are shares that are issued by companies and are bought by the general
public.
• Small Savings Schemes: Small Savings Schemes are tools meant to save money in small amounts.
Some popular schemes are the Employees Provident Fund, Sukanya Samriddhi Scheme and National
Pension Scheme.
• Mutual Funds: Mutual Funds are professionally managed financial instruments that invest money in
different securities on behalf of investors.
• Fixed Deposits: A fixed amount of money is kept aside with a financial institution for a fixed amount
of time in return for interest on the money.
• Real Estate: Loans are taken from banks to purchase real estate, which is then leased or sold with the
aim of making a profit on the appreciated property price.
• Hedge Funds: Hedge funds invest in both financial derivatives and/or publicly traded securities.
• Private Equity: Private Equity is trading in the shares of an operating company that is not publicly
listed and whose shares are not available on the stock market.
• Venture Capital: Venture Capital involves investing substantial capital in a budding company in return
for stocks in that company.
Insurance
There are two types of insurance – Life Insurance and Non-Life or General Insurance.
Life Insurance
Life Insurance deals with all insurance covering human life.
Life Insurance Products
The main life insurance products are:
• Term Insurance: This is the simplest and cheapest form of insurance. It offers financial protection for
a specified tenure, say 15 to 20 years. In the case of your death, your family is paid the sum assured.
In the case of your surviving the term, the insurer pays nothing.
• Endowment Policy: This offers the dual benefit of insurance and investment. Part of the premium is
allocated towards the sum assured, while the remaining premium gets invested in equity and debt. It
pays a lump sum amount after the specified duration or on the death of the policyholder, whichever
is earlier.
• Unit-Linked Insurance Plan (ULIP): Here part of the premium is spent on the life cover, while the
remaining amount is invested in equity and debt. It helps develop a regular saving habit.
• Money Back Life Insurance: While the policyholder is alive, periodic payments of the partial survival
benefits are made during the policy tenure. On the death of the insured, the insurance company
pays the full sum assured along with survival benefits.
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• Whole Life Insurance: It offers the dual benefit of insurance and investment. It offers insurance cover
for the whole life of the person or up to 100 years whichever is earlier.
General Insurance
General Insurance deals with all insurance covering assets like animals, agricultural crops, goods, factories,
cars and so on.
General Insurance Products
The main general insurance products are:
• Motor Insurance: This can be divided into Four Wheeler Insurance and Two Wheeler Insurance.
• Health Insurance: The main types of health insurance are individual health insurance, family floater
health insurance, comprehensive health insurance and critical illness insurance.
• Travel Insurance: This can be categorised into Individual Travel Policy, Family Travel Policy, Student
Travel Insurance and Senior Citizen Health Insurance.
• Home Insurance: This protects the house and its contents from risk.
• Marine Insurance: This insurance covers goods, freight, cargo etc. against loss or damage during
transit by rail, road, sea and/or air.
Taxes
There are two types of taxes – Direct Taxes and Indirect Taxes.
Direct Tax
Direct taxes are levied directly on an entity or a person and are non-transferrable.
Some examples of Direct Taxes are:
• Income Tax: This tax is levied on your earning in a financial year. It is applicable to both, individuals
and companies.
• Capital Gains Tax: This tax is payable whenever you receive a sizable amount of money. It is usually
of two types – short term capital gains from investments held for less than 36 months and long term
capital gains from investments held for longer than 36 months.
• Securities Transaction Tax: This tax is added to the price of a share. It is levied every time you buy or
sell shares.
• Perquisite Tax: This tax is levied is on perks that have been acquired by a company or used by an
employee.
• Corporate Tax: Corporate tax is paid by companies from the revenue they earn.
Indirect Tax
Indirect taxes are levied on goods or services.
Some examples of Indirect Taxes are:
• Sales Tax: Sales Tax is levied on the sale of a product.
• Service Tax: Service Tax is added to services provided in India.
• Value Added Tax: Value Added Tax is levied at the discretion of the state government. The tax is
levied on goods sold in the state. The tax amount is decided by the state.
• Customs Duty & Octroi: Customs Duty is a charge that is applied on purchases that are imported from
another country. Octroi is levied on goods that cross state borders within India.
• Excise Duty: Excise Duty is levied on all goods manufactured or produced in India.
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Tips
• Think about how quickly you need your money back and pick an investment option accordingly.
• Ensure that you are buying the right type of insurance policy for yourself.
• Remember, not paying taxes can result in penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment.
7.3.5 Online Banking, NEFT, RTGS etc.:

What is Online Banking?
Internet or online banking allows account holders to access their account from a laptop at any location.
In this way, instructions can be issued. To access an account, account holders simply need to use their
unique customer ID number and password.
Internet banking can be used to:
• Find out an account balance
• Transfer amounts from one account to another
• Arrange for the issuance of cheques
• Instruct payments to be made
• Request for a cheque book
• Request for a statement of accounts
• Make a fixed deposit
Electronic Funds Transfers
Electronic funds transfer is a convenient way of transferring money from the comfort of one’s own home,
using integrated banking tools like internet and mobile banking.
Transferring funds via an electronic gateway is extremely convenient. With the help of online banking,
you can choose to:
• Transfer funds into your own accounts of the same bank.
• Transfer funds into different accounts of the same bank.
• Transfer funds into accounts in different banks, using NEFT.
• Transfer funds into other bank accounts using RTGS.
• Transfer funds into various accounts using IMPS.
NEFT
NEFT stands for National Electronic Funds Transfer. This money transfer system allows you to electronically
transfer funds from your respective bank accounts to any other account, either in the same bank or
belonging to any other bank. NEFT can be used by individuals, firms and corporate organizations to
transfer funds between accounts.
In order to transfer funds via NEFT, two things are required:
• A transferring bank
• A destination bank
Before you can transfer funds through NEFT, you will need to register the beneficiary who will be receiving
the funds. In order to complete this registration, you will require the following information:
• Recipient’s name • Recipient’s bank’s name
• Recipient’s account number • Recipient’s bank’s IFSC code
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RTGS
RTGS stands for Real Time Gross Settlement. This is a real time funds transfer system which enables you
to transfer funds from one bank to another, in real time or on a gross basis. The transferred amount is
immediately deducted from the account of one bank, and instantly credited to the other bank’s account.
The RTGS payment gateway is maintained by the Reserve Bank of India. The transactions between banks
are made electronically.
RTGS can be used by individuals, companies and firms to transfer large sums of money. Before remitting
funds through RTGS, you will need to add the beneficiary and his bank account details via your online
banking account. In order to complete this registration, you will require the following information:
• Name of the beneficiary • Beneficiary’s account number

• Beneficiary’s bank address • Beneficiary’s bank’s IFSC code
IMPS
IMPS stands for Immediate Payment Service. This is a real-time, inter-bank, electronic funds transfer
system used to transfer money instantly within banks across India. IMPS enables users to make instant
electronic transfer payments using mobile phones through both, Mobile Banking and SMS. It can also be
used through ATMs and online banking. IMPS is available 24 hours a day and 7 days a week. The system
features a secure transfer gateway and immediately confirms orders that have been fulfilled.
To transfer money through IMPS, the you need to:
• Register for IMPS with your bank
• Receive a Mobile Money Identifier (MMID) from the bank
• Receive a MPIN from the bank
Once you have both these, you can login or make a request through SMS to transfer a particular amount
to a beneficiary.
For the beneficiary to receive the transferred money, he must:
1. Link his mobile number with his respective account
2. Receive the MMID from the bank
In order to initiate a money transfer through IMPS, you will need to enter the following information:
1. The beneficiary’s mobile number 2. The beneficiary’s MMID

3. The transfer amount 4. Your MPIN
As soon as money has been deducted from your account and credited into the beneficiary’s account, you
will be sent a confirmation SMS with a transaction reference number, for future reference.
Differences Between NEFT, RTGS & IMPS

Criteria NEFT RTGS IMPS
Settlement Done in batches Real-time Real-time
Full form National Electronic Fund Real Time Gross Immediate Payment
Transfer Settlement Service
Timings on 8:00 am – 6:30 pm 9:00 am – 4:30 pm 24x7
Monday – Friday
Timings on 8:00 am – 1:00 pm 9:00 am – 1:30 pm 24x7
Saturday
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Criteria NEFT RTGS IMPS

Minimum amount `1 `2 lacs `1
of money transfer
limit
Maximum amount `10 lacs `10 lacs per day `2 lacs
of money transfer
limit
Maximum charges Upto 10,000 – `2.5 above 2 – 5 lacs – `25 Upto 10,000 – `5
as per RBI above 10,000 – 1 lac – above 10,000 – 1 lac –
above 5 – 10 lacs – `50
`5 `5
above 1 – 2 lacs – above 1 – 2 lacs –
`15 `15
above 2 – 5 lacs –
`25
above 5 – 10 lacs –
`25
Tips
• Never click on any links in any e-mail message to access your online banking website.
• You will never be asked for your credit or debit card details while using online banking.
• Change your online banking password regularly.
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UNIT 7.4 - Preparing for Employment & Self Employment
Unit Objectives
1. Discuss the steps to prepare for an interview
2. Discuss the steps to create an effective Resume
3. Discuss the most frequently asked interview questions
4. Discuss how to answer the most frequently asked interview questions
5. Discuss basic workplace terminology
7.4.1 Interview Preparation: How to Prepare for an Interview?

The success of your getting the job that you want depends largely on how well your interview for that
job goes. Therefore, before you go in for your interview, it is important that you prepare for it with a fair
amount of research and planning. Take a look at the steps to follow in order to be well prepared for an
interview:
1. Research the organization that you are having the interview with.
• Studying the company beforehand will help you be more prepared at the time of the interview.
Your knowledge of the organization will help you answer questions at the time of the interview,
and will leave you looking and feeling more confident. This is sure to make you stand out from
other, not as well informed, candidates.
• Look for background information on the company. Ty and find an overview of the company and
its industry profile.
• Visit the company website to get a good idea of what the company does. A company website offers
a wealth of important information. Read and understand the company’s mission statement. Pay
attention to the company’s products/services and client list. Read through any press releases to
get an idea of the company’s projected growth and stability.
• Note down any questions that you have after your research has been completed.
2. Think about whether your skills and qualifications match the job requirements.
• Carefully read through and analyze the job description.
• Make a note of the knowledge, skills and abilities required to fulfill the job requirements.
• Take a look at the organization hierarchy. Figure out where the position you are applying for fits
into this hierarchy.
3. Go through the most typical interview questions asked, and prepare your responses.
• Remember, in most interviews a mix of resume-based, behavioral and case study questions are
asked.
• Think about the kind of answers you would like to provide to typical questions asked in these
three areas.
• Practice these answers until you can express them confidently and clearly.
4. Plan your attire for the interview.
• It is always safest to opt for formal business attire, unless expressly informed to dress in business
casual (in which case you should use your best judgement).
• Ensure that your clothes are clean and well-ironed. Pick neutral colours – nothing too bright or
flashy.
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• The shoes you wear should match your clothes, and should be clean and suitable for an interview.
• Remember, your aim is to leave everyone you meet with the impression that you are a
professional and highly efficient person.
5. Ensure that you have packed everything that you may require during the interview.
• Carry a few copies of your resume. Use a good quality paper for your resume print outs.
• Always take along a notepad and a pen.
• Take along any information you may need to refer to, in order to fill out an application form.
• Carry a few samples of your work, if relevant.
6. Remember the importance of non-verbal communication.
• Practice projecting confidence. Remind yourself to smile and make eye contact. Practice giving
a firm handshake.
• Keep in mind the importance of posture. Practice sitting up straight. Train yourself to stop
nervous gestures like fidgeting and foot-tapping.
• Practice keeping your reactions in check. Remember, your facial expressions provide a good
insight into your true feelings. Practice projecting a positive image.
7. Make a list of questions to end the interview with.
• Most interviews will end with the interviewer(s) asking if you have any questions. This is your
chance to show that you have done your research and are interested in learning more about the
company.
• If the interviewer does not ask you this question, you can inform him/her that you have some
queries that you would like to discuss. This is the time for you to refer to the notes you made
while studying the company.
• Some good questions to ask at this point are:
What do you consider the most important criteria for success in this job?
How will my performance be evaluated?
What are the opportunities for advancement?
What are the next steps in the hiring process?
• Remember, never ask for information that is easily available on the company website.
Tips
• Ask insightful and probing questions.
• When communicating, use effective forms of body language like smiling, making eye contact, and
actively listening and nodding. Don’t slouch, play with nearby items, fidget, chew gum, or mumble.
7.4.2 Preparing an Effective Resume: How to

Create an Effective Resume?
A resume is a formal document that lists a candidate’s work experience, education and skills.
A good resume gives a potential employer enough information to believe the applicant is worth
interviewing. That’s why it is so important to create a resume that is effective. Take a look at the steps to
create an effective resume:
Step 1: Write the Address Section
The Address section occupies the top of your resume. It includes information like your name, address, phone
number and e-mail address. Insert a bold line under the section to separate it from rest of your resume.
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Example:
Khyati Mehta
Breach Candy, Mumbai – India
Contact No: +91 2223678270
Email: [email protected]
Step 2: Add the Profile Summary Section

This part of your resume should list your overall experiences, achievements, awards, certifications and
strengths. You can make your summary as short as 2-3 bullet points or as long as 8-10 bullet points.
Example:
Profile Summary
• A Floor Supervisor graduated from University of Delhi having 6 years of experience in managing a
retail outlet.
• Core expertise lies in managing retail staff, including cashiers and people working on the floor.
Step 3: Include Your Educational Qualifications
When listing your academic records, first list your highest degree. Then add the second highest
qualification under the highest one and so on. To provide a clear and accurate picture of your educational
background, it is critical that include information on your position, rank, percentage or CPI for every
degree or certification that you have listed.
If you have done any certifications and trainings, you can add a Trainings & Certifications section under
your Educational Qualifications section.
Example:
Educational Qualifications
• <Enter qualification> <enter date of qualification> from <enter name of institute> with <enter
percentage or any other relevant scoring system>.
Step 4: List Your Technical Skills
When listing your technical skills, start with the skills that you are most confident about. Then add the
skills that you do not have as good a command over. It is perfectly acceptable to include just one skill, if
you feel that particular skill adds tremendous value to your résumé. If you do not have any technical skills,
you can omit this step.
Example:
Technical Skills
• <Enter your technical skill here, if applicable>
Step 5: Insert Your Academic Project Experience
List down all the important projects that you have worked on. Include the following information in this
section:
• Project title • Organization • Platform used

• Contribution • Description
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Example:
Academic Projects
Project Title: <Insert project title>
Organization: <Insert the name of the organization for whom you did the project>
Platform used: <Insert the platform used, if any>
Contribution: <Insert your contribution towards this project>
Description: <Insert a description of the project in one line>
Step 6: List Your Strengths
This is where you list all your major strengths. This section should be in the form of a bulleted list.
Example:
Strengths
• Excellent oral, written and presentation skills
• Action-oriented and result-focused
• Great time management skills
Step 7: List Your Extracurricular Activities
It is very important to show that you have diverse interests and that your life consists of more than
academics. Including your extracurricular activities can give you an added edge over other candidates
who have similar academic scores and project experiences. This section should be in the form of a
bulleted list.
Example:
Extracurricular Activities
• < Insert your extracurricular activity here. E.g.: Member of , played (name of sport)
at level, won (name of prize/award) for >
Step 8: Write Your Personal Details
The last section of your résumé must include the following personal information:
• Date of birth • Gender & marital status

• Nationality • Languages known
Example:
Personal Details
• Date of birth: 25th May, 1981
• Gender & marital status: Female, Single
• Nationality: Indian
• Languages known: English, Hindi, Tamil, French
Tips
• Keep your resume file name short, simple and informational.
• Make sure the resume is neat and free from typing errors.
• Always create your resume on plain white paper.
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7.4.3 Interview FAQs

Take a look at some of the most frequently asked interview questions, and some helpful tips on how to
answer them.
Q1. Can you tell me a little about yourself?
Tips to answer:
• Don’t provide your full employment or personal history.
• Offer 2-3 specific experiences that you feel are most valuable and relevant.
• Conclude with how those experiences have made you perfect for this specific role.
Q2. How did you hear about the position?
Tips to answer:
• Tell the interviewer how you heard about the job – whether it was through a friend (name the
friend), event or article (name them) or a job portal (say which one).
• Explain what excites you about the position and what in particular caught your eye about this role.
Q3. What do you know about the company?
Tips to answer:
• Don’t recite the company’s About Us page.
• Show that you understand and care about the company’s goals.
• Explain why you believe in the company’s mission and values.
Q4. Why do you want this job?
Tips to answer:
• Show that you are passionate about the job.
• Identify why the role is a great fit for you.
• Explain why you love the company.
Q5. Why should we hire you?
Tips to answer:
• Prove through your words that you can not only do the work, but can definitely deliver excellent
results.
• Explain why you would be a great fit with the team and work culture.
• Explain why you should be chosen over any other candidate.
Q6. What are your greatest professional strengths?
Tips to answer:
• Be honest – share some of your real strengths, rather than give answers that you think sound good.
• Offer examples of specific strengths that are relevant to the position you are applying for.
• Provide examples of how you’ve demonstrated these strengths.
Q7. What do you consider to be your weaknesses?
Tips to answer:
• The purpose of this question is to gauge your self-awareness and honesty.
• Give an example of a trait that you struggle with, but that you’re working on to improve.
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Q8. What are your salary requirements?

Tips to answer:
• Do your research beforehand and find out the typical salary range for the job you are applying for.
• Figure out where you lie on the pay scale based on your experience, education, and skills.
• Be flexible. Tell the interviewer that you know your skills are valuable, but that you want the job and
are willing to negotiate.
Q9. What do you like to do outside of work?
Tips to answer:
• The purpose of this question is to see if you will fit in with the company culture.
• Be honest – open up and share activities and hobbies that interest and excite you.
Q10. If you were an animal, which one would you want to be?
Tips to answer:
• The purpose of this question is to see if you are able to think on your feet.
• There’s no wrong answer – but to make a great impression try to bring out your strengths or
personality traits through your answer.
Q11: What do you think we could do better or differently?
Tips to answer:
• The purpose of this question is to see if you have done your research on the company, and to test
whether you can think critically and come up with new ideas.
• Suggest new ideas. Show how your interests and expertise would help you execute these ideas.
Q12: Do you have any questions for us?
Tips to answer:
• Do not ask questions to which the answers can be easily found on the company website or through
a quick online search.
• Ask intelligent questions that show your ability to think critically.
Tips
• Be honest and confident while answering.
• Use examples of your past experiences wherever possible to make your answers more impactful.
7.4.4 Work Readiness – Terms & Terminologies:

Basic Workplace Terminology
Every employee should be well versed in the following terms:
• Annual leave: Paid vacation leave given by employers to employees.
• Background Check: A method used by employers to verify the accuracy of the information provided
by potential candidates.
• Benefits: A part of an employee’s compensation package.
• Breaks: Short periods of rest taken by employees during working hours.
• Compensation Package: The combination of salary and benefits that an employer provides to his/
her employees.
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• Compensatory Time (Comp Time): Time off in lieu of pay.

• Contract Employee: An employee who works for one organization that sells said employee’s services
to another company, either on a project or time basis.
• Contract of Employment: When an employee is offered work in exchange for wages or salary, and
accepts the offer made by the employer, a contract of employment exists.
• Corporate Culture: The beliefs and values shared by all the members of a company, and imparted
from one generation of employees to another.
• Counter Offer/Counter Proposal: A negotiation technique used by potential candidates to increase
the amount of salary offered by a company.
• Cover Letter: A letter that accompanies a candidate’s resume. It emphasizes the important points in
the candidate’s resume and provides real examples that prove the candidate’s ability to perform the
expected job role.
• Curriculum Vitae (CV)/Resume: A summary of a candidate’s achievements, educational background,
work experience, skills and strengths.
• Declining Letter: A letter sent by an employee to an employer, turning down the job offer made by
the employer to the employee.
• Deductions: Amounts subtracted from an employee’s pay and listed on the employee’s pay slip.
• Discrimination: The act of treating one person not as favourably as another person.
• Employee: A person who works for another person in exchange for payment.
• Employee Training: A workshop or in-house training that an employee is asked to attend by his or her
superior, for the benefit of the employer.
• Employment Gaps: Periods of unemployed time between jobs.
• Fixed-Term Contract: A contract of employment which gets terminated on an agreed-upon date.
• Follow-Up: The act of contacting a potential employer after a candidate has submitted his or her
resume.
• Freelancer/Consultant/Independent Contractor: A person who works for him or herself and pitches
for temporary jobs and projects with different employers.
• Holiday: Paid time-off from work.
• Hourly Rate: The amount of salary or wages paid for 60 minutes of work.
• Internship: A job opportunity offered by an employer to a potential employee, called an intern, to
work at the employer’s company for a fixed, limited time period.
• Interview: A conversation between a potential employee and a representative of an employer, in
order to determine if the potential employee should be hired.
• Job Application: A form which asks for a candidate’s information like the candidate’s name, address,
contact details and work experience. The purpose of a candidate submitting a job application, is to
show that candidate’s interest in working for a particular company.
• Job Offer: An offer of employment made by an employer to a potential employee.
• Job Search Agent: A program that enables candidates to search for employment opportunities by
selecting criteria listed in the program, for job vacancies.
• Lay Off: A lay off occurs when an employee is temporarily let go from his or her job, due to the
employer not having any work for that employee.
• Leave: Formal permission given to an employee, by his or her employer, to take a leave of absence
from work.
• Letter of Acceptance: A letter given by an employer to an employee, confirming the offer of
employment made by the employer, as well as the conditions of the offer.
• Letter of Agreement: A letter that outlines the terms of employment.
• Letter of Recommendation: A letter written for the purpose of validating the work skills of a person.
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• Maternity Leave: Leave taken from work by women who are pregnant, or who have just given birth.
• Mentor: A person who is employed at a higher level than you, who offers you advice and guides you
in your career.
• Minimum wage: The minimum wage amount paid on an hourly basis.
• Notice: An announcement made by an employee or an employer, stating that the employment
contract will end on a particular date.
• Offer of Employment: An offer made by an employer to a prospective employee that contains
important information pertaining to the job being offered, like the starting date, salary, working
conditions etc.
• Open-Ended Contract: A contract of employment that continues till the employer or employee
terminates it.
• Overqualified: A person who is not suited for a particular job because he or she has too many years of
work experience, or a level of education that is much higher than required for the job, or is currently
or was previously too highly paid.
• Part-Time Worker: An employee who works for fewer hours than the standard number of hours
normally worked.
• Paternity Leave: Leave granted to a man who has recently become a father.
• Recruiters/Headhunters/Executive Search Firms: Professionals who are paid by employers to search
for people to fill particular positions.
• Resigning/Resignations: When an employee formally informs his or her employer that he or she is
quitting his or her job.
• Self-Employed: A person who has his or her own business and does not work in the capacity of an
employee.
• Time Sheet: A form that is submitted to an employer, by an employee, that contains the number of
hours worked every day by the employee.
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UNIT 7.5 - Understanding Entrepreneurship
Unit Objectives
1. Discuss the concept of entrepreneurship
2. Discuss the importance of entrepreneurship
3. Describe the characteristics of an entrepreneur
4. Describe the different types of enterprises
5. List the qualities of an effective leader
6. Discuss the benefits of effective leadership
7. List the traits of an effective team
8. Discuss the importance of listening effectively
9. Discuss how to listen effectively
10. Discuss the importance of speaking effectively
11. Discuss how to speak effectively
12. Discuss how to solve problems
13. List important problem solving traits
14. Discuss ways to assess problem solving skills
15. Discuss the importance of negotiation
16. Discuss how to negotiate
17. Discuss how to identify new business opportunities
18. Discuss how to identify business opportunities within your business
19. Explain the meaning of entrepreneur
20. Describe the different types of entrepreneurs
21. List the characteristics of entrepreneurs
22. Recall entrepreneur success stories
23. Discuss the entrepreneurial process
24. Describe the entrepreneurship ecosystem
25. Discuss the purpose of the Make in India campaign
26. Discuss key schemes to promote entrepreneurs
27. Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship and risk appetite
28. Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship and resilience
29. Describe the characteristics of a resilient entrepreneur
30. Discuss how to deal with failure
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7.5.1 Concept Introduction, (Characteristic of an

Entrepreneur, types of firms / types of enterprises):
Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship
Anyone who is determined to start a business, no matter what the risk, is an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurs
run their own start-up, take responsibility for the financial risks and use creativity, innovation and vast
reserves of self-motivation to achieve success. They dream big and are determined to do whatever it
takes to turn their idea into a viable offering. The aim of an entrepreneur is to create an enterprise. The
process of creating this enterprise is known as entrepreneurship.
Importance of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is very important for the following reasons:
1. It results in the creation of new organizations
2. It brings creativity into the marketplace
3. It leads to improved standards of living
4. It helps develop the economy of a country
Characteristics of Entrepreneurs
All successful entrepreneurs have certain characteristics in common.
They are all:
• Extremely passionate about their work
• Confident in themselves
• Disciplined and dedicated
• Motivated and driven
• Highly creative
• Visionaries
• Open-minded
• Decisive
Entrepreneurs also have a tendency to:
• Have a high risk tolerance
• Thoroughly plan everything
• Manage their money wisely
• Make their customers their priority
• Understand their offering and their market in detail
• Ask for advice from experts when required
• Know when to cut their losses
Examples of Famous Entrepreneurs

Some famous entrepreneurs are:
• Dhirubhai Ambani (Reliance)
• Dr. Karsanbhai Patel (Nirma)
• Azim Premji (Wipro)
• Anil Agarwal (Vedanta Resources)
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Types of Enterprises
As an entrepreneur in India, you can own and run any of the following types of enterprises:
Sole Proprietorship
In a sole proprietorship, a single individual owns, manages and controls the enterprise. This type of
business is the easiest to form with respect to legal formalities. The business and the owner have no
separate legal existence. All profit belongs to the proprietor, as do all the losses - the liability of the
entrepreneur is unlimited.
Partnership
A partnership firm is formed by two or more people. The owners of the enterprise are called partners.
A partnership deed must be signed by all the partners. The firm and its partners have no separate legal
existence. The profits are shared by the partners. With respect to losses, the liability of the partners is
unlimited. A firm has a limited life span and must be dissolved when any one of the partners dies, retires,
claims bankruptcy or goes insane.
Limited Liability Partnership (LLP)
In a Limited Liability Partnership or LLP, the partners of the firm enjoy perpetual existence as well as the
advantage of limited liability. Each partner’s liability is limited to their agreed contribution to the LLP. The
partnership and its partners have a separate legal existence.
Tips
• Learn from others’ failures.
• Be certain that this is what you want.
• Search for a problem to solve, rather than look for a problem to attach to your idea.
7.5.2 Leadership & Teamwork: Leadership and Leaders

Leadership means setting an example for others to follow. Setting a good example means not asking
someone to do something that you wouldn’t willingly want to do yourself. Leadership is about figuring
out what to do in order to win as a team, and as a company.
Leaders believe in doing the right things. They also believe in helping others to do the right things. An
effective leader is someone who:
• Creates an inspiring vision of the future.
• Motivates and inspires his team to pursue that vision.
Leadership Qualities That All Entrepreneurs Need
Building a successful enterprise is only possible if the entrepreneur in charge possesses excellent
leadership qualities. Some critical leadership skills that every entrepreneur must have are:
1. Pragmatism: This means having the ability to highlight all obstacles and challenges, in order to
resolve issues and reduce risks.
2. Humility: This means admitting to mistakes often and early, and being quick to take responsibility
for your actions. Mistakes should be viewed as challenges to overcome, not opportunities to point
blame.
3. Flexibility: It is critical for a good leader to be very flexible and quickly adapt to change. It is equally
critical to know when to adapt and when not to.
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4. Authenticity: This means showing both, your strengths and your weaknesses. It means being human
and showing others that you are human.
5. Reinvention: This means refreshing or changing your leadership style when necessary. To do this, it’s
important to learn where your leadership gaps lie and find out what resources are required to close
them.
6. Awareness: This means taking the time to recognize how others view you. It means understanding
how your presence affects those around you.
Benefits of Effective Leadership
Effective leadership results in numerous benefits. Great leadership leads to the leader successfully:
• Gaining the loyalty and commitment of the team members
• Motivating the team to work towards achieving the company’s goals and objectives
• Building morale and instilling confidence in the team members
• Fostering mutual understanding and team-spirit among team members
• Convincing team members about the need to change when a situation requires adaptability
Teamwork and Teams
Teamwork occurs when the people in a workplace combine their individual skills to pursue a common
goal. Effective teams are made up of individuals who work together to achieve this common goal. A great
team is one who holds themselves accountable for the end result.
Importance of Teamwork in Entrepreneurial Success

For an entrepreneurial leader, building an effective team is critical to the success of a venture. An
entrepreneur must ensure that the team he builds possesses certain crucial qualities, traits and
characteristics. An effective team is one which has:
7. Unity of purpose: All the team members should clearly understand and be equally committed to the
purpose, vision and goals of the team.
8. Great communication skills: Team members should have the ability to express their concerns, ask
questions and use diagrams, and charts to convey complex information.
9. The ability to collaborate: Every member should feel entitled to provide regular feedback on new
ideas.
10. Initiative: The team should consist of proactive individuals. The members should have the enthusiasm
to come up with new ideas, improve existing ideas, and conduct their own research.
11. Visionary members: The team should have the ability to anticipate problems and act on these
potential problem before they turn into real problems.
12. Great adaptability skills: The team must believe that change is a positive force. Change should be
seen as the chance to improve and try new things.
13. Excellent organizational skills: The team should have the ability to develop standard work processes,
balance responsibilities, properly plan projects, and set in place methods to measure progress and
ROI.
Tips
• Don’t get too attached to your original idea. Allow it to evolve and change.
• Be aware of your weaknesses and build a team that will complement your shortfalls.
• Hiring the right people is not enough. You need to promote or incentivize your most talented people
to keep them motivated.
• Earn your team’s respect.
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7.5.3 Communication Skills: Listening & Speaking:

The Importance of Listening Effectively
Listening is the ability to correctly receive and understand messages during the process of communication.
Listening is critical for effective communication. Without effective listening skills, messages can easily be
misunderstood. This results in a communication breakdown and can lead to the sender and the receiver
of the message becoming frustrated or irritated.
It’s very important to note that listening is not the same as hearing. Hearing just refers to sounds that
you hear. Listening is a whole lot more than that. To listen, one requires focus. It means not only paying
attention to the story, but also focusing on how the story is relayed, the way language and voice is used,
and even how the speaker uses their body language. The ability to listen depends on how effectively one
can perceive and understand both, verbal and non-verbal cues.
How to Listen Effectively

To listen effectively you should:
• Stop talking
• Stop interrupting
• Focus completely on what is being said
• Nod and use encouraging words and gestures
• Be open-minded
• Think about the speaker’s perspective
• Be very, very patient
• Pay attention to the tone that is being used
• Pay attention to the speaker’s gestures, facial expressions and eye movements
• Not try and rush the person
• Not let the speaker’s mannerisms or habits irritate or distract you
Imporatnce of Speaking Effectively
How successfully a message gets conveyed depends entirely on how effectively you are able to get it
through. An effective speaker is one who enunciates properly, pronounces words correctly, chooses the
right words and speaks at a pace that is easily understandable. Besides this, the words spoken out loud
need to match the gestures, tone and body language used.
What you say, and the tone in which you say it, results in numerous perceptions being formed. A person
who speaks hesitantly may be perceived as having low self-esteem or lacking in knowledge of the discussed
topic. Those with a quiet voice may very well be labelled as shy. And those who speak in commanding
tones with high levels of clarity, are usually considered to be extremely confident. This makes speaking a
very critical communication skill.
How to Speak Effectively?

To speak effectively you should:
• Incorporate body language in your speech like eye contact, smiling, nodding, gesturing etc.
• Build a draft of your speech before actually making your speech.
• Ensure that all your emotions and feelings are under control.
• Pronounce your words distinctly with the correct pitch and intensity. Your speech should be crystal
clear at all times.
• Use a pleasant and natural tone when speaking. Your audience should not feel like you are putting
on an accent or being unnatural in any way.
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• Use precise and specific words to drive your message home. Ambiguity should be avoided at all costs.
• Ensure that your speech has a logical flow.
• Be brief. Don’t add any unnecessary information.
• Make a conscious effort to avoid irritating mannerisms like fidgeting, twitching etc.
• Choose your words carefully and use simple words that the majority of the audience will have no
difficulty understanding.
• Use visual aids like slides or a whiteboard.
• Speak slowly so that your audience can easily understand what you’re saying. However, be careful
not to speak too slowly because this can come across as stiff, unprepared or even condescending.
• Remember to pause at the right moments.
Tips
• If you’re finding it difficult to focus on what someone is saying, try repeating their words in your
head.
• Always maintain eye contact with the person that you are communicating with, when speaking as
well as listening. This conveys and also encourages interest in the conversation.
7.5.4 Problem Solving & Negotiation skills:

What is a Problem?
As per The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1995), a problem is, “A doubtful or difficult matter requiring a solution”
All problems contain two elements:
1. Goals 2. Obstacles
The aim of problem solving is to recognize the obstacles and remove them in order to achieve the goals.
How to Solve Problems?

Solving a problem requires a level of rational thinking. Here are some logical steps to follow when faced
with an issue:
Step 1: Identify the problem Step 2: Study the problem in detail

Step 3: List all possible solutions Step 4: Select the best solution
Step 5: Implement the chosen solution Step 6: Check that the problem has really been solved
Important Traits for Problem Solving

Highly developed problem solving skills are critical for both, business owners and their employees. The
following personality traits play a big role in how effectively problems are solved:
• Being open minded • Asking the right questions

• Being proactive • Not panicking
• Having a positive attitude • Focusing on the right problem
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How to Assess for Problem Solving Skills?

As an entrepreneur, it would be a good idea to assess the level of problem solving skills of potential
candidates before hiring them. Some ways to assess this skill are through:
1. Application forms: Ask for proof of the candidate’s problem solving skills in the application form.
2. Psychometric tests: Give potential candidates logical reasoning and critical thinking tests and see
how they fare.
3. Interviews: Create hypothetical problematic situations or raise ethical questions and see how the
candidates respond.
4. Technical questions: Give candidates examples of real life problems and evaluate their thought process.
What is Negotiation?
Negotiation is a method used to settle differences. The aim of negotiation is to resolve differences through
a compromise or agreement while avoiding disputes. Without negotiation, conflicts are likely to lead to
resentment between people. Good negotiation skills help satisfy both parties and go a long way towards
developing strong relationships.
Why Negotiate?
Starting a business requires many, many negotiations. Some negotiations are small while others are
critical enough to make or break a startup. Negotiation also plays a big role inside the workplace. As an
entrepreneur, you need to know not only know how to negotiate yourself, but also how to train employees
in the art of negotiation.
How to Negotiate?
Take a look at some steps to help you negotiate:
Step 1: Pre-Negotiation Agree on where to meet to discuss the problem, decide who all will be
Preparation present and set a time limit for the discussion.
Step 2: Discuss the This involves asking questions, listening to the other side, putting your
Problem views forward and clarifying doubts.
Step 3: Clarify the Ensure that both parties want to solve the same problem and reach the
Objective same goal.
Step 4: Aim for a Try your best to be open minded when negotiating. Compromise and offer
Win-Win Outcome alternate solutions to reach an outcome where both parties win.
Step 5: Clearly Define When an agreement has been reached, the details of the agreement
the Agreement should be crystal clear to both sides, with no scope for misunderstandings.
Step 6: Implement the Agree on a course of action to set the solution in motion
Agreed Upon Solution
Tips
• Know exactly what you want before you work towards getting it
• Give more importance to listening and thinking, than speaking
• Focus on building a relationship rather than winning
• Remember that your people skills will affect the outcome
• Know when to walk away – sometimes reaching an agreement may not be possible
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7.5.5 Business Opportunities Identification:

Entrepreneurs and Opportunities
“The entrepreneur always searches for change, responds to it and exploits it as an opportunity.”
Peter Drucker
The ability to identify business opportunities is an essential characteristic of an entrepreneur.
What is an Opportunity?
The word opportunity suggests a good chance or a favourable situation to do something offered by
circumstances.
A business opportunity means a good or favourable change available to run a specific business
in a given environment, at a given point of time.
Common Questions Faced by Entrepreneurs
A critical question that all entrepreneurs face is how to go about finding the business opportunity that is
right for them.
Some common questions that entrepreneurs constantly think about are:
• Should the new enterprise introduce a new product or service based on an unmet need?
• Should the new enterprise select an existing product or service from one market and offer it in
another where it may not be available?
• Should the enterprise be based on a tried and tested formula that has worked elsewhere?
It is therefore extremely important that entrepreneurs must learn how to identify new and existing
business opportunities and evaluate their chances of success.
When is an Idea an Opportunity?

An idea is an opportunity when:
• It creates or adds value to a customer
• It solves a significant problem, removes a pain point or meets a demand
• Has a robust market and profit margin
• Is a good fit with the founder and management team at the right time and place
Factors to Consider When Looking for Opportunities

Consider the following when looking for business opportunities:
• Economic trends • Market trends

• Changes in funding • Changes in political support
• Changing relationships between vendors, partners and suppliers • Shift in target audience
Ways to Identify New Business Opportunities

1. Identify Market Inefficiencies
When looking at a market, consider what inefficiencies are present in the market. Think about ways
to correct these inefficiencies.
2. Remove Key Hassles
Rather than create a new product or service, you can innovatively improve a product, service or
process.
3. Create Something New
Think about how you can create a new experience for customers, based on existing business models.
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4. Pick a Growing Sector/Industry

Research and find out which sectors or industries are growing and think about what opportunities
you can tap in the same.
5. Think About Product Differentiation
If you already have a product in mind, think about ways to set it apart from the existing ones.
Ways to Identify Business Opportunities Within Your Business

6. SWOT Analysis
An excellent way to identify opportunities inside your business is by creating a SWOT analysis. The
acronym SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
SWOT analysis framework:
STRENGTH
What are your strengths?
WEAKNESSES
What unique capabilities do
you posses? What are your weaknesses?
What do you do better What do your competitors do
than others? better than you?
What do others percieve
as your strengths? S W
O T
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
What Trends may positively Do you have solid financial
impact you? support?
What oppprtunities are What trends may negatively
available to you? impact you?
Fig.7.5.1. SWOT Analysis
Consider the following when looking for business opportunities:

By looking at yourself and your competitors using the SWOT framework, you can uncover opportunities
that you can exploit, as well as manage and eliminate threats that could derail your success.
7. Establishing Your USP
Establish your USP and position yourself as different from your competitors. Identify why customers
should buy from you and promote that reason.
Opportunity Analysis
Once you have identified an opportunity, you need to analyze it.
To analyze an opportunity, you must:
• Focus on the idea
• Focus on the market of the idea
• Talk to industry leaders in the same space as the idea
• Talk to players in the same space as the idea
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Tips
• Remember, opportunities are situational.
• Look for a proven track record.
• Avoid the latest craze.
• Love your idea.
7.5.6 Entrepreneurship Support Eco - System:

What is an Entrepreneur?
An entrepreneur is a person who:
• Does not work for an employee
• Runs a small enterprise
• Assumes all the risks and rewards of the enterprise, idea, good or service
Types of Entrepreneurs
There are four main types of entrepreneurs:
1. The Traditional Entrepreneur: This type of entrepreneur usually has some kind of skill –they can be a
carpenter, mechanic, cook etc. They have businesses that have been around for numerous years like
restaurants, shops and carpenters. Typically, they gain plenty of experience in a particular industry
before they begin their own business in a similar field.
2. The Growth Potential Entrepreneur: The desire of this type of entrepreneur is to start an enterprise
that will grow, win many customers and make lots of money. Their ultimate aim is to eventually sell
their enterprise for a nice profit. Such entrepreneurs usually have a science or technical background.
3. The Project-Oriented Entrepreneur: This type of entrepreneur generally has a background in the
Arts or psychology. Their enterprises tend to be focus on something that they are very passionate
about.
4. The Lifestyle Entrepreneur: This type of entrepreneur has usually worked as a teacher or a secretary.
They are more interested in selling something that people will enjoy, rather than making lots of
money.
Characteristics of an Entrepreneur
Successful entrepreneurs have the following characteristics:
• They are highly motivated
• They are creative and persuasive
• They are mentally prepared to handle each and every task
• They have excellent business skills – they know how to evaluate their cash flow, sales and revenue
• They are willing to take great risks
• They are very proactive – this means they are willing to do the work themselves, rather than wait for
someone else to do it
• They have a vision – they are able to see the big picture
• They are flexible and open-minded
• They are good at making decisions
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Entrepreneur Success Stories

Dhiru Bhai Ambani
Dhirubhai Ambani began his entrepreneurial career by selling “bhajias” to pilgrims in Mount Girnar on
weekends. At 16, he moved to Yemen where he worked as a gas-station attendant, and as a clerk in an
oil company. He returned to India with Rs. 50,000 and started a textile trading company. Reliance went
on to become the first Indian company to raise money in global markets and the first Indian company to
feature in Forbes 500 list.
Dr. Karsanbhai Patel
Karsanbhai Patel made detergent powder in the backyard of his house. He sold his product door-to-door
and offered a money back guarantee with every pack that was sold. He charged Rs. 3 per kg when the
cheapest detergent at that time was Rs.13 per kg. Dr. Patel eventually started Nirma which became a
whole new segment in the Indian domestic detergent market.
The Entrepreneurial Process

Let’s take a look at the stages of the entrepreneurial process.
Stage 1: Idea Generation. The entrepreneurial process begins with an idea that has been thought of by
the entrepreneur. The idea is a problem that has the potential to be solved.
Stage 2: Germination or Recognition. In this stage a possible solution to the identified problem is thought
of.
Stage 3: Preparation or Rationalization. The problem is studied further and research is done to find out
how others have tried to solve the same problem.
Stage 4: Incubation or Fantasizing. This stage involves creative thinking for the purpose of coming up with
more ideas. Less thought is given to the problem areas.
Stage 5: Feasibility Study: The next step is the creation of a feasibility study to determine if the idea will
make a profit and if it should be seen through.
Stage 6: Illumination or Realization. This is when all uncertain areas suddenly become clear. The
entrepreneur feels confident that his idea has merit.
Stage 7: Verification or Validation. In this final stage, the idea is verified to see if it works and if it is useful.
Take a look at the diagram below to get a better idea of this process.
Idea Germination
Generation (Recognition)
Preparation
(Rationalisation)
Incubation
(Fantasising)
Feasibility
Study
Illumination Varification
(Realisation) (Validation)
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Introduction to the Entrepreneurship Ecosystem

The entrepreneurship support ecosystem signifies the collective and complete nature of entrepreneurship.
New companies emerge and flourish not only because of the courageous, visionary entrepreneurs who
launch them, but they thrive as they are set in an environment or ‘ecosystem’ made of private and public
participants. These players nurture and sustain the new ventures, facilitating the entrepreneurs’ efforts.
An entrepreneurship ecosystem comprises of the following six domains:
1. Favourable Culture: This includes elements such as tolerance of risk and errors, valuable networking
and positive social standing of the entrepreneur.
2. Facilitating Policies & Leadership: This includes regulatory framework incentives and existence of
public research institutes.
3. Financing Options: Angel financing, venture capitalists and micro loans would be good examples of
this.
4. Human Capital: This refers to trained and untrained labour, entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship
training programmes, etc.
5. Conducive Markets for Products & Services: This refers to an existence or scope of existence of a
market for the product/service.
6. Institutional & Infrastructural Support: This includes legal and financing advisers, telecommunications,
digital and transportation infrastructure, and entrepreneurship networking programmes.
These domains indicate whether there is a strong entrepreneurship support ecosystem and what actions
should the government put in place to further encourage this ecosystem. The six domains and their
various elements have been graphically depicted.
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Leadership
Early Customers Government
• Unequivocal support • Institutions • Research institutes
• Early adopters for proof-of-concept
• Social legitimacy e.g. Investment, support
• Expertise in productizing
• Reference customer
• Open door for advocate
• Financial support • Venture-friendly
• First reviews • Entrepreneurship strategy e.g. for R&D, jump start funds legislation
• Distribution channels • urgency, crisis and challenge
Regulatory framework • e.g. Bankruptcy,
incentives contract enforcement,
Networks
e.g. Tax benifits property rights, and labour
• Entrepreneure’s networks Policy
• Diaspora networks Financial Capital
• Multinational corporations • Micro-loans • Venture capital funds
Market Finance • Angel investors, • Private equity
Labour friends and family • Public capital markets
• Zero-stage venture • Debt
• Skilled and unskilled
Entrepreneurship capital
• Serial entrepreneures
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• Later generation family Success Stories
Human • Visible successes
Educational Institutions Culture
• General degrees (professional and academic)
Capital • Wealth generation for founders
• Specific entrepreneurship training • International reputation
Supports Societal norms
Infrastructure
• Tolerance of risk, mistakes, failure
• Telecommunications • Innovation, creativity, experimentation
• Transportation & logistics • Social status of entrepreneur
• Energy • Wealth creation
• Zones, incubation centers, clusters Non-Government Institution • Ambition, drive, hunger
• Entrepreneurship • Conferences
Support Professions promotion in
• Legal non-profits
• Accounting • Business plan • Entrepreneur-
• Investment bankers contests friendly association
Fig.7.5.2. Entrepreneurship at a Glance

Every entrepreneurship support ecosystem is unique and all the elements of the ecosystem are
interdependent. Although every region’s entrepreneurship ecosystem can be broadly described by the
above features, each ecosystem is the result of the hundred elements interacting in highly complex and
particular ways.
Entrepreneurship ecosystems eventually become (largely) self-sustaining. When the six domains are
resilient enough, they are mutually beneficial. At this point, government involvement can and should be
significantly minimized. Public leaders do not need to invest a lot to sustain the ecosystem. It is imperative
that the entrepreneurship ecosystem incentives are formulated to be self-liquidating, hence focusing on
sustainability of the environment.
Make in India Campaign

Every entrepreneur has certain needs. Some of their important needs are:
• To easily get loans
• To easily find investors
• To get tax exemptions
• To easily access resources and good infrastructure
• To enjoy a procedure that is free of hassles and is quick
• To be able to easily partner with other firms
The Make in India campaign, launched by Prime Minister Modi aims to satisfy all these needs of young,
aspiring entrepreneurs. Its objective is to:
• Make investment easy
• Support new ideas
• Enhance skill development
• Safeguard the ideas of entrepreneurs
• Create state-of-the-art facilities for manufacturing goods
Key Schemes to Promote Entrepreneurs
The government offers many schemes to support entrepreneurs. These schemes are run by various
Ministries/Departments of Government of India to support First Generation Entrepreneurs. Take a look
at a few key schemes to promote entrepreneurship:
Name of the Scheme
1. Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana - Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency (MUDRA),
2. STAND UP INDIA
3. Prime Minister Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP)
4. International Cooperation
5. Performance and Credit Rating
6. Marketing Assistance Scheme
7. Reimbursement of Registration Fee for Bar Coding
8. Enable Participation of MSMEs in State/District level Trade Fairs and Provide Funding Support
9. Capital Subsidy Support on Credit for Technology up gradation
10. Credit Guarantee Fund for Micro and SmalI Enterprise (CGFMSE)
11. Reimbursement of Certification Fees for Acquiring ISO Standards
12. Agricultural Marketing
13. Small Agricultural Marketing
14. Mega Food Park
15. Adivasi Mahila Sashaktikaran Yojana
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1. Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana, - Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency (MUDRA),
Description
Under the aegis support of Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana, MUDRA has already created its initial
products/schemes. The interventions have been named ‘Shishu’, ‘Kishor’ and ‘Tarun’ to signify the
stage of growth/development and funding needs of the beneficiary micro unit/entrepreneur and
also provide a reference point for the next phase of graduation/growth to look forward to:
a. Shishu: Covering loans upto Rs.50,000/-
b. Kishor: Covering loans above Rs. 50,000/- and upto Rs.5 lakh
c. Tarun: Covering loans above Rs. 5 lakh to Rs.10 lakh
Who can apply?
Any Indian citizen who has a business plan for a non-farm sector income generating activity such as
manufacturing, processing, trading or service sector and whose credit need is less than Rs.10 lakh can
approach either a Bank, MFI, or NBFC for availing of MUDRA loans under Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana
(PMMY).
2. Stand Up India
Description
The objective of the Standup India scheme is to facilitate bank loans between Rs.10 lakh and
Rs.1 crore to at least one Schedule Caste (SC) or Scheduled Tribe (ST) borrower and at least one
woman borrower per bank branch for setting up a Greenfield enterprise. This enterprise may be in
manufacturing, services or the trading sector. In case of non-Individual enterprises at least 51% of
the shareholding and controlling stake should be held be either an SC/ST or Woman Entrepreneur.
Who can apply?
ST, SC &Women
3. Prime Minister Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP)
Description
The Scheme is implemented by Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC), as the nodal agency
at the National level. At the State level, the Scheme is implemented through State KVIC Directorates,
State Khadi and Village Industries Boards (KVIBs) and District Industries Centres (DICs) and banks.
The Government subsidy under the Scheme is routed by KVIC through identified banks for eventual
distribution to the beneficiaries/entrepreneurs in their bank accounts.
Nature of assistance
The maximum cost of the project/unit admissible under manufacturing sector is Rs.25 lakh and under
business/service sector is Rs.10 lakh. Levels of funding under PMEGP
Beneficiary’s contribution Rate of Subsidy

Categories of beneficiaries under PMEGP
(of project cost) (of project cost)
Area (location of project/unit) Urban Rural
15%
General Category 10%
25%
Special (including SC / ST / OBC / Minorities /
25%
Women, Ex-servicemen, Physically handicapped, 05%
35%
NER, Hill and Border areas, etc.
The balance amount of the total project cost will be provided by Banks as term loan as well as working
capital.
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Who can apply?

Any individual, above 18 years of age. At least VIII standard pass for projects costing above Rs.10 lakh
in the manufacturing sector and above Rs.5 lakh in the business/service sector. Only new projects are
considered for sanction under PMEGP. Self Help Groups (including those belonging to BPL provided
that they have not availed benefits under any other Scheme), Institutions registered under Societies
Registration Act,1860; Production Co-operative Societies, and Charitable Trusts are also eligible.
Existing Units (under PMRY, REGP or any other scheme of Government of India or State Government) and
the units that have already availed Government Subsidy under any other scheme of Government of India
or State Government are NOT eligible.
4. International Cooperation
Description
The Scheme would cover the following activities:
a. Deputation of MSME business delegations to other countries for exploring new areas of
technology infusion/upgradation, facilitating joint ventures, improving market of MSMEs
products, foreign collaborations, etc.
b. Participation by Indian MSMEs in international exhibitions, trade fairs and buyer-seller meets in
foreign countries as well as in India, in which there is international participation.
c. Holding international conferences and seminars on topics and themes of interest to the MSME.
IC Scheme provides financial assistance towards the airfare and space rent of entrepreneurs. Assistance
is provided on the basis of size and the type of the enterprise.
Who can apply?
a. State/Central Government Organisations;
b. Industry/Enterprise Associations; and
c. Registered Societies/Trusts and Organisations associated with the promotion and development of
MSMEs
5. Performance and Credit Rating for Micro and Small Enterprises
Description
The objective of the Scheme is to create awareness amongst micro & small enterprises about the
strengths and weaknesses of their operations and also their credit worthiness.
Turn Over Fee to be reimbursed by Ministry of MSME

Up to Rs.50 lacs 75% of the fee charged by the rating agency subject to a ceiling Rs.15,000/-
Above Rs.50 lacs to 75% of the fee charged by the rating agency subject to a ceiling of Rs.30,0001-
Rs.200 lacs
Above Rs.200 lacs 75% of the fee charged by the rating agency subject to a ceiling of Rs.40,000/-
Who can apply?
Any enterprise registered in India as a micro or small enterprise is eligible to apply.
6. Marketing Assistance Scheme
Description
The assistance is provided for the following activities:
a. Organizing exhibitions abroad and participation in international exhibitions/trade fairs
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b. Co-sponsoring of exhibitions organized by other organisations/industry associations/agencies

c. Organizing buyer-seller meets, intensive campaigns and marketing promotion events
Financial assistance of up to 95% of the airfare and space rent of entrepreneurs. Assistance is provided
on the basis of size and the type of the enterprise. Financial assistance for co-sponsoring would be
limited to 40% of the net expenditure, subject to maximum amount of Rs.5 lakh.
Who can apply?
MSMEs, Industry Associations and other organizations related to MSME sector.
7. Reimbursement of Registration Fee for Bar Coding
Description
The financial assistance is provided towards 75% reimbursement of only one-time registration fee
and 75% of annual recurring fee for first three years paid by MSEs to GS1 India for using bar coding.
Funding support for reimbursement of 75% of one time and recurring bar code registration fees.
Who can apply?
All MSMEs with EM registration.
8. Enabling Participation of MSMEs in State/District Level Trade Fairs and Provide Funding Support
Description
Provide marketing platform to manufacturing MSMEs by enabling their participation in state/district
level exhibitions being organized by state/district authorities/associations.
1. Free registration for participating in trade fairs
Note: The selection of participants would be done by the MSME-DIs post the submission of application.
2. Reimbursement of 50% of to and fro actual fare by shortest distance/direct train (limited to AC II
tier class) from the nearest railway station/bus fare to the place of exhibition and 50% space rental
charges for MSMEs (General category entrepreneurs).
3. For Women/SC/ST entrepreneurs & entrepreneurs from North Eastern Region Govt. of India will
reimburse 80% of items listed above in Point (2).
Note: The total reimbursement will be max. Rs.30,000/- per unit for the SC/ST/Women/Physically
Handicapped entrepreneurs, while for the other units the max. limit will be Rs.20,000/- per person per
MSME unit.
Note: The participant is required to submit follow-up proofs post attending the event to claim
reimbursement. The proofs can be submitted after logging in online under the section “My Applications”
or directly contacting a DI office.
Who can apply?
All MSMEs with EM registration.
9. Capital Subsidy Support on Credit for Technology Upgradation
Description
MSMEs can get a capital subsidy (~15%) on credit availed for technology upgradation.
Financial assistance for availing credit and loan.
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Who can apply?

1. Banks and financial institutions can apply to DC-MSME for availing support.
2. MSMEs need to directly contact the respective banks for getting credit and capital subsidy.
How to apply?
If you are a financial institution, click on the “Apply Now” button or else you can also directly contact
the Office of DC-MSME. You can view the contact details of Office of DC-MSME. If you are an MSME,
directly contact the respective banks/financial institutions as listed in the scheme guidelines.
10. Provision of Collateral Free Credit for MSMEs
Description
Banks and financial institutions are provided funding assistance under this scheme so that they can
in turn lend collateral free credit to MSMEs.
Funding support to banks and financial institutions for lending collateral-free credit to MSMEs.
Who can apply?
Banks and financial institutions can apply to office of DC-MSME/MSME-DIs for availing support.
MSMEs need to directly contact the respective banks for getting credit.
11. Reimbursement of certification fees for acquiring ISO standards
ISO 9000/ISO 14001 Certification Reimbursement.
Description
The GoI assistance will be provided for one-time reimbursement of expenditure to such MSME
manufacturing units which acquire ISO 18000/ISO 22000/ISO 27000 certification.
Reimbursement of expenditure incurred on acquiring ISO standards.
Who can apply?
MSMEs with EM registration.
12. Agricultural Marketing
Description
A capital investment subsidy for construction/renovation of rural godowns.
Creation of scientific storage capacity and prevention of distress sale.
Subsidy @ 25% to farmers, 15% of project cost to companies.
Who can apply
NGOs, SHGs, companies, co-operatives.
13. Small Agricultural Marketing
Description
Business development description provides venture capital assistance in the form of equity, and
arranges training and visits of agri-preneurs
Farmers’ Agriculture Business Consortium
Business development description provides venture capital assistance in the form of equity, and
arranges training and visits of agri-preneurs.
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Financial assistance with a ceiling of Rs.5 lakh.
Who can apply
Individuals, farmers, producer groups, partnership/propriety firms, SGHs, agri-preneurs, etc.
14. Mega Food Park
Description
Mechanism to link agricultural production and market to maximize value addition, enhance farmers
income, create rural employment.
One-time capital grant of 50% of project cost with a limit of Rs.50 crore.
Who can apply
Farmers, farmer groups, SHGs.
15. Adivasi Mahila Sashaktikaran Yojana
Description
Concessional scheme for the economic development of ST women.
Term loan at concessional rates upto 90% of cost of scheme.
Who can apply
Scheduled Tribes Women.
Tips
• Research the existing market, network with other entrepreneurs, venture capitalists, angel investors,
and thoroughly review the policies in place to enable your entrepreneurship.
• Failure is a stepping stone and not the end of the road. Review yours and your peers’ errors and
correct them in your future venture.
• Be proactive in your ecosystem. Identify the key features of your ecosystem and enrich them to
ensure self-sustainability of your entrepreneurship support ecosystem.
7.5.7 Risk Appetite & Resilience: Entrepreneurship and Risk

Entrepreneurs are inherently risk takers. They are path-makers not path-takers. Unlike a normal, cautious
person, an entrepreneur would not think twice about quitting his job (his sole income) and taking a risk
on himself and his idea.
An entrepreneur is aware that while pursuing his dreams, assumptions can be proven wrong and
unforeseen events may arise. He knows that after dealing with numerous problems, success is still not
guaranteed. Entrepreneurship is synonymous with the ability to take risks. This ability, called risk-appetite,
is an entrepreneurial trait that is partly genetic and partly acquired.
What is Risk Appetite?

Risk appetite is defined as the extent to which a company is equipped to take risk, in order to achieve its
objectives. Essentially, it refers to the balance, struck by the company, between possible profits and the
hazards caused by changes in the environment (economic ecosystem, policies, etc.). Taking on more risk
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may lead to higher rewards but have a high probability of losses as well. However, being too conservative
may go against the company as it can miss out on good opportunities to grow and reach their objectives.
The levels of risk appetite can be broadly categorized as “low”, “medium” and “high.” The company’s
entrepreneur(s) have to evaluate all potential alternatives and select the option most likely to succeed.
Companies have varying levels of risk appetites for different objectives. The levels depend on:
• The type of industry
• Market pressures
• Company objectives
For example, a startup with a revolutionary concept will have a very high risk appetite. The startup can
afford short term failures before it achieves longer term success. This type of appetite will not remain
constant and will be adjusted to account for the present circumstances of the company.
Risk Appetite Statement

Companies have to define and articulate their risk appetite in sync with decisions made about their
objectives and opportunities. The point of having a risk appetite statement is to have a framework that
clearly states the acceptance and management of risk in business. It sets risk taking limits within the
company. The risk appetite statement should convey the following:
• The nature of risks the business faces.
• Which risks the company is comfortable taking on and which risks are unacceptable.
• How much risk to accept in all the risk categories.
• The desired tradeoff between risk and reward.
• Measures of risk and methods of examining and regulating risk exposures.
Entrepreneurship and Resilience
Entrepreneurs are characterized by a set of qualities known as resilience. These qualities play an especially
large role in the early stages of developing an enterprise. Risk resilience is an extremely valuable
characteristic as it is believed to protect entrepreneurs against the threat of challenges and changes in
the business environment.
What is Entrepreneurial Resilience?

Resilience is used to describe individuals who have the ability to overcome setbacks related to their life
and career aspirations. A resilient person is someone who is capable of easily and quickly recovering from
setbacks. For the entrepreneur, resilience is a critical trait. Entrepreneurial resilience can be enhanced in
the following ways:
• By developing a professional network of coaches and mentors
• By accepting that change is a part of life
• By viewing obstacles as something that can be overcome
Characteristics of a Resilient Entrepreneur
The characteristics required to make an entrepreneur resilient enough to go the whole way in their
business enterprise are:
• A strong internal sense of control • Ability to diversify and expand

• Strong social connections • Survivor attitude
• Skill to learn from setbacks • Cash-flow conscious habits
• Ability to look at the bigger picture • Attention to detail
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Tips
• Cultivate a great network of clients, suppliers, peers, friends and family. This will not only help you
promote your business, but will also help you learn, identify new opportunities and stay tuned to
changes in the market.
• Don’t dwell on setbacks. Focus on what the you need to do next to get moving again.
• While you should try and curtail expenses, ensure that it is not at the cost of your growth.
7.5.8 Success & Failures: Understanding

Successes and Failures in Entrepreneurship
Shyam is a famous entrepreneur, known for his success story. But what most people don’t know, is that
Shyam failed numerous times before his enterprise became a success. Read his interview to get an idea of
what entrepreneurship is really about, straight from an entrepreneur who has both, failed and succeeded.
Interviewer: Shyam, I have heard that entrepreneurs are great risk-takers who are never afraid of failing.
Is this true?
Shyam: Ha ha, no of course it’s not true! Most people believe that entrepreneurs need to be fearlessly
enthusiastic. But the truth is, fear is a very normal and valid human reaction, especially when you
are planning to start your own business! In fact, my biggest fear was the fear of failing. The reality is,
entrepreneurs fail as much as they succeed. The trick is to not allow the fear of failing to stop you from
going ahead with your plans. Remember, failures are lessons for future success!
Interviewer: What, according to you, is the reason that entrepreneurs fail?
Shyam: Well, there is no one single reason why entrepreneurs fail. An entrepreneur can fail due to
numerous reasons. You could fail because you have allowed your fear of failure to defeat you. You could
fail because you are unwilling to delegate (distribute) work. As the saying goes, “You can do anything, but
not everything!” You could fail because you gave up too easily – maybe you were not persistent enough.
You could fail because you were focusing your energy on small, insignificant tasks and ignoring the tasks
that were most important. Other reasons for failing are partnering with the wrong people, not being able
to sell your product to the right customers at the right time at the right price… and many more reasons!
Interviewer: As an entrepreneur, how do you feel failure should be looked at?
Shyam: I believe we should all look at failure as an asset, rather than as something negative. The way I see
it, if you have an idea, you should try to make it work, even if there is a chance that you will fail. That’s
because not trying is failure right there, anyway! And failure is not the worst thing that can happen. I
think having regrets because of not trying, and wondering ‘what if’ is far worse than trying and actually
failing.
Interviewer: How did you feel when you failed for the first time?
Shyam: I was completely heartbroken! It was a very painful experience. But the good news is, you do
recover from the failure. And with every subsequent failure, the recovery process gets a lot easier. That’s
because you start to see each failure more as a lesson that will eventually help you succeed, rather than
as an obstacle that you cannot overcome. You will start to realize that failure has many benefits.
Interviewer: Can you tell us about some of the benefits of failing?
Shyam: One of the benefits that I have experienced personally from failing is that the failure made me
see things in a new light. It gave me answers that I didn’t have before. Failure can make you a lot stronger.
It also helps keep your ego in control.
Interviewer: What advice would you give entrepreneurs who are about to start their own enterprises?
Shyam: I would tell them to do their research and ensure that their product is something that is actually
wanted by customers. I’d tell them to pick their partners and employees very wisely and cautiously. I’d tell
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them that it’s very important to be aggressive – push and market your product as aggressively as possible.
I would warn them that starting an enterprise is very expensive and that they should be prepared for a
situation where they run out of money.
I would tell them to create long term goals and put a plan in action to achieve that goal. I would tell
them to build a product that is truly unique. Be very careful and ensure that you are not copying another
startup. Lastly, I’d tell them that it’s very important that they find the right investors.
Interviewer: That’s some really helpful advice, Shyam! I’m sure this will help all entrepreneurs to be more
prepared before they begin their journey! Thank you for all your insight!
Tips
• Remember that nothing is impossible.
• Identify your mission and your purpose before you start.
• Plan your next steps – don’t make decisions hastily.
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UNIT 7.6 - Preparing to be an Entrepreneur
Unit Objectives
1. Discuss how market research is carried out
2. Describe the 4 Ps of marketing
3. Discuss the importance of idea generation
4. Recall basic business terminology
5. Discuss the need for CRM
6. Discuss the benefits of CRM
7. Discuss the need for networking
8. Discuss the benefits of networking
9. Discuss the importance of setting goals
10. Differentiate between short-term, medium-term and long-term goals
11. Discuss how to write a business plan
12. Explain the financial planning process
13. Discuss ways to manage your risk
14. Describe the procedure and formalities for applying for bank finance
15. Discuss how to manage your own enterprise
16. List important questions that every entrepreneur should ask before starting an enterprise
7.6.1 Market Study / The 4 Ps of Marketing / Importance

of an IDEA: Understanding Market Research
Market research is the process of gathering, analyzing and interpreting market information on a product
or service that is being sold in that market. It also includes information on:
• Past, present and prospective customers
• Customer characteristics and spending habits
• The location and needs of the target market
• The overall industry
• Relevant competitors
Market research involves two types of data:
• Primary information. This is research collected by yourself or by someone hired by you.
• Secondary information. This is research that already exists and is out there for you to find and use.
Primary research
Primary research can be of two types:
• Exploratory: This is open-ended and usually involves detailed, unstructured interviews.
• Specific: This is precise and involves structured, formal interviews. Conducting specific research is
the more expensive than conducting exploratory research.
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Secondary research
Secondary research uses outside information. Some common secondary sources are:
• Public sources: These are usually free and have a lot of good information. Examples are government
departments, business departments of public libraries etc.
• Commercial sources: These offer valuable information but usually require a fee to be paid. Examples
are research and trade associations, banks and other financial institutions etc.
• Educational institutions: These offer a wealth of information. Examples are colleges, universities,
technical institutes etc.
The 4 Ps of Marketing
The 4 Ps of marketing are Product, Price, Promotion and Place. Let’s look at each of these 4 Ps in detail.
Product
A product can be:
• A tangible good • An intangible service

Whatever your product is, it is critical that you have a clear understanding of what you are offering, and
what its unique characteristics are, before you begin with the marketing process.
Some questions to ask yourself are:
• What does the customer want from the product/service?
• What needs does it satisfy?
• Are there any more features that can be added?
• Does it have any expensive and unnecessary features?
• How will customers use it?
• What should it be called?
• How is it different from similar products?
• How much will it cost to produce?
• Can it be sold at a profit?
Price
Once all the elements of Product have been established, the Price factor needs to be considered.
The Price of a Product will depend on several factors such as profit margins, supply, demand and the
marketing strategy.
• What is the value of the product/service to customers?
• Do local products/services have established price points?
• Is the customer price sensitive?
• Should discounts be offered?
• How is your price compared to that of your competitors?
Promotion
Once you are certain about your Product and your Price, the next step is to look at ways to promote
it. Some key elements of promotion are advertising, public relations, social media marketing, email
marketing, search engine marketing, video marketing and more.
• Where should you promote your product or service?
206
• What is the best medium to use to reach your target audience?

• When would be the best time to promote your product?
• How are your competitors promoting their products?
Place
According to most marketers, the basis of marketing is about offering the right product, at the right price,
at the right place, at the right time. For this reason, selecting the best possible location is critical for
converting prospective clients into actual clients.
• Will your product or service be looked for in a physical store, online or both?
• What should you do to access the most appropriate distribution channels?
• Will you require a sales force?
• Where are your competitors offering their products or services?
• Should you follow in your competitors’ footsteps?
• Should you do something different from your competitors?
Importance of an IDEA
Ideas are the foundation of progress. An idea can be small or ground-breaking, easy to accomplish or
extremely complicated to implement. Whatever the case, the fact that it is an idea gives it merit. Without
ideas, nothing is possible. Most people are afraid to speak out their ideas, out for fear of being ridiculed.
However, if are an entrepreneur and want to remain competitive and innovative, you need to bring your
ideas out into the light.
Some ways to do this are by:
• Establishing a culture of brainstorming where you invite all interested parties to contribute
• Discussing ideas out loud so that people can add their ideas, views, opinions to them
• Being open minded and not limiting your ideas, even if the idea who have seems ridiculous
• Not discarding ideas that you don’t work on immediately, but instead making a note of them and
shelving them so they can be revisited at a later date
Tips
• Keep in mind that good ideas do not always have to be unique.
• Remember that timing plays a huge role in determining the success of your idea.
• Situations and circumstances will always change, so be flexible and adapt your idea accordingly.
207
7.6.2 Business Entity Concepts: Basic Business

Terminology
If your aim is to start and run a business, it is crucial that you have a good understanding of basic business
terms. Every entrepreneur should be well versed in the following terms:
• Accounting: A systematic method of recording and reporting financial transactions.
• Accounts payable: Money owed by a company to its creditors.
• Accounts Receivable: The amount a company is owed by its clients.
• Assets: The value of everything a company owns and uses to conduct its business.
• Balance Sheet: A snapshot of a company’s assets, liabilities and owner’s equity at a given moment.
• Bottom Line: The total amount a business has earned or lost at the end of a month.
• Business: An organization that operates with the aim of making a profit.
• Business to Business (B2B): A business that sells goods or services to another business.
• Business to Consumer (B2C): A business that sells goods or services directly to the end user.
• Capital: The money a business has in its accounts, assets and investments. The two main types of
capital are debt and equity.
• Cash Flow: The overall movement of funds through a business each month, including income and
expenses.
• Cash Flow Statement: A statement showing the money that entered and exited a business during a
specific period of time.
• Contract: A formal agreement to do work for pay.
• Depreciation: The degrading value of an asset over time.
• Expense: The costs that a business incurs through its operations.
• Finance: The management and allocation of money and other assets.
• Financial Report: A comprehensive account of a business’ transactions and expenses.
• Fixed Cost: A one-time expense.
• Income Statement (Profit and Loss Statement): Shows the profitability of a business during a period
of time.
• Liabilities: The value of what a business owes to someone else.
• Marketing: The process of promoting, selling and distributing a product or service.
• Net Income/Profit: Revenues minus expenses.
• Net Worth: The total value of a business.
• Payback Period: The amount of time it takes to recover the initial investment of a business.
• Profit Margin: The ratio of profit, divided by revenue, displayed as a percentage.
• Return on Investment (ROI): The amount of money a business gets as return from an investment.
• Revenue: The total amount of income before expenses are subtracted.
• Sales Prospect: A potential customer.
• Supplier: A provider of supplies to a business.
• Target Market: A specific group of customers at which a company’s products and services are aimed.
• Valuation: An estimate of the overall worth of the business.
• Variable Cost: Expenses that change in proportion to the activity of a business.
• Working Capital: Calculated as current assets minus current liabilities.
• Business Transactions: There are three types of business transactions. These are:
Simple Transactions – Usually a single transaction between a vendor and a customer. For
example: Buying a cup of coffee.
208
Complex Transactions – These transactions go through a number of events before they can be
completed. For example: Buying a house.
Ongoing transactions – These transactions usually require a contract. For example: Contract with
a vendor.
Basic Accounting Formulas
Take a look some important accounting formulas that every entrepreneur needs to know.
1. The Accounting Equation: This is value of everything a company owns and uses to conduct its business.
Formula:
Assets = Liability + Owner’s Equity
2. Net Income: This is the profit of the company.
Formula:
Net Income = Revenues – Expenses
3. Break-Even Point: This is the point at which the company will not make a profit or a loss. The total
cost and total revenues are equal.
Formula:
Break-Even = Fixed Costs/Sales Price – Variable Cost per Unit
4. Cash Ratio: This tells us about the liquidity of a company.
Formula:
Cash Ratio = Cash/Current Liabilities
5. Profit Margin: This is shown as a percentage. It shows what percentage of sales are left over after all
the expenses are paid by the business.
Formula:
Profit Margin = Net Income/Sales
6. Debt-to-Equity Ratio: This ratio shows how much equity and debt a company is using to finance its
assets, and whether the shareholder equity can fulfill obligations to creditors if the business starts
making a loss.
Formula:
Debt-to-Equity Ratio = Total Liabilities/Total Equity
7. Cost of Goods Sold: This is the total of all costs used to create a product or service, which has been
sold.
Formula:
Cost of Goods Sold = Cost of Materials/Inventory – Cost of Outputs
8. Return on Investment (ROI): This is usually shown as a percentage. It calculates the profits of an
investment as a percentage of the original cost.
Formula:
ROI = Net Profit/Total Investment * 100
9. Simple Interest: This is money you can earn by initially investing some money (the principal).
Formula:
A = P(1 + rt); R = r * 100
Where:
A = Total Accrued Amount (principal + interest)
209
P = Principal Amount
I = Interest Amount
r = Rate of Interest per year in decimal; r = R/100
t = Time Period involved in months or years
10. Annual Compound Interest: The calculates the addition of interest to the principal sum of a loan or
deposit.
Formula:
A = P (1 + r/n) ^ nt:
Where:
A = the future value of the investment/loan, including interest
P = the principal investment amount (the initial deposit or loan amount)
r = the annual interest rate (decimal)
n = the number of times that interest is compounded per year
t = the number of years the money is invested or borrowed for
7.6.3 CRM & Networking: What is CRM?

CRM stands for Customer Relationship Management. Originally the expression Customer Relationship
Management meant managing one’s relationship with customers. However, today it refers to IT systems
and software designed to help companies manage their relationships.
The Need for CRM

The better a company can manage its relationships with its customers, the higher the chances of the
company’s success. For any entrepreneur, the ability to successfully retain existing customers and expand
the enterprise is paramount. This is why IT systems that focus on addressing the problems of dealing with
customers on a daily basis are becoming more and more in demand.
Customer needs change over time, and technology can make it easier to understand what customers
really want. This insight helps companies to be more responsive to the needs of their customers. It
enables them to modify their business operations when required, so that their customers are always
served in the best manner possible. Simply put, CRM helps companies recognize the value of their clients
and enables them to capitalize on improved customer relations.
Benefits of CRM
CRM has a number of important benefits:
• It helps improve relations with existing customers which can lead to:
Increased sales
Identification of customer needs
Cross-selling of products
• It results in better marketing of one’s products or services
• It enhances customer satisfaction and retention
• It improves profitability by identifying and focusing on the most profitable customers
210
What is Networking?
In business, networking means leveraging your business and personal connections in order to bring in a
regular supply of new business. This marketing method is effective as well as low cost. It is a great way to
develop sales opportunities and contacts. Networking can be based on referrals and introductions, or can
take place via phone, email, and social and business networking websites.
The Need for Networking

Networking is an essential personal skill for business people, but it is even more important for
entrepreneurs. The process of networking has its roots in relationship building. Networking results in
greater communication and a stronger presence in the entrepreneurial ecosystem. This helps build strong
relationships with other entrepreneurs.
Business networking events held across the globe play a huge role in connecting like-minded entrepreneurs
who share the same fundamental beliefs in communication, exchanging ideas and converting ideas into
realities. Such networking events also play a crucial role in connecting entrepreneurs with potential
investors. Entrepreneurs may have vastly different experiences and backgrounds but they all have
a common goal in mind – they all seek connection, inspiration, advice, opportunities and mentors.
Networking offers them a platform to do just that.
Benefits of Networking
Networking offers numerous benefits for entrepreneurs. Some of the major benefits are:
• Getting high quality leads
• Increased business opportunities
• Good source of relevant connections
• Advice from like-minded entrepreneurs
• Gaining visibility and raising your profile
• Meeting positive and enthusiastic people
• Increased self-confidence
• Satisfaction from helping others
• Building strong and lasting friendships
Tips
• Use social media interactions to identify needs and gather feedback.
• When networking, ask open-ended questions rather than yes/no type questions.
7.6.4 Business Plan: Why Set Goals?

Setting goals is important because it gives you long-term vision and short-term motivation. Goals can be
short term, medium term and long term.
Short-Term Goals
• These are specific goals for the immediate future.
Example: Repairing a machine that has failed.
Medium-Term Goals
• These goals are built on your short term goals.
• They do not need to be as specific as your short term goals.
211
Example: Arranging for a service contract to ensure that your machines don’t fail again.
Long-Term Goals
These goals require time and planning.
They usually take a year or more to achieve.
Example: Planning your expenses so you can buy new machinery
Why Create a Business Plan?

A business plan is a tool for understanding how your business is put together. It can be used to monitor
progress, foster accountable and control the fate of the business. It usually offers a 3-5 year projection
and outlines the plan that the company intends to follow to grow its revenues. A business plan is also a
very important tool for getting the interest of key employees or future investors.
A business plan typically comprises of eight elements.
Elements of a Business Plan

Executive Summary
The executive summary follows the title page. The summary should clearly state your desires as the
business owner in a short and businesslike way. It is an overview of your business and your plans. Ideally
this should not be more than 1-2 pages.
Your Executive Summary should include:
• The Mission Statement: Explain what your business is all about.
Example: Nike’s Mission Statement
Nike’s mission statement is “To bring inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the world.”
• Company Information: Provide information like when your business was formed, the names and
roles of the founders, the number of employees, your business location(s) etc.
• Growth Highlights: Mention examples of company growth. Use graphs and charts where possible.
• Your Products/Services: Describe the products or services provided.
• Financial Information: Provide details on current bank and investors.
• Summarize future plans: Describe where you see your business in the future.
Business Description
The second section of your business plan needs to provide a detailed review of the different elements
of your business. This will help potential investors to correctly understand your business goal and the
uniqueness of your offering.
Your Business Description should include:
• A description of the nature of your business
• The market needs that you are aiming to satisfy
• The ways in which your products and services meet these needs
• The specific consumers and organizations that you intend to serve
• Your specific competitive advantages
Market Analysis
The market analysis section usually follows the business description. The aim of this section is to showcase
your industry and market knowledge. This is also the section where you should lay down your research
findings and conclusions.
212
Your Market Analysis should include:

• Your industry description and outlook
• Information on your target market
• The needs and demographics of your target audience
• The size of your target market
• The amount of market share you want to capture
• Your pricing structure
• Your competitive analysis
• Any regulatory requirements
Organization & Management
This section should come immediately after the Market Analysis.
Your Organization & Management section should include:
• Your company’s organizational structure
• Details of your company’s ownership
• Details of your management team
• Qualifications of your board of directors
• Detailed descriptions of each division/department and its function
• The salary and benefits package that you offer your people
• The incentives that you offer
Service or Product Line
The next section is the service or product line section. This is where you describe your service or product,
and stress on their benefits to potential and current customers. Explain in detail why your product of
choice will fulfill the needs of your target audience.
Your Service or Product Line section should include:
• A description of your product/service
• A description of your product or service’s life cycle
• A list of any copyright or patent filings
• A description of any R&D activities that you are involved in or planning
Marketing & Sales
Once the Service or Product Line section of your plan has been completed, you should start on the
description of the marketing and sales management strategy for your business.
Your Marketing section should include the following strategies:
• Market penetration strategy: This strategy focuses on selling your existing products or services in
existing markets, in order to increase your market share.
• Growth strategy: This strategy focuses on increasing the amount of market share, even if it reduces
earnings in the short-term.
• Channels of distribution strategy: These can be wholesalers, retailers, distributers and even the internet.
• Communication strategy: These can be written strategies (e-mail, text, chat), oral strategies
(phone calls, video chats, face-to-face conversations), non-verbal strategies (body language, facial
expressions, tone of voice) and visual strategies (signs, webpages, illustrations).
Your Sales section should include the following information:
• A salesforce strategy: This strategy focuses on increasing the revenue of the enterprise.
• A breakdown of your sales activities: This means detailing out how you intend to sell your products
or services – will you sell it offline or online, how many units do you intend to sell, what price do you
plan to sell each unit at, etc.
213
Funding Request
This section is specifically for those who require funding for their venture.
The Funding Request section should include the following information:
• How much funding you currently require.
• How much funding you will require over the next five years. This will depend on your long-term goals.
• The type of funding you want and how you plan to use it. Do you want funding that can be used only
for a specific purpose, or funding that can be used for any kind of requirement?
• Strategic plans for the future. This will involve detailing out your long-term plans – what these plans
are and how much money you will require to put these plans in motions.
• Historical and prospective financial information. This can be done by creating and maintaining all
your financial records, right from the moment your enterprise started, to the present day. Documents
required for this are your balance sheet which contains details of your company’s assets and liabilities,
your income statement which lists your company’s revenues, expenses and net income for the year,
your tax returns (usually for the last three years) and your cash flow budget which lists the cash that
came in, the cash that went out and states whether you had a cash deficit (negative balance) or
surplus (positive balance) at the end of each month.
Financial Planning
Before you begin building your enterprise, you need to plan your finances. Take a look at the steps for
financial planning:
Step 1: Create a financial plan. This should include your goals, strategies and timelines for accomplishing
these goals.
Step 2: Organize all your important financial documents. Maintain a file to hold your investment details,
bank statements, tax papers, credit card bills, insurance papers and any other financial records.
Step 3: Calculate your net worth. This means figure out what you own (assets like your house, bank
accounts, investments etc.), and then subtract what you owe (liabilities like loans, pending credit card
amounts etc.) the amount you are left with is your net worth.
Step 4: Make a spending plan. This means write down in detail where your money will come from, and
where it will go.
Step 5: Build an emergency fund. A good emergency fund contains enough money to cover at least 6
months’ worth of expenses.
Step 6: Set up your insurance. Insurance provides long term financial security and protects you against risk.
Risk Management
As an entrepreneur, it is critical that you evaluate the risks involved with the type of enterprise that you
want to start, before you begin setting up your company. Once you have identified potential risks, you can
take steps to reduce them. Some ways to manage risks are:
• Research similar business and find out about their risks and how they were minimized.
• Evaluate current market trends and find out if similar products or services that launched a while ago
are still being well received by the public.
• Think about whether you really have the required expertise to launch your product or service.
• Examine your finances and see if you have enough income to start your enterprise.
• Be aware of the current state of the economy, consider how the economy may change over time, and
think about how your enterprise will be affected by any of those changes.
• Create a detailed business plan.
214
Tips
• Ensure all the important elements are covered in your plan.
• Scrutinize the numbers thoroughly.
• Be concise and realistic.
• Be conservative in your approach and your projections.
• Use visuals like charts, graphs and images wherever possible.
7.6.5 Procedure and Formalities for Bank Finance:

The Need for Bank Finance
For entrepreneurs, one of the most difficult challenges faced involves securing funds for startups.
With numerous funding options available, entrepreneurs need to take a close look at which funding
methodology works best for them. In India, banks are one of the largest funders of startups, offering
funding to thousands of startups every year.
What Information Should Entrepreneurs Offer Banks for Funding?
When approaching a bank, entrepreneurs must have a clear idea of the different criteria that banks use
to screen, rate and process loan applications. Entrepreneurs must also be aware of the importance of
providing banks with accurate and correct information. It is now easier than ever for financial institutions
to track any default behaviour of loan applicants. Entrepreneurs looking for funding from banks must
provide banks with information relating to their general credentials, financial situation and guarantees
or collaterals that can be offered.
General Credentials
This is where you, as an entrepreneur, provide the bank with background information on yourself. Such
information includes:
• Letter(s) of Introduction: This letter should be written by a respected business person who knows
you well enough to introduce you. The aim of this letter is set across your achievements and vouch
for your character and integrity.
• Your Profile: This is basically your resume. You need to give the bank a good idea of your educational
achievements, professional training, qualifications, employment record and achievements.
• Business Brochure: A business brochure typically provides information on company products, clients,
how long the business has been running for etc.
• Bank and Other References: If you have an account with another bank, providing those bank
references is a good idea.
• Proof of Company Ownership or Registration: In some cases, you may need to provide the bank with
proof of company ownership and registration. A list of assets and liabilities may also be required.
Financial Situation
Banks will expect current financial information on your enterprise. The standard financial reports you
should be prepared with are:
• Balance Sheet • Profit-and-Loss Account

• Cash-Flow Statement • Projected Sales and Revenues
• Business Plan • Feasibility Study
Guarantees or Collaterals
Usually banks will refuse to grant you a loan without security. You can offer assets which the bank can
seize and sell off if you do not repay the loan. Fixed assets like machinery, equipment, vehicles etc. are
also considered to be security for loans.
215
The Lending Criteria of Banks

Your request for funding will have a higher chance of success if you can satisfy the following lending
criteria:
• Good cash flow
• Adequate shareholders’ funds
• Adequate security
• Experience in business
• Good reputation
The Procedure
To apply for funding the following procedure will need to be followed.
1. Submit your application form and all other required documents to the bank.
2. The bank will carefully assess your credit worthiness and assign ratings by analyzing your business
information with respect to parameters like management, financial, operational and industry
information as well as past loan performance.
3. The bank will make a decision as to whether or not you should be given funding.
Tips
• Get advice on funding options from experienced bankers.
• Be cautious and avoid borrowing more than you need, for longer than you need, at an interest rate
that is higher than you are comfortable with.
7.6.6 Enterprise Management - An Overview:

How to Manage Your Enterprise?
To manage your enterprise effectively you need to look at many different aspects, right from managing
the day-to-day activities to figuring out how to handle a large scale event. Let’s take a look at some simple
steps to manage your company effectively.
Step 1: Use your leadership skills and ask for advice when required.
Let’s take the example of Ramu, an entrepreneur who has recently started his own enterprise. Ramu
has good leadership skills – he is honest, communicates well, knows how to delegate work etc. These
leadership skills definitely help Ramu in the management of his enterprise. However, sometimes Ramu
comes across situations that he is unsure how to handle. What should Ramu do in this case? One solution
is for him to find a more experienced manager who is willing to mentor him. Another solution is for Ramu
to use his networking skills so that he can connect with managers from other organizations, who can give
him advice on how to handle such situations.
Step 2: Divide your work amongst others – realize that you cannot handle everything yourself.
Even the most skilled manager in the world will not be able to manage every single task that an enterprise
will demand of him. A smart manager needs to realize that the key to managing his enterprise lies in
his dividing all his work between those around him. This is known as delegation. However, delegating is
not enough. A manager must delegate effectively if he wants to see results. This is important because
delegating, when done incorrectly, can result in you creating even more work for yourself. To delegate
effectively, you can start by making two lists. One list should contain the things that you know you need
216
to handle yourself. The second list should contain the things that you are confident can be given to others
to manage and handle. Besides incorrect delegation, another issue that may arise is over-delegation.
This means giving away too many of your tasks to others. The problem with this is, the more tasks you
delegate, the more time you will spend tracking and monitoring the work progress of those you have
handed the tasks to. This will leave you with very little time to finish your own work.
Step 3: Hire the right people for the job.
Hiring the right people goes a long way towards effectively managing your enterprise. To hire the best
people suited for the job, you need to be very careful with your interview process. You should ask
potential candidates the right questions and evaluate their answers carefully. Carrying out background
checks is always a good practice. Running a credit check is also a good idea, especially if the people you
are planning to hire will be handling your money. Create a detailed job description for each role that you
want filled and ensure that all candidates have a clear and correct understanding of the job description.
You should also have an employee manual in place, where you put down every expectation that you have
from your employees. All these actions will help ensure that the right people are approached for running
your enterprise.
Step 4: Motivate your employees and train them well.
Your enterprise can only be managed effectively if your employees are motivated to work hard for your
enterprise. Part of being motivated involves your employees believing in the vision and mission of your
enterprise and genuinely wanting to make efforts towards pursuing the same. You can motivate your
employees with recognition, bonuses and rewards for achievements. You can also motivate them by
telling them about how their efforts have led to the company’s success. This will help them feel pride and
give them a sense of responsibility that will increase their motivation.
Besides motivating your people, your employees should be constantly trained in new practices and
technologies. Remember, training is not a one-time effort. It is a consistent effort that needs to be carried
out regularly.
Step 5: Train your people to handle your customers well.
Your employees need to be well-versed in the art of customer management. This means they should be
able to understand what their customers want, and also know how to satisfy their needs. For them to
truly understand this, they need to see how you deal effectively with customers. This is called leading by
example. Show them how you sincerely listen to your clients and the efforts that you put into understand
their requirements. Let them listen to the type of questions that you ask your clients so they understand
which questions are appropriate.
Step 6: Market your enterprise effectively.
Use all your skills and the skills of your employees to market your enterprise in an effective manner. You
can also hire a marketing agency if you feel you need help in this area.
Now that you know what is required to run your enterprise effectively, put these steps into play, and see
how much easier managing your enterprise becomes!
Tips
• Get advice on funding options from experienced bankers.
• Be cautious and avoid borrowing more than you need, for longer than you need, at an interest rate
that is higher than you are comfortable with.
217
7.6.7. 20 Questions to Ask Yourself Before Considering

Entrepreneurship
1. Why am I starting a business?
2. What problem am I solving?
3. Have others attempted to solve this problem before? Did they succeed or fail?
4. Do I have a mentor1 or industry expert that I can call on?
5. Who is my ideal customer2?
6. Who are my competitors3?
7. What makes my business idea different from other business ideas?
8. What are the key features of my product or service?
9. Have I done a SWOT4 analysis?
10. What is the size of the market that will buy my product or service?
11. What would it take to build a minimum viable product5 to test the market?
12. How much money do I need to get started?
13. Will I need to get a loan?
14. How soon will my products or services be available?
15. When will I break even6 or make a profit?
16. How will those who invest in my idea make a profit?
17. How should I set up the legal structure7 of my business?
18. What taxes8 will I need to pay?
19. What kind of insurance9 will I need?
20. Have I reached out to potential customers for feedback?
Tips
• It is very important to validate your business ideas before you invest significant time, money and
resources into it.
• The more questions you ask yourself, the more prepared you will be to handle to highs and lows of
starting an enterprise.
Footnotes:
1. A mentor is a trusted and experienced person who is willing to coach and guide you.
2. A customer is someone who buys goods and/or services.
3. A competitor is a person or company that sells products and/or services similar to your products
and/or services.
4. SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. To conduct a SWOT analysis
of your company, you need to list down all the strengths and weaknesses of your company, the
opportunities that are present for your company and the threats faced by your company.
5. A minimum viable product is a product that has the fewest possible features, that can be sold to
customers, for the purpose of getting feedback from customers on the product.
6. A company is said to break even when the profits of the company are equal to the costs.
7. The legal structure could be a sole proprietorship, partnership or limited liability partnership.
8. There are two types of taxes – direct taxes payable by a person or a company, or indirect taxes
charged on goods and/or services.
9. There are two types of insurance – life insurance and general insurance. Life insurance covers human
life while general insurance covers assets like animals, goods, cars etc.
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Junior Instrumentation

Technician (Process Control)

About this Book

1. Overview of Instrumentation and Process Control

3. Preventive Maintenance – Process Control (NOS Code IAS/N0301)

4. Task reporting – Process Control (NOS Code IAS/N0103)

5. Safety, Health and Environment – Process Control (NOS Code IAS/N0105)

6. Work Effectively With Teams (NOS Code NOS/ N2105)

Unit 1 gives a general introduction to process control industry and practices.

The symbols used in this book are described below.

2. Site Readiness and Instrument Usability – Process Control 63

3. Preventive Maintenance - Process Control 101

4. Task Reporting – Process Control 117

5. Safety, Health and Environment (SHE) – Process Control 127

6. Work Effectively With Teams 133

7. Employability and Entrepreneurship Skills 145

Key Learning Outcomes

6. Power Plants – Thermal, Nuclear

1.1.2 Common Characteristics of Process Industries

7. All plants have requirements of planned maintenance, overhaul and regeneration – to

1.1.3 Need for Process Control

1.1.4 Instrumentation in Process Control

The above process industries have some common requirements:

1.1.5 Role of Junior Instrumentation Technician

Unit 1.2 – Sensors and Instruments in Process Industry

1.2.1 What are Sensors?

1.2.1.1 What are Industrial Sensors?

1.2.1.3 The Control Problem

Figure 1.21.2- The

1.2.2 Types of Sensors

1.2.3 Temperature Sensors

– e.g. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), made of pure me

Figure 1.3 - Principle of Bimetallic Temperature Ind

Figure 1.3 - Principle of Bimetallic Temperature Indicator

1.3 - Principle of Bimetallic Temperature Indicator

Figure 1.4 - Thermocouple measurement with ice bath as reference

Table 1.1 - Color codes for Thermocouples

S Type Color Code Positive Negative Range Avg.

2 J Iron Constantan -196 to 40

3 N Nicro- Nisil (Ni −270 to 39

5 S Not Pt - 10% Pt 0 to 1450 -

6 B No No Not Pt - 30% Pt-6% Rh 0 to 1750 -

8 E Chromel Constantan -196 to 68

Figure 1.5 - A Platinum Resistance Temperature Detector

Figure 1.6 - Characteristics of TC, RTD and Thermistor

Figure 1.7 - Thermowell, a typical example

There are commonly four mainFigure

Figure 1.8 - Bourdon pressure gauge

Notes Figure 1.8 - Bourdon pressure gauge

Figure 1.10 - Image of a Piezoelectric Resistor Pressure sensor

Note: ThisI.is anPositive Displacement

The Positive Displacement (PD) meters have 3 parts:

Figure 1.12 - Oval gear type PD meter

1.2.6.1 Principle of Measurement of DP type sensor

1.2.6.1 Principle of Measurement of DP Type Sensor

The HP (High Pressure) side of DP transmitter sees a pressure of

H × density of liquid + gas pressure P.

LP (Low Pressure) side sees gas pressure P.

So (HP-LP) pressures = H × density of liquid + gas pressure P minus gas pressure P