DISTILLATION CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM

DIESEL

PGG415: PETROLEUM ENGINEERING LABORATORY

III
A LABORATORY REPORT
BY
STEPHEN, SAMUEL OCHOGBE
Matric No: 150409014
WITH
GROUP B:
OLAOSILO SAMUEL
ODUKOYA MAYOMIKUN
AKINDE-PETERS TOSIN
ANAKA MARYJANE
TIJANI OLAWALE
YEKINI YUSUF
JOSEPH TIMOTHY
OGBE-NWOR NTITO-OBARI
EDAFE WILSON

Date performed: 16-04-2019

Date submitted: 30-04-2019

 TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE PAGE
ABSTRACT

Chapters
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
4. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS/ EQUIPMENTS
5. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
6. RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
7. DISCUSSION
8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
PRACTICE EXERCISES
REFERENCES
SIGNED SHEET DOCUMENT
 ABSTRACT
The purpose of this lab report is to discuss the effect and importance of knowing the
characteristics of a diesel fuel gotten from petroleum using a distillation process (ASTM).
Diesel fuel is a mixture of hydrocarbons obtained by distillation of crude oil. The important
properties which are used to characterize diesel fuel include cetane number (or cetane index),
fuel volatility, density, viscosity, cold behaviour, and sulphur content. Diesel fuel
specifications differ for various fuel grades and in different countries.
The aim of this experiment is the determination of boiling range characteristics of petroleum
products by using ASTM distillation. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
standard test D86 method used specifies a process for determining the distillation (volatility)
characteristics of petroleum diesel with a boiling range of about 149°C to 371°C, at
atmospheric pressure using the SETA STILL distillation apparatus. The working principle of the
apparatus is based on differential or simple distillation. A batch of diesel sample (100mL) is
charged to a still fitted with some sort of heating device. The charge is boiled slowly and the
vapours are withdrawn as rapidly as they form to a condenser where they are liquefied and
the condensate is collected in the receiver.
In this experiment, the volume of distillate was recorded for temperature ranging from 50oC-
300oC, the mid boiling point was recorded as 108oC and a graph of temperature against
volume of distillate was plotted to show the curve performance of the diesel fuel.
The temperature when 50% distillate has been recovered was noted to be 2860C. Also, the
cetane index (C.I) obtained was approx. 18.35.
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
Conventional diesel fuels are distillates with a boiling range of about 149°C to 371°C, obtained
by the distillation of crude oil. It consists of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers
predominantly in the range of C9-C10 and the components of diesel fuels are straight run
fractions containing paraffinic and naphthenic hydrocarbons, naphtha and cracked gas oils.
Diesel fuel produces power in an engine when it is atomized and mixed with air in the
combustion chamber. Pressure caused by the piston rising in the cylinder causes a rapid
temperature increase. When fuel is injected, the fuel/air mixture ignites and the energy of
the diesel fuel is released forcing the piston downwards and turning the crankshaft.
Distillation is a process whereby the various components of a mixture are separated into
fractions according to their boiling temperature.
1.1 DISTILLATION CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM DIESEL
a) CETANE NUMBER
Cetane (n-hexadecane) number is a measure of the ignition delay of a diesel fuel calculated
from distillation data and density. The shorter the interval between the time the fuel is
injected and the time it begins to burn, the higher is its cetane number. It is a measure of the
ease with which the fuel can be ignited and is most significant in low temperature starting,
warm up, idling and smooth, even combustion. Cetane number requirements depend on
engine design and size, nature of speed and load variations, and starting and atmosphere
conditions. Some hydrocarbons ignite more readily than others and are desirable because of
this short ignition delay. The preferred hydrocarbons in order of their decreasing cetane
number are normal paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, iso-paraffins and aromatics. This is the
reverse order of their anti-knock quality. Cetane number is measured in a single cylinder test
engine with a variable compression ratio. The reference fuels used are mixtures of cetane,
which has a very short ignition delay, and alphamethyl naphthalene which has a long ignition
delay. The percentage of cetane in the reference fuel is defined as the cetane number of the
test fuel. The importance of cetane number is very evident as low cetane number usually
causes an ignition delay in the engine. This delay causes starting difficulties and engine knock.
Ignition delay also causes poor fuel economy, a loss of power and sometimes engine damage.
Typical diesel fuels have cetane numbers in the low to mid 40's. These are generally
satisfactory for high speed engines while low and medium speed engines may use fuels with
lower cetane number. Some refiners have used additives such as hexyl nitrate or amyl nitrate
to increase cetane numbers.
Cetane index is an estimate of the cetane number calculated from distillation data and
density. The method for doing so is outlined in ASTM (American Society for Testing and
Materials) D976.
b) VOLATILITY
The distillation characteristic of the fuel describes its volatility. Volatility is one of the main
characteristics that determine how easily the material can be refined. A properly designed
fuel has the optimum proportion of low boiling components for easy cold starting and fast
warm-up and heavier components which provide power and fuel economy when the engine
reaches operating temperature. Either too high or too low volatility may promote smoking,
carbon deposits and oil dilution due to the effect on fuel injection and vaporization in the
combustion chamber. The 10, 50 and 90% points are the principal volatility controls. The
Canadian General Standard 2-3.6M82 permits a 90% point of 360°C for type B diesel fuel and
maximum 90% point of 290ºC for Type A diesel fuel. The fuel volatility requirements also
depend on engine design and size, nature of speed and load variations, and starting and
atmospheric conditions. For engine in services involving rapidly fluctuating loads and speeds,
as in bus and truck operations, the more volatile fuels may provide better performance,
particularly with respect to smoke and odour. However, better fuel economy is generally
obtained from the heavier types of fuel because of their higher energy content.
The flash point of petroleum or a petroleum product is the temperature to which the product
must be heated under specified conditions to emit sufficient vapour to form a mixture with
air that can be ignited momentarily by a specified flame (ASTM D-56, D-92, and D-93). The
flash point of a diesel fuel has no relation to its performance in an engine or to its auto ignition
qualities. It does provide a useful check on suspected contaminants such as gasoline, since as
little as 0.5% of gasoline present can lower the flash point of the fuel very markedly. Shipping,
storage and handling regulations are predicated on minimum flash point of 40◦C. The fire
point is the temperature to which the product must be heated under the prescribed
conditions of the method to burn continuously when the mixture of vapour and air is ignited
by a specified flame (ASTM D-92).
c) VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow. High viscosity means the fuel is thick
and does not flow easily. Fuel with the wrong viscosity (either too high or too low) can cause
engine or fuel system damage. High viscosity fuel will increase gear train, cam and follower
wear on the fuel pump assembly because of the higher injection pressure. Fuel atomizes less
efficiently and the engine will be more difficult to start. Low viscosity fuel may not provide
adequate lubrication to plungers, barrels and injectors, and its use should be evaluated
carefully. The viscosity of the fuel affects atomization and fuel delivery rate. The viscosity of
diesel fuel is normally specified at 40°C. Fuels with viscosities over 5.5 centistokes at 40°C are
limited to use in slow speed engines, and may require pre-heating for injection. For some
engines, it is advantageous to specify a minimum viscosity because of power loss due to
injection pump and injector leakage. Maximum viscosity, on the other hand, is limited by
considerations involved in engine design and size, fuel temperature and the characteristics of
the injection system.
d) CLOUD POINT
Due to the extreme weather conditions that we encounter in some countries, diesel fuels are
blended seasonally and adjusted to provide ultimate power and performance and minimize
cold weather problems which are inherent to diesel fuel. As diesel fuel is cooled it will reach
the "cloud point". This is the temperature at which paraffin wax falls out of solution and starts
to form wax crystals in the fuel. As the fuel is cooled further, it will eventually reach its' "pour
point". This is the temperature at which fuels will no longer flow or the point at which fuel
gels or turns solid. The standard procedure to measure the cloud point is ASTM D 2500.
Another key property of diesel fuel is the "Cold Filter Plug Point" (CFPP). This is the
temperature where fuel can no longer flow freely through a fuel filter, approximately halfway
between the cloud point and the pour point. How critical these factors become in winter
operation depends on the design of the fuel system with regard to fuel line bore, freedom
from bends, size and location of filters and degree of warm fuel recirculation as well as the
amount and kind of wax crystals. Additives are being used successfully to improve fuel fluidity
at low temperatures. These additives, known as wax crystal modifiers, can result in
satisfactory fuel flow on average of 9°C to -27°C. Wax crystal modifiers do not change the
cloud point of the fuel, but it polarizes the wax molecules and keeps the wax from forming
larger crystals, therefore lowering the pour point and CFPP. After treating diesel fuel with a
high quality diesel fuel conditioner, the wax crystals that have dropped out of solution will
repel each other and improve the cold flow properties of the treated fuel.
e) SULFUR CONTENT
Sulfur in diesel fuel can cause combustion chamber deposits, exhaust system corrosion, and
wear on pistons, rings and cylinders, particularly at low water-jacket temperatures. Sulfur
tolerance by an engine is dependent on the type of engine, the type of service and lube oil
used. Sulfur is totally non-compatible with exhaust treatment technology in on-road 2007
(and later) model year engines. Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel benefits engines by burning cleaner,
producing cleaner exhaust and, in turn, helping the environment.
f) THERMAL STABILITY
Heat transfer is a design function of diesel fuels in many modern diesel engines. Only a portion
of the fuel that is circulated and pressurized by the fuel injection system is actually
combusted. The remainder of the fuel is recycled back to the fuel tank. The bulk fuel
temperature can be well above ambient levels. Inadequate high-temperature stability of a
diesel fuel can result in the formation of insoluble degradation products that can then cause
filter plugging. In colder temperatures, the recycling of heated fuel back to a colder fuel tank
can cause condensation problems that could lead to increase in free moisture in the fuel. This
problem could possibly lead to filter plugging and necessitate a higher frequency of fuel
separator filter maintenance and/or drains.
g) DISTILLATION CURVE
This is the plot of temperature versus percentage volume recovered and it characterizes the
volatility of the fuel. As the density is dependent on the composition of the fuel, the
distillation characteristics affect the density as well as the viscosity and cetane index. Thus
the distillation curve is an important factor in the control of fuel quality
 2.O THEORY
Diesel fuel in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines, whose fuel ignition takes
place, without any spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then
injection of fuel. (Glow plugs, grid heaters and block heaters help achieve high temperatures
for combustion during engine startup in cold weather.) Diesel engines have found broad use
as a result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly
noted where diesel engines are run at part-load; as their air supply is not throttled as in a
petrol engine, their efficiency still remains very high.

The most common type of diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil,
but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel, biomass to liquid
(BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL) diesel, are increasingly being developed and adopted. To
distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel. Ultra-
low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered
sulfur contents. As of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in the UK,
mainland Europe, and North America is of a ULSD type. In the UK, diesel fuel for on-road use
is commonly abbreviated DERV, standing for diesel-engined road vehicle, which carries a tax
premium over equivalent fuel for non-road use. In Australia, diesel fuel is also known as
distillate, and in Indonesia, it is known as Solar, a trademarked name by the local oil
company Pertamina.

Diesel fuel is a mixture of hydrocarbons—with boiling points in the range of 150 to 380°C—
which are obtained from petroleum. Petroleum crude oils are composed of hydrocarbons of
three major classes: (1) paraffinic, (2) naphthenic (or cycloparaffinic), and (3) aromatic
hydrocarbons. Unsaturated hydrocarbons (olefins) rarely occur in the crude. It should be
noted that the terms ‘paraffinic’ and ‘naphthenic’ sound obsolescent; we use them because
they are still common in the petrochemical industry. In modern chemistry, the respective
groups of hydrocarbons are called alkanes and cycloalkanes.

The composition of the crude can vary from thin light-colored brownish or greenish crude
oils of low density, to thick and black oils resembling melted tar. The thin, low density oils
are called “high-gravity” crude oils, and the thick high density ones, “low-gravity” crude oils.
This convention, rather confusing to those outside the petroleum industry, is explained by
the use of “API gravity” which is a fuel property inversely proportional to its density.

In the refining process, the crude oil is converted into transportation fuels—gasoline, jet
fuel, and diesel fuel—and other petroleum products, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
heating fuel, lubricating oil, wax, and asphalt. High-gravity crude oils contain more of the
lighter products needed for the production of transportation fuels, and generally have lower
sulfur content. Modern refining processes can also convert low-gravity crude oils into lighter
products, at an added expense of more complex processing equipment, more processing
steps, and more energy.

Distillation is the process of separating the components or substances from a liquid mixture by using
selective boiling and condensing. Distillation may result in essentially complete separation (nearly
pure components), or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected
components in the mixture. In either case, the process exploits differences in the volatility of the
mixture's components. In chemical industry distillation is a unit operation of practically universal
importance, but it is a physical separation process, not chemical reaction.

2.1 Modern refining processes can be classified into three basic categories:

 Separation: The crude is separated into components based on some physical

property. The most common separation process is distillation, where the
components of the crude are separated into several streams based on their boiling
temperature. Separation processes do not change the chemical structure of
feedstock components.
 Conversion: These processes change the molecular structure of feedstock
components. The most common conversion processes are catalytic cracking and
hydrocracking, which—as suggested by the names—involve “cracking” of large
molecules into smaller ones.
 Upgrading: Commonly used in reformulated fuels to remove compounds present in
trace amounts that give the material some undesired qualities. The most commonly
used upgrading process for diesel fuel is hydrotreating, which involves chemical
reactions with hydrogen.
A schematic of modern refinery with diesel streams highlighted is shown in the Figure below
[Chevron 1998]. In the primary distillation column, operating under atmospheric pressure,
the crude oil feedstock is separated into a number of streams of increasingly higher boiling
point, which are called straight-run products (e.g., straight-run diesel). The material that is
too heavy to vaporize in atmospheric distillation is removed from the bottom of the column
(so called “atmospheric bottoms”). In most refineries, the atmospheric bottoms are further
fractionated by a second distillation carried out under vacuum.

FIG 2.1 Diesel Streams in Modern Refinery

2.2 TYPES OF DIESE FUEL

Diesel fuel is produced from various sources, the most common being petroleum. Other
sources include biomass, animal fat, biogas, natural gas, and coal liquefaction.

a) Petroleum diesel

Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel, or fossil diesel is the most common type of diesel
fuel. It is produced from the fractional distillation of crude oil between 200 °C (392 °F) and
350 °C (662 °F) at atmospheric pressure, resulting in a mixture of carbon chains that typically
contain between 9 and 25 carbon atoms per molecule.

b) Synthetic diesel
Synthetic diesel can be produced from any carbonaceous material, including biomass,
biogas, natural gas, coal and many others. The raw material is gasified into synthesis gas,
which after purification is converted by the Fischer–Tropsch process to a synthetic diesel.

The process is typically referred to as biomass-to-liquid (BTL), gas-to-liquid (GTL) or coal-to-

liquid (CTL), depending on the raw material used.

Paraffinic synthetic diesel generally has a near-zero content of sulfur and very low aromatics
content, reducing unregulated emissions[clarification needed] of toxic hydrocarbons,
nitrous oxides[clarification needed] and particulate matter (PM).

c) Biodiesel

Fatty-acid methyl ester (FAME), more widely known as biodiesel, is obtained from vegetable
oil or animal fats (biolipids) which have been transesterified with methanol. It can be
produced from many types of oils, the most common being rapeseed oil (rapeseed methyl
ester, RME) in Europe and soybean oil (soy methyl ester, SME) in the US. Methanol can also
be replaced with ethanol for the transesterification process, which results in the production
of ethyl esters. The transesterification processes use catalysts, such as sodium or potassium
hydroxide, to convert vegetable oil and methanol into FAME and the undesirable
byproducts glycerine and water, which will need to be removed from the fuel along with
methanol traces. FAME can be used pure (B100) in engines where the manufacturer
approves such use, but it is more often used as a mix with diesel, BXX where XX is the
biodiesel content in percent.

Fuel equipment manufacturers (FIE) have raised several concerns regarding FAME fuels,
identifying FAME as being the cause of the following problems: corrosion of fuel injection
components, low-pressure fuel system blockage, increased dilution and polymerization of
engine sump oil, pump seizures due to high fuel viscosity at low temperature, increased
injection pressure, elastomeric seal failures and fuel injector spray blockage. Pure biodiesel
has an energy content about 5–10% lower than petroleum diesel. The loss in power when
using pure biodiesel is 5–7%.

Unsaturated fatty acids are the source for the lower oxidation stability; they react with
oxygen and form peroxides and result in degradation byproducts, which can cause sludge
and lacquer in the fuel system.

As FAME contains low levels of sulfur, the emissions of sulfur oxides and sulfates, major
components of acid rain, are low. Use of biodiesel also results in reductions of unburned
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter. CO emissions using biodiesel
are substantially reduced, on the order of 50% compared to most petrodiesel fuels. The
exhaust emissions of particulate matter from biodiesel have been found to be 30% lower
than overall particulate matter emissions from petrodiesel. The exhaust emissions of total
hydrocarbons (a contributing factor in the localized formation of smog and ozone) are up to
93% lower for biodiesel than diesel fuel.

d) Hydrogenated oils and fats

This category of diesel fuels involves converting the triglycerides in vegetable oil and animal
fats into alkanes by refining and hydrogenation, such as H-Bio. The produced fuel has many
properties that are similar to synthetic diesel, and are free from the many disadvantages of
FAME.

e) DME

Dimethyl ether, DME, is a synthetic, gaseous diesel fuel that results in clean combustion
with very little soot and reduced NOx emissions.

2.3 Storage
In the US, diesel is recommended to be stored in a yellow container to differentiate it from
kerosene and gasoline, which are typically kept in blue and red containers, respectively. In
the UK, diesel is normally stored in a black container, to differentiate it from unleaded
petrol (which is commonly stored in a green container) and leaded petrol (which is stored in
a red container).

2.4 Measurements and pricing

The principal measure of diesel fuel quality is its cetane number. A cetane number is a
measure of the delay of ignition of a diesel fuel. A higher cetane number indicates that the
fuel ignites more readily when sprayed into hot compressed air. European (EN 590
standard) road diesel has a minimum cetane number of 51. Fuels with higher cetane
numbers, normally "premium" diesel fuels with additional cleaning agents and some
synthetic content, are available in some markets.

2.5 CETANE INDEX

Cetane index is used as a substitute for the cetane number of diesel fuel. The cetane index
is calculated based on the fuel's density and distillation range (ASTM D86). There are two
methods used, ASTM D976 and D4737. The older D976, or "two-variable equation" is
outdated and should no longer be used for cetane number estimation. It is, however, still
required by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as an alternative
method for satisfying its aromaticity requirement for diesel fuel. D4737 is the newest
method and is sometimes referred to as "the four-variable equation". D4737 is the same
method as ISO 4264. Cetane index in some crude oil assays is often referred to as Cetane
calcule, while the cetane number is referred to as Cetane measure.

The cetane index is a figure which denotes the quality of a diesel fuel, based upon its density
and volatility, and which is roughly approximate to its cetane number. It is loosely linked to
the octane number of gasoline, since both give a measure of each substance’s efficacy and
are inversely related. Feeds which give off high octane numbers generally give off low
cetane index light cycle oils (LCOs), and improving the octane number of a substance will
have a similarly beneficial effect on its cetane index, too.
However, the two measurements do differ in what it is they exactly correspond to. Whereas
the octane number quantifies how long it takes before the gas can resist auto-ignition, the
cetane index refers to how quickly it can become ignited inside a compression setting.

Therefore, a higher cetane index generally indicates that the fuel will combust more quickly
in the engine. This doesn’t necessarily guarantee better efficiency, but it should indicate a
quieter and more smoothly-running engine. It can also mean that there will be less harmful
emissions from the exhaust pipe (thus helping the environment), and less wear and tear on
the inner components of the car such as its battery, engine and other parts, due to an
increased rate of the distribution of lubricants.

This is an estimate of the cetane no calculated from distillation data and density. As there
are very few test engines in existence, cetane index is the more commonly used. The
method is outlined in ASTM D976 as follows;

CI = 454.74 – 1641.416d + 774.74d2 – 0.554T50 + 97.803(logT50)2

Where d= density in g/ml at 15oc

T50= mid-boiling point temperature in oc (temperature at which 50%

of the sample by volume) has evaporated.

2.6 How to Achieve a Higher Cetane Index

There are two principle ways in which cetane indexes can be improved. These are as
follows:

Hydro-treatment. Treating the fuel with hydrogen during the refinery process is one way
of raising the cetane index – but is not without its drawbacks. On the one hand, hydrogen is
an expensive and increasingly rare commodity, making the process unattractive from a
business point of view. Furthermore, hydro-treatment generally results in less powerful and
less efficient fuel, as well.

Additives. Substances such as di-tert-butyl peroxide and alkyl nitrates can be used to
artificially increase the cetane index. Many additives are quick to decompose in the
compression setting of an engine, thus leading to the production of free radicals, which
heighten chain reaction initiation performance and thus improve fuel quality.

There are several ways of checking and improving upon the cetane index of fuels in order to
attempt to raise the standard of their performance in an industrial and commercial setting.
The article NextGen Derived Cetane Analysis Enables Refineries to Save on Maintenance
Operations Costs talks about how improved efficacy of the fuels, due to a higher cetane
index, can benefit companies in the long run. It also discusses the various methods of
analysing the fuel’s performance in more detail, too.

2.7 CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF A DIESEL FUEL

1. Heat Value

The Heat Value of diesel fuel is a measured using a calorimeter to determine how much
energy the fuel provides when burned. Basically, a specific amount of fuel is burned, and the
amount of heat is carefully measured in British Thermal Units (BTUs).

 The heat value of Number 2 diesel fuel is 139,500 BTUs per gallon.
 The heat value of Number 1 diesel fuel is 125,500 BTUs per gallon, approximately
10% lower than that of Number 2.
 For comparison, the heat value of gasoline is 124,500 BTUs per gallon.

The higher the heat value of the fuel, the more power the engine can generate, therefore
consuming less fuel to do the same amount of work.

2. Ignition Quality/Cetane Rating

Cetane rating is a measure of the ignition quality of a fuel. The ease at which diesel fuel
ignites, and the manner in which it burns, influences engine starting and combustion
roughness. Pure cetane is a colourless liquid hydrocarbon with excellent ignition qualities
and is rated at 100. The higher the cetane rating, the shorter the lag time between the time
the fuel enters the combustion chamber and the time it begins to burn. A good quality
diesel fuel with a high cetane rating has a lag time of approximately 0.001 seconds.
Cetane rating requirements depend on the engine size, design, load and atmospheric
conditions. For example, engines operating at higher altitudes or lower temperature
demand a higher cetane fuel to start and operate correctly. Typical cetane ratings for No. 2
diesel would be 46 – 48. No. 1 diesel is usually about 51 – 53.

Note: The cetane rating is not provided at most filling stations. Diesel owners should buy
fuel at a well-known, good source that is frequently utilized to ensure fresh fuel is being
purchased.

Note: The recommended minimum cetane rating for modern diesel engines is 40. Increasing
the cetane rating above 48 is not recommended as it will not increase engine performance
and, in fact, may cause fuel knocking.

3. Viscosity

Viscosity is simply a measure of resistance to flow. Viscosity decreases as the temperature

increases. Fuel viscosity is an important factor in the operation in modern High-Pressure
Common-Rail (HPCR) fuel system equipped engines.

Low viscosity fuel produces a fine, atomized mist of fuel which improves its mix with
incoming air to encourage a complete combustion for better power and lower emissions.

High viscosity fuel tends to result in a heavier mist of fuel which can result in hard starting
and white smoke issues.

4. Sulfur Content

The sulfur content of diesel fuel has recently drawn a great deal of attention because of
increased wear on the following components:

 Pistons
  Rings
 Valves
 Cylinders

This increased wear is promoted by the corrosive effects of hydrogen sulfide in the fuel
combined with sulfur dioxide (or sulfur trioxide), formed during the combustion process.
The wear is less serious under constant loads and during high–temperature operation.

Some after-market companies are offering fuel additives to make up for the lubrication lost
by the reduced sulfur content (reduced lubricity) of the diesel fuel. If fuel quality is
questionable, replace with fuel from a good source to ensure the fuel system components
are not at fault.

5. Water and Sediment Content

Water and sediment content in fuel can also cause rusting and damage to fuel system
components. Diesel fuel with a high water content can cause iron oxide particles to form
inside the fuel tank. This causes internal rusting of fuel lines, pumps and injection
components when the engine is not in use.

We’ve seen this problem with engines stored in the fall that were running great all season.
When taken out again in the spring we have found the engine needs fuel system
components replaced due to rust/contamination issues.

6. Carbon Residue

The black, sooty material remaining after diesel fuel is burned is called carbon residue. The
amount of carbon residue deposits permissibly depends on the engine manufacturer, and
the running conditions of the engine.

7. Flash Point

The flash point of diesel fuel is defined as the minimum temperature to which the fuel must
be heated before flammable vapour is produced which could ignite. The lower the flash
point, the higher the risk of explosion.

8. Ash–Forming

Diesel fuel contains ash–forming materials in the form of abrasive solids or soluble
metallic soaps. Abrasive solids cause wear of injection components, pistons, rings, and
cylinder bores.
Ash from soluble metallic soaps contribute to engine deposits and wear. Analysts
determine the amount of ash in fuel by burning a measured amount of fuel in an open
crucible until all of the carbon deposits have been consumed. The weight of the
remaining ash is expressed as a percentage of the weight of the original fuel sample.

9. Distillation/Volatility
Volatility is the ability of a liquid to change into a vapor. As volatility is decreased, carbon
deposits and component wear may increase. Some engines produce more smoke as
volatility is decreased.

10. Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of diesel fuel is defined as the ratio of the density of the fuel to the
density of water measured with a hydrometer.
Specific gravity affects the spray pattern of the fuel as it is injected into the cylinder. To
determine if diesel fuel quality should be considered a part of diagnosing an engine
performance problem, a hydrometer reading can give strong indications of fuel quality
and fuel temperature.

11.0 Winter Fuel issues – Cloud Point and Pour Point

The wax content is an important factor that can affect Diesel engine performance in cold
conditions. The wax that may be present is referred to as “paraffin.” Because of the
strong relationship between temperature and solubility of this wax, wax separation is a
problem in handling and use of diesel fuel during cold weather operation.
Paraffin is a solid waxy crystalline mixture of straight–chain saturated hydrocarbons that
occur naturally in all diesel fuels. Paraffin melts at approximately 40 to 60° C (104 to
140° F).
Wax content varies greatly, depending on the crude oil from which the fuel was
originally produced and how the fuel was processed. As the fuel is cooled, a
temperature is reached at which point the fuel becomes saturated with wax. Any further
cooling causes the wax to “separate out of the fuel.”
These hydrocarbons become less soluble and begin to precipitate to form wax crystals.
The temperature at which a sufficient number of these wax crystals become large
enough to make the fuel appear hazy, or cloudy, is called the “cloud point.”
Cloud point indicates the “onset of filter plugging.” As the fuel is cooled further, the wax
crystals continue to precipitate and grow. The lowest temperature at which the fuel is
observed to flow is called the “pour point.” Additives can help by reducing the pour
point temperature, but using. No. 1 diesel fuel is your better fuel option in cold weather.
Now that you’ve made yourself a diesel fuel expert, you’ll understand why it is so
important to use good quality fuels to protect your investment and ensure consistent,
reliable operation of your diesel engine over a long service life.
 3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Impact of Biodiesel Addition on Distillation Characteristics and

Cetane Index of Diesel Fuels
A. Aburudyna; Dimitrios Karonis; F. Zannikos; and Evripidis Lois
This paper examines the impact of biodiesel addition on density, viscosity,
distillation profile, and cetane index of diesel fuels. Biodiesel has become an
important component in the European diesel fuel market. Its addition to diesel
alters the distillation profile, which in turn may impact on the cetane index; the
latter remains an important parameter for the evaluation of ignition quality of
diesel fuels, in combination with the cetane number. In this series of
experiments, fifty diesel fuel samples were used (35 automotive diesel samples
and 15 heating gasoil samples) as base fuels, to which sunflower oil biodiesel
was added at a concentration of 5% volume in the fuel blend. The distillation
profile, density, and kinematic viscosity were measured in all base fuels and
blends, whereas the cetane indices were calculated from density and distillation
measurements. As expected, the results showed increased density and
kinematic viscosity due to the biodiesel addition, whereas the front end volatility
(10% recovery) and midboiling point (50% recovery) were increased in the
blends. On the other hand back end volatility (90% and 95% recovery and final
boiling point) was in most cases reduced due to the biodiesel addition. Observed
changes in cetane index were insignificant in most cases.

ASTM Distillation D86: A Standard Test Method for Distillation of

Petroleum Products
IRJES JOURNAL
Rajesh Kanna

This test method covers the atmospheric distillation of petroleum products and
liquid fuels using a laboratory batch distillation unit to determine quantitatively
the boiling range characteristics of such products as light and middle distillates,
automotive spark ignition engine fuels with or without oxygen. This test method
is designed for the analysis of distillate fuels; it is not applicable to product
containing appreciable quantities of residual material .This test method covers
both manual and automated instruments. The distillation characteristics of
hydrocarbons have important effects on their safety and performance especially
in the case of fuel and lubricants .The boiling range gives information on the
composition, properties, and behavior of the fuel during storage and uses.
 4.0 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
 SETA STILL Distillation Apparatus: To bring about effective distillation of
the diesel mixture
 Graduated measuring cylinder: To measure the volume of the condensed
distillate

 Density bottle or pycnometer: Used to determine the density of the diesel

mixture
 Weighing Balance: Used for weighing the density bottle when empty and when
contained with diesel.

5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. The initial step taken involved becoming familiar with the distillation apparatus and
some of its major parts including the heating section, the condenser part, distillate
receiver etc.
2. The distillation apparatus was then set up by: placing the beaker containing the
diesel in the heating section, ensuring that the thermometer is tightly fixed in place
by the cork to ensure accurate readings and to prevent distillate loss, checking to see
that there’s enough water in the cooling unit and fixing the flexible hose properly to
avoid leakage.
3. The apparatus was then started to begin the experiment.
4. Gradually, the temperature was raised initially high to bring the liquid to boil and
thereafter was dropped and maintained at a steady value to prevent breakage of the
beaker.
5. The distillate receiver was also properly set to collect the distilled fluid.
6. As distillation proceeded, the temperature of the first distillate fall i.e. initial boiling
point (I.B.P) and the temperature when the sample is 50% distilled by volume.

6.0 RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

Volume of diesel = 100mL
Weight of empty density bottle = 17.09g
Weight of density bottle + diesel = 42.52g
Volume of density bottle = 23ml
Weight of 20ml of diesel= (42.52 – 17.09) = 25.43g
Initial boiling point = 108oC
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍,𝒈 𝟐𝟓.𝟒𝟑𝒈
Density of diesel = = = 1.0172 g/ml
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆,𝒎𝑳 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒍

5.1 Tables of values;

S/N Volume of distillate (ml) Temperature (oC)

1 5 192
2 10 210
3 15 226
4 20 240
5 25 250
6 30 256
7 35 262
8 40 271
9 45 278
10 50 286
11 55 293
12 60 300

5.2Calculations of Cetane index

Cetane index of the sample: C.I = 454.74 – 1641.416d + 774.74d2 – 0.554T50 +

97.803 (logT50)2
C.I = 454.74 – 1641.416(1.0172) + 774.74(1.0172)2 – 0.554(286) + 97.803 (log
286)2
CI = 454.74 – 1669.648 + 801.62– 158.444 + 590.117
CI = 18.385

5.3 A DISTILLATION CURVE PLOT

Graph Of Temperature (oC) Against Volume Of Distillate(ml)

350

300

250
TEMPERATURE(oC)

200

150

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

5.4 PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. The distillation characteristic of petroleum products is important in the control of
fuel quality. The distillation (volatility) characteristics of hydrocarbons have an
important effect on their safety and performance, especially in the case of fuels and
solvents. The boiling range gives information on the composition, the properties, and
the behaviour of the fuel during storage and use. Volatility is the major determinant
of the tendency of a hydrocarbon mixture to produce potentially explosive vapours.
The distillation characteristics are critically important for both automotive and
aviation gasoline, affecting starting, warm-up, and tendency to vapour lock at high
operating temperature or at high altitude, or both. The presence of high boiling
point components in these and other fuels can significantly affect the degree of
formation of solid combustion deposits.
2. Steps involved in carrying out ASTM D86: Standard test method for distillation of
petroleum products at atmospheric pressure
  A 100-mL specimen of the sample is distilled under prescribed conditions for
the group in which the sample falls.
 The distillation is performed in a laboratory batch distillation unit at ambient
pressure under conditions that are designed to provide approximately one
theoretical plate fractionation.
 Systematic observations of temperature readings and volumes of
condensate/distillate are made, depending on the needs of the user of the
data. The volume of the residue and the losses are also recorded.
 At the conclusion of the distillation, the observed vapor temperatures can be
corrected for barometric pressure and the data are examined for
conformance to procedural requirements, such as distillation rates.
 The test is repeated if any specified condition has not been met.
3. Steps involved in carrying out ASTM D96: Standard test method for water and
sediment in crude oil by the centrifuge method
 Equal volumes of crude oil and water saturated toluene are placed into a
cone-shaped centrifuge tube.
 After centrifugation, the volume of the higher gravity water and sediment
layer at the bottom of the tube is read.
 Centrifugation provides a convenient means of determining sediment and
water content in crude oil, fuel oils, and middle distillate fuels. Also used in
determining the precipitation number, demulsibility characteristics, trace
sediments, and insolubles in used lubricating oils.
4. ASTM D976: Standard test method for calculated cetane index of distillate fuels
 Useful tool used for estimating ASTM cetane number when a test engine is
not readily available or where the quantity of sample is too small for an
engine rating
 The Calculated Cetane Index can be calculated from the following equation:
C.I = 454.74 – 1641.416d + 774.74d2 – 0.554T50 + 97.803 (logT50)2
Where, d: density in g/ml at 150C
T50 : mid-boiling point temperature in 0C (temperature by which 50% of the
sample by volume has evaporated)

7.0 DISCUSSION
From the values recorded from the experiment, knowledge of the distillation characteristics
of petroleum diesel is very important in avoiding many dangers and bringing the quality of
the desired product up to internationally acceptable standards. In many cases, it’s required
to know the flash point, fire point, cetane index, volatility etc., of the petroleum product.
When rightly calculated, the cetane index (C.I) can prevent engine knock as it reveals the
proper quality of fuel to use for a diesel engine. The C.I value obtained approximately
equalled 18.38 while at approximately 2860C, 50% of the sample by mass had been distilled.
This high cetane index shows that the fuel combusts easily.
The experiment can be made to yield more quality results by minimizing vapour escape
from the beaker by ensuring that the cork stop is properly fitted. Also, to avoid continuous
breakage of the beaker, the heating temperature could be raised very high initially to bring
the liquid to boil after which it’s then reduced and kept constant as vaporization continues.

8.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion the distillation characteristics of petroleum can be used in matching up the
right type of fuel with the engine requirements. Diesel engines first gained wide acceptance
for their ability to use a wide range of cheap diesel oil types. More recently, however, the
requirements for efficiency and economics made it imperative to develop fuel standards to
meet the desired performance characteristics. General test standards such as that upon
which this experiment is based ensure uniformity in the level of marketed products.

9.0 REFERENCES
 1. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, John B. Heywood, McGraw
Hill, 1988.
2. Automotive Fuels Reference Book, Keith Owen, Trevor Coley SAE, 1995.
3. www.petro-online.com/news/measurement-and-testing
4. Chevron, 1998. “Diesel Fuels Technical Review (FTR-2)”, Chevron
Products Company, USA. Frank, A.F., 2005. “Oil Empire: Visions of
Prosperity in Austrian Galicia”, Harvard Historical Studies, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, ISBN 0-674-01887-7
5. PETROLEUM ENGINEERING LABORATORY MANUAL III
6. WIKIPEDIA

LITERATURE REVIEW

 Journal of Energy Engineering,Volume 141 Issue 2 - June 2015 ,Impact of

Biodiesel Addition on Distillation Characteristics and Cetane Index of
Diesel Fuels
Aburudyna; Dimitrios Karonis; F. Zannikos; and Evripidis Lois
 ASTM Distillation D86: A Standard Test Method for Distillation of
Petroleum Products
IRJES JOURNAL Rajesh Kanna