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Chapter 0 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY

Although experienced engineers know where to find information 11. Efficiencies of reciprocating compressors: 65–70% at compres-
and how to make accurate computations, they also keep a mini- sion ratio of 1.5, 75–80% at 2.0, and 80–85% at 3–6.
mum body of information readily available, made largely of short- 12. Efficiencies of large centrifugal compressors, 6000–100,000
cuts and rules of thumb. This compilation is such a body of ACFM at suction, are 76–78%.
information from the material in this book and is, in a sense, a 13. Rotary compressors have efficiencies of 70–78%, except liquid-
digest of the book. liner type which have 50%.
Rules of thumb, also known as heuristics, are statements of 14. Axial flow compressor efficiencies are in the range of 81–83%.
known facts. The word heuristics is derived from Greek, to discover
or to invent, so these rules are known or discovered through use CONVEYORS FOR PARTICULATE SOLIDS
and practice but may not be able to be theoretically proven. In
practice, they work and are most safely applied by engineers who 1. Screw conveyors are used to transport even sticky and abrasive
are familiar with the topics. Such rules are of value for approximate solids up inclines of 208 or so. They are limited to distances of
design and preliminary cost estimation, and should provide even 150 ft or so because of shaft torque strength. A 12 in. dia con-
the inexperienced engineer with perspective and whereby the rea- veyor can handle 1000–3000 cuft/hr, at speeds ranging from 40
sonableness of detailed and computer-aided design can be to 60 rpm.
appraised quickly, especially on short notice, such as a conference. 2. Belt conveyors are for high capacity and long distances (a mile or
Everyday activities are frequently governed by rules of thumb. more, but only several hundred feet in a plant), up inclines of 308
They serve us when we wish to take a course of action but we may maximum. A 24 in. wide belt can carry 3000 cuft/hr at a speed of
not be in a position to find the best course of action. 100 ft/min, but speeds up to 600 ft/min are suited for some
Much more can be stated in adequate fashion about some materials. The number of turns is limited and the maximum
topics than others, which accounts, in part, for the spottiness of incline is 30 degrees. Power consumption is relatively low.
the present coverage. Also, the spottiness is due to the ignorance 3. Bucket elevators are used for vertical transport of sticky and
and oversights on the part of the authors. Therefore, every engineer abrasive materials. With buckets 20  20 in. capacity can reach
undoubtedly will supplement or modify this material (Walas, 1000 cuft/hr at a speed of 100 ft/min, but speeds to 300 ft/min are
1988). used.
4. Drag-type conveyors (Redler) are suited for short distances in
any direction and are completely enclosed. Units range in size
COMPRESSORS AND VACUUM PUMPS from 3 in. square to 19 in. square and may travel from 30 ft/min
1. Fans are used to raise the pressure about 3% (12 in. water), (fly ash) to 250 ft/min (grains). Power requirements are high.
blowers raise to less than 40 psig, and compressors to higher 5. Pneumatic conveyors are for high capacity, short distance
pressures, although the blower range commonly is included in (400 ft) transport simultaneously from several sources to several
the compressor range. destinations. Either vacuum or low pressure (6–12 psig) is
2. Vacuum pumps: reciprocating piston type decrease the pres- employed with a range of air velocities from 35 to 120 ft/sec
sure to 1 Torr; rotary piston down to 0.001 Torr, two-lobe depending on the material and pressure. Air requirements are
rotary down to 0.0001 Torr; steam jet ejectors, one stage from 1 to 7 cuft/cuft of solid transferred.
down to 100 Torr, three stage down to 1 Torr, five
stage down to 0.05 Torr. COOLING TOWERS
3. A three-stage ejector needs 100 lb steam/lb air to maintain a
pressure of 1 Torr. 1. Water in contact with air under adiabatic conditions eventually
4. In-leakage of air to evacuated equipment depends on the abso- cools to the wet bulb temperature.
lute pressure, Torr, and the volume of the equipment, V cuft, 2. In commercial units, 90% of saturation of the air is feasible.
according to w ¼ kV 2=3 lb/hr, with k ¼ 0:2 when P is more 3. Relative cooling tower size is sensitive to the difference between
than 90 Torr, 0.08 between 3 and 20 Torr, and 0.025 at less the exit and wet bulb temperatures:
than 1 Torr.
DT (8F) 5 15 25
5. Theoretical adiabatic horsepower (THP) ¼ [(SCFM)T1 /8130a] Relative volume 2.4 1.0 0.55
[(P2 =P1 Þa  1], where T1 is inlet temperature in 8F þ 460 and
a ¼ (k  1)=k,k ¼ Cp =Cv . 4. Tower fill is of a highly open structure so as to minimize pressure
6. Outlet temperature T2 ¼ T1 (P2 =P1 )a . drop, which is in standard practice a maximum of 2 in. of water.
7. To compress air from 1008F, k ¼ 1:4, compression ratio ¼ 3, 5. Water circulation rate is 1–4 gpm/sqft and air rates are 1300–
theoretical power required ¼ 62 HP/million cuft/day, outlet 1800 lb/(hr)(sqft) or 300–400 ft/min.
temperature 3068F. 6. Chimney-assisted natural draft towers are of hyperboloidal
8. Exit temperature should not exceed 350–4008F; for diatomic shapes because they have greater strength for a given thickness;
gases (Cp =Cv ¼ 1:4) this corresponds to a compression ratio of a tower 250 ft high has concrete walls 5–6 in. thick. The enlarged
about 4. cross section at the top aids in dispersion of exit humid air into
9. Compression ratio should be about the same in each stage of a the atmosphere.
multistage unit, ratio ¼ (Pn =P1 )1=n , with n stages. 7. Countercurrent induced draft towers are the most common in
10. Efficiencies of fans vary from 60–80% and efficiencies of process industries. They are able to cool water within 28F of the
blowers are in the range of 70–85%. wet bulb.

xi
xii RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY
8. Evaporation losses are 1% of the circulation for every 108F of volume. Rotation speed is 70–80% of critical. Ball mills have
cooling range. Windage or drift losses of mechanical draft a length to diameter ratio in the range 1–1.5. Tube mills have a
towers are 0.1–0.3%. Blowdown of 2.5–3.0% of the circulation ratio of 4–5 and are capable of very fine grinding. Pebble mills
is necessary to prevent excessive salt buildup. have ceramic grinding elements, used when contamination
with metal is to be avoided.
CRYSTALLIZATION FROM SOLUTION 9. Roller mills employ cylindrical or tapered surfaces that roll
along flatter surfaces and crush nipped particles. Products of
1. The feed to a crystallizer should be slightly unsaturated. 20–200 mesh are made.
2. Complete recovery of dissolved solids is obtainable by eva- 10. Fluid energy mills are used to produce fine or ultrafine (sub-
poration, but only to the eutectic composition by chilling. micron) particles.
Recovery by melt crystallization also is limited by the eutectic
composition. DISTILLATION AND GAS ABSORPTION
3. Growth rates and ultimate sizes of crystals are controlled by
limiting the extent of supersaturation at any time. 1. Distillation usually is the most economical method of separat-
4. Crystal growth rates are higher at higher temperatures. ing liquids, superior to extraction, adsorption, crystallization,
5. The ratio S ¼ C=Csat of prevailing concentration to saturation or others.
concentration is kept near the range of 1.02–1.05. 2. For ideal mixtures, relative volatility is the ratio of vapor
6. In crystallization by chilling, the temperature of the solution is pressures a12 ¼ P2 =P1 .
kept at most 1–28F below the saturation temperature at the 3. For a two-component, ideal system, the McCabe-Thiele
prevailing concentration. method offers a good approximation of the number of equili-
7. Growth rates of crystals under satisfactory conditions are in brium stages.
the range of 0.1–0.8 mm/hr. The growth rates are approxi- 4. Tower operating pressure is determined most often by the
mately the same in all directions. temperature of the available condensing medium, 100–1208F
8. Growth rates are influenced greatly by the presence of impu- if cooling water; or by the maximum allowable reboiler tem-
rities and of certain specific additives that vary from case to perature, 150 psig steam, 3668F.
case. 5. Sequencing of columns for separating multicomponent mix-
9. Batch crystallizers tend to have a broader crystal size distribu- tures: (a) perform the easiest separation first, that is, the one
tion than continuous crystallizers. least demanding of trays and reflux, and leave the most difficult
10. To narrow the crystal size distribution, cool slowly through the to the last; (b) when neither relative volatility nor feed concen-
initial crystallization temperature or seed at the initial crystal- tration vary widely, remove the components one by one as
lization temperature. overhead products; (c) when the adjacent ordered components
in the feed vary widely in relative volatility, sequence the splits
DISINTEGRATION in the order of decreasing volatility; (d) when the concentra-
tions in the feed vary widely but the relative volatilities do not,
1. Percentages of material greater than 50% of the maximum size remove the components in the order of decreasing concentra-
are about 50% from rolls, 15% from tumbling mills, and 5% tion in the feed.
from closed circuit ball mills. 6. Flashing may be more economical than conventional distilla-
2. Closed circuit grinding employs external size classification and tion but is limited by the physical properties of the mixture.
return of oversize for regrinding. The rules of pneumatic 7. Economically optimum reflux ratio is about 1.25 times the
conveying are applied to design of air classifiers. Closed circuit minimum reflux ratio Rm .
is most common with ball and roller mills. 8. The economically optimum number of trays is nearly twice the
3. Jaw and gyratory crushers are used for coarse grinding. minimum value Nm .
4. Jaw crushers take lumps of several feet in diameter down to 4 in. 9. The minimum number of trays is found with the Fenske–
Stroke rates are 100–300/min. The average feed is subjected to Underwood equation
8–10 strokes before it becomes small enough to escape. Gyratory
crushers are suited for slabby feeds and make a more rounded Nm ¼ log {[x=(1  x)]ovhd =[x=(1  x)]btms }= log a:
product.
5. Roll crushers are made either smooth or with teeth. A 24 in. 10. Minimum reflux for binary or pseudobinary mixtures is given
toothed roll can accept lumps 14 in. dia. Smooth rolls effect by the following when separation is essentially complete
reduction ratios up to about 4. Speeds are 50–900 rpm. Capacity (xD ’ 1) and D/F is the ratio of overhead product and feed
is about 25% of the maximum corresponding to a continuous rates:
ribbon of material passing through the rolls.
6. Hammer mills beat the material until it is small enough to pass Rm D=F ¼ 1=(a  1), when feed is at the bubblepoint,
through the screen at the bottom of the casing. Reduction ratios (Rm þ 1)D=F ¼ a=(a  1), when feed is at the dewpoint:
of 40 are feasible. Large units operate at 900 rpm, smaller ones
up to 16,000 rpm. For fibrous materials the screen is provided
with cutting edges. 11. A safety factor of 10% of the number of trays calculated by the
7. Rod mills are capable of taking feed as large as 50 mm and best means is advisable.
reducing it to 300 mesh, but normally the product range is 8– 12. Reflux pumps are made at least 25% oversize.
65 mesh. Rods are 25–150 mm dia. Ratio of rod length to mill 13. For reasons of accessibility, tray spacings are made 20–30 in.
diameter is about 1.5. About 45% of the mill volume is occupied 14. Peak efficiency of trays is at values p offfiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the vapor ffi factor
pffiffiffiffiffi
by rods. Rotation is at 50–65% of critical. Fs ¼ u rv in the range 1.0–1.2 (ft/sec) lb=cuft. This range
8. Ball mills are better suited than rod mills to fine grinding. The of Fs establishes the diameter of the tower. Roughly, linear
charge is of equal weights of 1.5, 2, and 3 in. balls for the finest velocities are 2 ft/sec at moderate pressures and 6 ft/sec in
grinding. Volume occupied by the balls is 50% of the mill vacuum.
 RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY xiii
15. The optimum value of the Kremser–Brown absorption factor 5. Combustion engines and turbines are restricted to mobile and
A ¼ K(V =L) is in the range 1.25–2.0. remote locations.
16. Pressure drop per tray is of the order of 3 in. of water or 0.1 psi. 6. Gas expanders for power recovery may be justified at capacities
17. Tray efficiencies for distillation of light hydrocarbons and of several hundred HP; otherwise any needed pressure reduction
aqueous solutions are 60–90%; for gas absorption and strip- in process is effected with throttling valves.
ping, 10–20%. 7. Axial turbines are used for power recovery where flow rates,
18. Sieve trays have holes 0.25–0.50 in. dia, hole area being 10% of inlet temperatures or pressure drops are high.
the active cross section. 8. Turboexpanders are used to recover power in applications
19. Valve trays have holes 1.5 in. dia each provided with a liftable where inlet temperatures are less than 10008F.
cap, 12–14 caps/sqft of active cross section. Valve trays usually
are cheaper than sieve trays. DRYING OF SOLIDS
20. Bubblecap trays are used only when a liquid level must be
maintained at low turndown ratio; they can be designed for 1. Drying times range from a few seconds in spray dryers to 1 hr or
lower pressure drop than either sieve or valve trays. less in rotary dryers and up to several hours or even several days
21. Weir heights are 2 in., weir lengths about 75% of tray diameter, in tunnel shelf or belt dryers.
liquid rate a maximum of about 8 gpm/in. of weir; multipass 2. Continuous tray and belt dryers for granular material of natural
arrangements are used at high liquid rates. size or pelleted to 3–15 mm have drying times in the range of 10–
22. Packings of random and structured character are suited espe- 200 min.
cially to towers under 3 ft dia and where low pressure drop is 3. Rotary cylindrical dryers operate with superficial air velocities
desirable. With proper initial distribution and periodic redis- of 5–10 ft/sec, sometimes up to 35 ft/sec when the material
tribution, volumetric efficiencies can be made greater than is coarse. Residence times are 5–90 min. Holdup of solid is
those of tray towers. Packed internals are used as replacements 7–8%. An 85% free cross section is taken for design purposes.
for achieving greater throughput or separation in existing In countercurrent flow, the exit gas is 10–208C above the solid;
tower shells. in parallel flow, the temperature of the exit solid is 1008C.
23. For gas rates of 500 cfm, use 1 in. packing; for gas rates of Rotation speeds of about 4 rpm are used, but the product
2000 cfm or more, use 2 in. of rpm and diameter in feet is typically between 15 and 25.
24. The ratio of diameters of tower and packing should be at least 15. 4. Drum dryers for pastes and slurries operate with contact times
25. Because of deformability, plastic packing is limited to a 10– of 3–12 sec, produce flakes 1–3 mm thick with evaporation rates
15 ft depth unsupported, metal to 20–25 ft. of 15–30 kg/m2 hr. Diameters are 1.5–5.0 ft; the rotation rate is
26. Liquid redistributors are needed every 5–10 tower diameters 2–10 rpm. The greatest evaporative capacity is of the order of
with pall rings but at least every 20 ft. The number of liquid 3000 lb/hr in commercial units.
streams should be 3–5/sqft in towers larger than 3 ft dia 5. Pneumatic conveying dryers normally take particles 1–3 mm dia
(some experts say 9–12/sqft), and more numerous in smaller but up to 10 mm when the moisture is mostly on the surface. Air
towers. velocities are 10–30 m/sec. Single pass residence times are 0.5–
27. Height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) for vapor– 3.0 sec but with normal recycling the average residence time is
liquid contacting is 1.3–1.8 ft for 1 in. pall rings, 2.5–3.0 ft for brought up to 60 sec. Units in use range from 0.2 m dia by 1 m
2 in. pall rings. high to 0.3 m dia by 38 m long. Air requirement is several
28. Packed towers should operate near 70% of the flooding rate SCFM/lb of dry product/hr.
given by the correlation of Sherwood, Lobo, et al. 6. Fluidized bed dryers work best on particles of a few tenths of a
29. Reflux drums usually are horizontal, with a liquid holdup of mm dia, but up to 4 mm dia have been processed. Gas velocities
5 min half full. A takeoff pot for a second liquid phase, such as of twice the minimum fluidization velocity are a safe prescrip-
water in hydrocarbon systems, is sized for a linear velocity of tion. In continuous operation, drying times of 1–2 min are
that phase of 0.5 ft/sec, minimum diameter of 16 in. enough, but batch drying of some pharmaceutical products
30. For towers about 3 ft dia, add 4 ft at the top for vapor disen- employs drying times of 2–3 hr.
gagement and 6 ft at the bottom for liquid level and reboiler 7. Spray dryers are used for heat sensitive materials. Surface moist-
return. ure is removed in about 5 sec, and most drying is completed in
31. Limit the tower height to about 175 ft max because of wind less than 60 sec. Parallel flow of air and stock is most common.
load and foundation considerations. An additional criterion is Atomizing nozzles have openings 0.012–0.15 in. and operate at
that L/D be less than 30. pressures of 300–4000 psi. Atomizing spray wheels rotate at
speeds to 20,000 rpm with peripheral speeds of 250–600 ft/sec.
DRIVERS AND POWER RECOVERY EQUIPMENT With nozzles, the length to diameter ratio of the dryer is 4–5;
with spray wheels, the ratio is 0.5–1.0. For the final design, the
1. Efficiency is greater for larger machines. Motors are 85–95%; experts say, pilot tests in a unit of 2 m dia should be made.
steam turbines are 42–78%; gas engines and turbines are 28–38%.
2. For under 100 HP, electric motors are used almost exclusively. EVAPORATORS
They are made for up to 20,000 HP.
3. Induction motors are most popular. Synchronous motors are 1. Long tube vertical evaporators with either natural or forced circu-
made for speeds as low as 150 rpm and are thus suited for lation are most popular. Tubes are 19–63 mm dia and 12–30 ft long.
example for low speed reciprocating compressors, but are not 2. In forced circulation, linear velocities in the tubes are
made smaller than 50 HP. A variety of enclosures is available, 15–20 ft/sec.
from weather-proof to explosion-proof. 3. Film-related efficiency losses can be minimized by maintaining a
4. Steam turbines are competitive above 100 HP. They are speed suitable temperature gradient, for instance 40–458F. A reason-
controllable. They are used in applications where speeds and able overall heat transfer coefficient is 250 Btu/(h)(ft2).
demands are relatively constant. Frequently they are employed 4. Elevation of boiling point by dissolved solids results in differ-
as spares in case of power failure. ences of 3–108F between solution and saturated vapor.
xiv RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY
5. When the boiling point rise is appreciable, the economic num- 2. The selection of a filtration method depends partly on which
ber of effects in series with forward feed is 4–6. phase is the valuable one. For liquid phase being the valuable
6. When the boiling point rise is small, minimum cost is obtained one, filter presses, sand filters, and pressure filters are suitable.
with 8–10 effects in series. If the solid phase is desired, vacuum rotary vacuum filters are
7. In countercurrent evaporator systems, a reasonable tempera- desirable.
ture approach between the inlet and outlet streams is 308F. In 3. Continuous filtration should not be attempted if 1/8 in. cake
multistage operation, a typical minimum is 108F. thickness cannot be formed in less than 5 min.
8. In backward feed the more concentrated solution is heated with 4. Rapid filtering is accomplished with belts, top feed drums, or
the highest temperature steam so that heating surface is les- pusher-type centrifuges.
sened, but the solution must be pumped between stages. 5. Medium rate filtering is accomplished with vacuum drums or
9. The steam economy of an N-stage battery is approximately disks or peeler-type centrifuges.
0.8N lb evaporation/lb of outside steam. 6. Slow filtering slurries are handled in pressure filters or sedi-
10. Interstage steam pressures can be boosted with steam jet com- menting centrifuges.
pressors of 20–30% efficiency or with mechanical compressors 7. Clarification with negligible cake buildup is accomplished with
of 70–75% efficiency. cartridges, precoat drums, or sand filters.
8. Laboratory tests are advisable when the filtering surface is
EXTRACTION, LIQUID–LIQUID expected to be more than a few square meters, when cake
washing is critical, when cake drying may be a problem, or
1. The dispersed phase should be the one that has the higher volu- when precoating may be needed.
metric rate except in equipment subject to backmixing where it 9. For finely ground ores and minerals, rotary drum filtration
should be the one with the smaller volumetric rate. It should be the rates may be 1500 lb/(day)(sqft), at 20 rev/hr and 18–25 in. Hg
phase that wets the material of construction less well. Since the vacuum.
holdup of continuous phase usually is greater, that phase should 10. Coarse solids and crystals may be filtered by rotary drum filters
be made up of the less expensive or less hazardous material. at rates of 6000 lb/(day)(sqft) at 20 rev/hr, 2–6 in. Hg vacuum.
2. Although theory is favorable for the application of reflux to 11. Cartridge filters are used as final units to clarify a low
extraction columns, there are very few commercial applications. solid concentration stream. For slurries where excellent cake
3. Mixer–settler arrangements are limited to at most five stages. washing is required, horizontal filters are used. Rotary disk
Mixing is accomplished with rotating impellers or circulating filters are for separations where efficient cake washing is
pumps. Settlers are designed on the assumption that droplet not essential. Rotary drum filters are used in many liquid-
sizes are about 150 mm dia. In open vessels, residence times of solid separations and precoat units capable of producing
30–60 min or superficial velocities of 0.5–1.5 ft/min are provided in clear effluent streams. In applications where flexibility of
settlers. Extraction stage efficiencies commonly are taken as 80%. design and operation are required, plate-and-frame filters
4. Spray towers even 20–40 ft high cannot be depended on to are used.
function as more than a single stage.
5. Packed towers are employed when 5–10 stages suffice. Pall rings of
1–1.5 in. size are best. Dispersed phase loadings should not exceed FLUIDIZATION OF PARTICLES WITH GASES
25 gal/(min) (sqft). HETS of 5–10 ft may be realizable. The dis-
persed phase must be redistributed every 5–7 ft. Packed towers are 1. Properties of particles that are conducive to smooth fluidization
not satisfactory when the surface tension is more than 10 dyn/cm. include: rounded or smooth shape, enough toughness to resist
6. Sieve tray towers have holes of only 3–8 mm dia. Velocities attrition, sizes in the range 50-- 500 mm dia, a spectrum of sizes
through the holes are kept below 0.8 ft/sec to avoid formation with ratio of largest to smallest in the range of 10–25.
of small drops. At each tray, design for the redistribution of each 2. Cracking catalysts are members of a broad class characterized
phase can be provided. Redispersion of either phase at each tray by diameters of 30-- 150 mm, density of 1.5 g/mL or so, appreci-
can be designed for. Tray spacings are 6–24 in. Tray efficiencies able expansion of the bed before fluidization sets in, minimum
are in the range of 20–30%. bubbling velocity greater than minimum fluidizing velocity, and
7. Pulsed packed and sieve tray towers may operate at frequencies rapid disengagement of bubbles.
of 90 cycles/min and amplitudes of 6–25 mm. In large diameter 3. The other extreme of smoothly fluidizing particles is typified
towers, HETS of about 1 m has been observed. Surface tensions by coarse sand and glass beads both of which have been the
as high as 30–40 dyn/cm have no adverse effect. subject of much laboratory investigation. Their sizes are in
8. Reciprocating tray towers can have holes 9/16 in. dia, 50–60% the range 150---500 mm, densities 1.5–4.0 g/mL, small bed expan-
open area, stroke length 0.75 in., 100–150 strokes/min, plate sion, about the same magnitudes of minimum bubbling and
spacing normally 2 in. but in the range 1–6 in. In a 30 in. dia minimum fluidizing velocities, and also have rapidly disenga-
tower, HETS is 20–25 in. and throughput is 2000 gal/(hr)(sqft). ging bubbles.
Power requirements are much less than of pulsed towers. 4. Cohesive particles and large particles of 1 mm or more do not
9. Rotating disk contactors or other rotary agitated towers realize fluidize well and usually are processed in other ways.
HETS in the range 0.1–0.5 m. The especially efficient Kuhni 5. Rough correlations have been made of minimum fluidization
with perforated disks of 40% free cross section has HETS velocity, minimum bubbling velocity, bed expansion, bed
0.2 m and a capacity of 50 m3 =m2 hr. level fluctuation, and disengaging height. Experts recommend,
however, that any real design be based on pilot plant work.
FILTRATION 6. Practical operations are conducted at two or more multiples of
the minimum fluidizing velocity. In reactors, the entrained mate-
1. Processes are classified by their rate of cake buildup in a labora- rial is recovered with cyclones and returned to process. In dryers,
tory vacuum leaf filter: rapid, 0.1–10.0 cm/sec; medium, 0.1– the fine particles dry most quickly so the entrained material need
10.0 cm/min; slow, 0.1–10.0 cm/hr. not be recycled.
 RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY xv
HEAT EXCHANGERS 3. Proportions of a stirred tank relative to the diameter D: liquid
level ¼ D; turbine impeller diameter ¼ D=3; impeller level above
1. Take true countercurrent flow in a shell-and-tube exchanger as
bottom ¼ D=3; impeller blade width ¼ D=15; four vertical
a basis.
baffles with width ¼ D=10.
2. Standard tubes are 3/4 in. OD, 1 in. triangular spacing, 16 ft
4. Propellers are made a maximum of 18 in., turbine impellers to 9 ft.
long; a shell 1 ft dia accommodates 100 sqft; 2 ft dia, 400 sqft,
5. Gas bubbles sparged at the bottom of the vessel will result in
3 ft dia, 1100 sqft.
mild agitation at a superficial gas velocity of 1 ft/min, severe
3. Tube side is for corrosive, fouling, scaling, and high pressure
agitation at 4 ft/min.
fluids.
6. Suspension of solids with a settling velocity of 0.03 ft/sec is
4. Shell side is for viscous and condensing fluids.
accomplished with either turbine or propeller impellers, but
5. Pressure drops are 1.5 psi for boiling and 3–9 psi for other
when the settling velocity is above 0.15 ft/sec intense agitation
services.
with a propeller is needed.
6. Minimum temperature approach is 208F with normal coolants,
7. Power to drive a mixture of a gas and a liquid can be 25–50% less
108F or less with refrigerants.
than the power to drive the liquid alone.
7. Water inlet temperature is 908F, maximum outlet 1208F.
8. In-line blenders are adequate when a second or two contact time
8. Heat transfer coefficients for estimating purposes, Btu/(hr)
is sufficient, with power inputs of 0.1–0.2 HP/gal.
(sqft)(8F): water to liquid, 150; condensers, 150; liquid to
liquid, 50; liquid to gas, 5; gas to gas, 5; reboiler, 200. Max
flux in reboilers, 10,000 Btu/(hr)(sqft). PARTICLE SIZE ENLARGEMENT
9. Usually, the maximum heat transfer area for a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger is in the range of 5,000 ft2. 1. The chief methods of particle size enlargement are: compression
10. Double-pipe exchanger is competitive at duties requiring 100– into a mold, extrusion through a die followed by cutting or
200 sqft. breaking to size, globulation of molten material followed by
11. Compact (plate and fin) exchangers have 350 sqft/cuft, and solidification, agglomeration under tumbling or otherwise agi-
about 4 times the heat transfer per cuft of shell-and-tube units. tated conditions with or without binding agents.
12. Plate and frame exchangers are suited to high sanitation ser- 2. Rotating drum granulators have length to diameter ratios of 2–3,
vices, and are 25–50% cheaper in stainless construction than speeds of 10–20 rpm, pitch as much as 108. Size is controlled by
shell-and-tube units. speed, residence time, and amount of binder; 2–5 mm dia is common.
13. Air coolers: Tubes are 0.75–1.00 in. OD, total finned surface 3. Rotary disk granulators produce a more nearly uniform product
15–20 sqft/sqft bare surface, U ¼ 80–100 Btu/(hr)(sqft bare sur- than drum granulators. Fertilizer is made 1.5–3.5 mm; iron ore
face)(8F), fan power input 2–5 HP/(MBtu/hr), approach 508F 10–25 mm dia.
or more. 4. Roll compacting and briquetting is done with rolls ranging from
14. Fired heaters: radiant rate, 12,000 Btu/(hr)(sqft); convection 130 mm dia by 50 mm wide to 910 mm dia by 550 mm wide. Extru-
rate, 4000; cold oil tube velocity, 6 ft/sec; approx equal trans- dates are made 1–10 mm thick and are broken down to size for any
fers of heat in the two sections; thermal efficiency 70–75%; flue needed processing such as feed to tabletting machines or to dryers.
gas temperature 250–3508F above feed inlet; stack gas tem- 5. Tablets are made in rotary compression machines that convert
perature 650–9508F. powders and granules into uniform sizes. Usual maximum diameter
is about 1.5 in., but special sizes up to 4 in. dia are possible. Machines
INSULATION operate at 100 rpm or so and make up to 10,000 tablets/min.
6. Extruders make pellets by forcing powders, pastes, and melts
1. Up to 6508F, 85% magnesia is most used. through a die followed by cutting. An 8 in. screw has a capacity
2. Up to 1600–19008F, a mixture of asbestos and diatomaceous of 2000 lb/hr of molten plastic and is able to extrude tubing at
earth is used. 150–300 ft/min and to cut it into sizes as small as washers at
3. Ceramic refractories at higher temperatures. 8000/min. Ring pellet extrusion mills have hole diameters of 1.6–
4. Cryogenic equipment (2008F) employs insulants with fine 32 mm. Production rates cover a range of 30–200 lb/(hr)(HP).
pores in which air is trapped. 7. Prilling towers convert molten materials into droplets and allow
5. Optimum thickness varies with temperature: 0.5 in. at 2008F, them to solidify in contact with an air stream. Towers as high as
1.0 in. at 4008F, 1.25 in. at 6008F. 60 m are used. Economically the process becomes competitive
6. Under windy conditions (7.5 miles/hr), 10–20% greater thickness with other granulation processes when a capacity of 200–
of insulation is justified. 400 tons/day is reached. Ammonium nitrate prills, for example,
are 1.6–3.5 mm dia in the 5–95% range.
MIXING AND AGITATION 8. Fluidized bed granulation is conducted in shallow beds 12–
24 in. deep at air velocities of 0.1–2.5 m/s or 3–10 times the mini-
1. Mild agitation is obtained by circulating the liquid with an mum fluidizing velocity, with evaporation rates of
impeller at superficial velocities of 0.1–0.2 ft/sec, and intense 0:005-- 1:0 kg=m2 sec. One product has a size range 0.7–2.4 mm dia.
agitation at 0.7–1.0 ft/sec. 9. Agglomerators give a loosely packed product and the operating
2. Intensities of agitation with impellers in baffled tanks are mea- costs are low.
sured by power input, HP/1000 gal, and impeller tip speeds:

Operation HP/1000 gal Tip speed (ft/min) PIPING

Blending 0.2–0.5
Homogeneous reaction 0.5–1.5 7.5–10
1. Line velocities and pressure drops, with line diameter D in
Reaction with heat transfer 1.5–5.0 10–15 inches: liquid pump discharge, (5 þ D=3) ft/sec, 2.0 psi/100 ft;
Liquid–liquid mixtures 5 15–20 liquid pump suction, (1:3 þ D=6) ft/sec, 0.4 psi/100 ft; steam or
Liquid–gas mixtures 5–10 15–20 gas, 20D ft/sec, 0.5 psi/100 ft.
Slurries 10 2. Control valves require at least 10 psi drop for good control.
xvi RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY
3. Globe valves are used for gases, for control and wherever tight 9. Relatively slow reactions of liquids and slurries are conducted
shutoff is required. Gate valves are for most other services. in continuous stirred tanks. A battery of four or five in series is
4. Screwed fittings are used only on sizes 1.5 in. and smaller, most economical.
flanges or welding otherwise. 10. Tubular flow reactors are suited to high production rates at
5. Flanges and fittings are rated for 150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, or short residence times (sec or min) and when substantial heat
2500 psig. transfer is needed. Embedded tubes or shell-and-tube construc-
6. Pipe schedule number ¼ 1000P=S, approximately, where P is tion then are used.
the internal pressure psig and S is the allowable working stress 11. In granular catalyst packed reactors, the residence time
(about 10,000 psi for A120 carbon steel at 5008F). Schedule 40 is distribution often is no better than that of a five-stage CSTR
most common. battery.
12. For conversions under about 95% of equilibrium, the perfor-
PUMPS mance of a five-stage CSTR battery approaches plug flow.

1. Power for pumping liquids: HP ¼ (gpm)(psi difference)/(1714) REFRIGERATION

(fractional efficiency).
2. Normal pump suction head (NPSH) of a pump must be in excess of 1. A ton of refrigeration is the removal of 12,000 Btu/hr of heat.
a certain number, depending on the kind of pumps and the condi- 2. At various temperature levels: 0 to 508F, chilled brine and glycol
tions, if damage is to be avoided. NPSH ¼ (pressure at the eye of the solutions; 50 to 408F, ammonia, freons, or butane; 150 to
impeller – vapor pressure)/(density). Common range is 4–20 ft. 508F, ethane or propane.
3. Specific speed Ns ¼ (rpm)(gpm)0:5 =(head in ft)0:75 . Pump may 3. Compression refrigeration with 1008F condenser requires these
be damaged if certain limits of Ns are exceeded, and efficiency HP/ton at various temperature levels: 1.24 at 208F; 1.75 at 08F;
is best in some ranges. 3.1 at 408F; 5.2 at 808F.
4. Centrifugal pumps: Single stage for 15–5000 gpm, 500 ft max 4. Below 808F, cascades of two or three refrigerants are used.
head; multistage for 20–11,000 gpm, 5500 ft max head. Effi- 5. In single stage compression, the compression ratio is limited to
ciency 45% at 100 gpm, 70% at 500 gpm, 80% at 10,000 gpm. about 4.
They are used in processes where fluids are of moderate viscosity 6. In multistage compression, economy is improved with interstage
and the pressure increase is modest. flashing and recycling, so-called economizer operation.
5. Axial pumps for 20–100,000 gpm, 40 ft head, 65–85% efficiency. 7. Absorption refrigeration (ammonia to 308F, lithium bromide to
These pumps are used in applications to move large volumes of þ458F) is economical when waste steam is available at 12 psig or so.
fluids at low differential pressure.
6. Rotary pumps for 1–5000 gpm, 50,000 ft head, 50–80% efficiency. SIZE SEPARATION OF PARTICLES
7. Reciprocating pumps for 10–10,000 gpm, 1,000,000 ft head max.
Efficiency 70% at 10 HP, 85% at 50 HP, 90% at 500 HP. These 1. Grizzlies that are constructed of parallel bars at appropriate
pumps are used if high pressures are necessary at low flow rates. spacings are used to remove products larger than 5 cm dia.
8. Turbine pumps are used in low flow and high pressure applications. 2. Revolving cylindrical screens rotate at 15–20 rpm and below the
9. Positive displacement pumps are used where viscosities are critical velocity; they are suitable for wet or dry screening in the
large, flow rates are low, or metered liquid rates are required. range of 10–60 mm.
3. Flat screens are vibrated or shaken or impacted with bouncing
REACTORS balls. Inclined screens vibrate at 600–7000 strokes/min and are
used for down to 38 mm although capacity drops off sharply
1. Inlet temperature, pressure and concentrations are necessary for below 200 mm. Reciprocating screens operate in the range 30–
specification of a reactor. An analysis of equilibrium should be 1000 strokes/min and handle sizes down to 0.25 mm at the higher
made to define the limits of possible conversion and to eliminate speeds.
impossible results. 4. Rotary sifters operate at 500–600 rpm and are suited to a range
2. Material and energy balances are essential to determine reactor of 12 mm to 50 mm.
size. 5. Air classification is preferred for fine sizes because screens of 150
3. The rate of reaction in every instance must be established in the mesh and finer are fragile and slow.
laboratory, and the residence time or space velocity and product 6. Wet classifiers mostly are used to make two product size ranges,
distribution eventually must be found in a pilot plant. oversize and undersize, with a break commonly in the range
4. Dimensions of catalyst particles are 0.1 mm in fluidized beds, between 28 and 200 mesh. A rake classifier operates at about
1 mm in slurry beds, and 2–5 mm in fixed beds. 9 strokes/min when making separation at 200 mesh, and 32
5. The optimum proportions of stirred tank reactors are with strokes/min at 28 mesh. Solids content is not critical, and that
liquid level equal to the tank diameter, but at high pressures of the overflow may be 2–20% or more.
slimmer proportions are economical. 7. Hydrocyclones handle up to 600 cuft/min and can remove par-
6. Power input to a homogeneous reaction stirred tank is 0.5– ticles in the range of 300---5 mm from dilute suspensions. In one
1.5 HP/1000 gal, but three times this amount when heat is to be case, a 20 in. dia unit had a capacity of 1000 gpm with a pressure
transferred. drop of 5 psi and a cutoff between 50 and 150 mm.
7. Ideal CSTR (continuous stirred tank reactor) behavior is ap-
proached when the mean residence time is 5–10 times the length UTILITIES: COMMON SPECIFICATIONS
of time needed to achieve homogeneity, which is accomplished
with 500–2000 revolutions of a properly designed stirrer. 1. Steam: 15–30 psig, 250–2758F; 150 psig, 3668F; 400 psig, 4488F;
8. Batch reactions are conducted in stirred tanks for small daily 600 psig, 4888F or with 100–1508F superheat.
production rates or when the reaction times are long or when 2. Cooling water: Supply at 80–908F from cooling tower, return at
some condition such as feed rate or temperature must be pro- 115–1258F; return seawater at 1108F, return tempered water or
grammed in some way. steam condensate above 1258F.
 RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY xvii
3. Cooling air supply at 85–958F; temperature approach to pro- VESSELS (STORAGE TANKS)
cess, 408F.
1. For less than 1000 gal, use vertical tanks on legs.
4. Compressed air at 45, 150, 300, or 450 psig levels.
2. Between 1000 and 10,000 gal, use horizontal tanks on concrete
5. Instrument air at 45 psig, 08F dewpoint.
supports.
6. Fuels: gas of 1000 Btu/SCF at 5–10 psig, or up to 25 psig for
3. Beyond 10,000 gal, use vertical tanks on concrete foundations.
some types of burners; liquid at 6 million Btu/barrel.
4. Liquids subject to breathing losses may be stored in tanks with
7. Heat transfer fluids: petroleum oils below 6008F, Dowtherms,
floating or expansion roofs for conservation.
Therminol, etc. below 7508F, fused salts below 11008F, direct
5. Freeboard is 15% below 500 gal and 10% above 500 gal capacity.
fire or electricity above 4508F.
6. Thirty days capacity often is specified for raw materials and
8. Electricity: 1–100 Hp, 220–660 V; 200–2500 Hp, 2300–4000 V.
products, but depends on connecting transportation equipment
schedules.
VESSELS (DRUMS) 7. Capacities of storage tanks are at least 1.5 times the size of
connecting transportation equipment; for instance, 7500 gal
1. Drums are relatively small vessels to provide surge capacity or
tank trucks, 34,500 gal tank cars, and virtually unlimited barge
separation of entrained phases.
and tanker capacities.
2. Liquid drums usually are horizontal.
3. Gas/liquid separators are vertical.
4. Optimum length/diameter ¼ 3, but a range of 2.5–5.0 is common.
5. Holdup time is 5 min half full for reflux drums, 5–10 min for a MEMBRANE SEPARATIONS
product feeding another tower.
6. In drums feeding a furnace, 30 min half full is allowed. 1. When calculating mole fraction relationships (see Section
7. Knockout drums ahead of compressors should hold no less 19.10), respective permeabilities in mixtures tend to be less, or
than 10 times the liquid volume passing through per minute. much less, than measured pure permeabilities.
8. Liquid/liquid separators are designed for settling velocity of 2. In calculating the degree of separation for mixtures between two
2–3 in./min. pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi components or key components, the permeability values used
9. Gas velocity in gas/liquid separators, V ¼ k rL =rv  1 ft/sec, can be approximated as 50 percent of the values of the pure
with k ¼ 0:35 with mesh deentrainer, k ¼ 0:1 without mesh components.
deentrainer. 3. In calculating membrane area, these same lower membrane
10. Entrainment removal of 99% is attained with mesh pads of permeability values may be used.
4–12 in. thicknesses; 6 in. thickness is popular. 4. When in doubt, experimental data for each given mixture for a
11. For vertical pads, the value of the coefficient in Step 9 is particular membrane material must be obtained.
reduced by a factor of 2/3.
12. Good performance can be expected at velocities of 30–100% of
those calculated with the given k; 75% is popular.
13. Disengaging spaces of 6–18 in. ahead of the pad and 12 in. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
above the pad are suitable. 1. The maximum use temperature of a metallic material is given by
14. Cyclone separators can be designed for 95% collection of 5 mm TMax = 2/3 (TMelting Point)
particles, but usually only droplets greater than 50 mm need be 2. The coefficient of thermal expansion is of the order of 10  106.
removed. Nonmetallic coefficients vary considerably.

VESSELS (PRESSURE)
1. Design temperature between 208F and 6508F is 508F above REFERENCE
operating temperature; higher safety margins are used outside
the given temperature range. S.M. Walas, Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and Design,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Woburn, MA, 1988.
2. The design pressure is 10% or 10–25 psi over the maximum operat-
ing pressure, whichever is greater. The maximum operating pres-
sure, in turn, is taken as 25 psi above the normal operation.
3. Design pressures of vessels operating at 0–10 psig and 600–
10008F are 40 psig. BIBLIOGRAPHY
4. For vacuum operation, design pressures are 15 psig and full The following are additional sources for rules of thumb:
vacuum.
5. Minimum wall thicknesses for rigidity: 0.25 in. for 42 in. dia and C.R. Branan, Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers, 3rd ed., Elsevier
Science, St. Louis, MO, 2002.
under, 0.32 in. for 42–60 in. dia, and 0.38 in. for over 60 in. dia.
A.A. Durand et al., “Heuristics Rules for Process Equipment,” Chemical
6. Corrosion allowance 0.35 in. for known corrosive conditions, Engineering, 44–47 (October 2006).
0.15 in. for non-corrosive streams, and 0.06 in. for steam drums W.J. Korchinski and L.E. Turpin, Hydrocarbon Processing, 129–133 (Jan-
and air receivers. uary 1966).
7. Allowable working stresses are one-fourth of the ultimate M.S. Peters, K.D. Timmerhaus and R.E. West, Plant Design and Economics
strength of the material. for Chemical Engineers, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 2003.
8. Maximum allowable stress depends sharply on temperature. G.D. Ulrich, A Guide to Chemical Engineering Process Design and Econom-
ics, Wiley, New York, 1984.
D.R. Woods, Process Design and Engineering Practice, PTR Prentice-Hall,
Temperature (8F) 20–650 750 850 1000 Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995.
Low alloy steel SA203 (psi) 18,750 15,650 9550 2500 D.R. Woods et al., Albright’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, Sec. 16.11,
Type 302 stainless (psi) 18,750 18,750 15,900 6250 CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl, 2008.