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Determinants PDF

This document defines determinants and their properties for matrices. It introduces determinants as scalars calculated from the entries of a matrix using various formulas. It then defines minors and cofactors used in the expansion of determinants along rows or columns. The document proves properties of determinants under elementary row operations and for various matrix operations. It introduces Cramer's rule for solving systems of linear equations using determinants and defines the adjoint and inverse of a matrix in terms of determinants.

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Debashish Pal
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383 views5 pages

Determinants PDF

This document defines determinants and their properties for matrices. It introduces determinants as scalars calculated from the entries of a matrix using various formulas. It then defines minors and cofactors used in the expansion of determinants along rows or columns. The document proves properties of determinants under elementary row operations and for various matrix operations. It introduces Cramer's rule for solving systems of linear equations using determinants and defines the adjoint and inverse of a matrix in terms of determinants.

Uploaded by

Debashish Pal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 39

Determinants
 
a11 a12 a13
Definition Let A =  a21 a22 a23 . Then the determinant of A is the
a31 a32 a33
scalar

det A = |A|
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ a a23 ¯¯ ¯ a21 a23 ¯¯ ¯ a21 a22 ¯¯
= a11 ¯¯ 22 ¯ − a ¯
12 ¯ ¯ + a ¯
13 ¯
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32 ¯

det A = a11 det A11 − a12 det A12 + a13 det A13
X3
= (−1)1+j a1j det A1j
j=1

For any n×n matrix A, the determinant det Aij of the (n−1)×(n−1) matrix
obtained from A by deleting the i-th row and the j-th column is called the
(i, j)-minor of A.

Determinants of n × n Matrices
Definition Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix, where n ≥ 2. Then the
determinant of A is the scalar

det A = |A|
= a11 det A11 − a12 det A12 + · · · + (−1)1+n a1n det A1n
Xn
= (−1)1+j a1j det A1j
j=1

It is convenient to combine a minor with its plus or minus sign. To this end,
we define the (i, j)-cofactor of A to be

Cij = (−1)i+j det Aij

With this notation, the definition becomes


n
X
det A = a1j C1j
j=1

One of the exercises in the textbook asks you to check that this definition
correctly gives the formula for the determinant of a 2×2 matrix when n = 2.
This definition is often referred to as cofactor expansion along the first
row.
MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 40

Theorem 4.1. The Laplace Expansion Theorem


The determinant of an n × n matrix A = [aij ], where n ≥ 2, can be computed
as

det A = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + · · · + ain C1n


Xn
= aij Cij
j=1

(which is the cofactor expansion along the ith row) and also as

det A = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + · · · + anj Cnj


Xn
= aij Cij
i=1

(the cofactor expansion along the jth column).


Since
Cij = (−1)i+j det Aij ,
each cofactor is plus or minus the corresponding minor, with the correct
sign given by the term (−1)i+j . A quick way to determine whether the sign
is + or − is to remember that the signs form a “checkerboard" pattern:
 
+ − + − ···
 − + − + ··· 
 
 + − + − ··· 
 
 − + − + ··· 
 
.. .. .. .. . .
. . . . .

Theorem 4.2. The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of


the entries on its main diagonal. Specifically, if A = [aij ] is an n × n trian-
gular matrix then
det A = a11 a22 · · · ann

Properties of Determinants
The most efficient way to compute determinants is to use row reduction.
However, not every elementary row operation leaves the determinant of a
matrix unchanged. The next theorem summarizes the main properties you
need to understand in order to use row reduction effectively.

Theorem 4.3. Let A = [aij ] be a square matrix.

a. If A has a zero row (column), then det A = 0.


b. If B is obtained by interchanging two rows (columns) of A, then det B =
− det A.
MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 41

c. If A has two identical rows (columns), then det A = 0.


d. If B is obtained by multiplying a row (column) of A by k, then det B =
k det A.
e. If A, B and C are identical except that the ith row (column) of C is the
sum of the ith rows (columns) of A and B, then det C = det A + det B.

f. If B is obtained by adding a multiple of one row (column) of A to an-


other row (column), then det B = det A.

Corollary Let A, B be two square matrices of the same size.


Ri ↔Rj
(a) If A −→ B, then det B = − det A.
kR
(b) If A −→i B, then det B = k det A.
Ri +kRj
(c) If A −→ B for i 6= j , then det B = det A.

Method for computing determinant by e.r.o.s. Reduce A to r.e.f. by


e.r.o.s keeping track of the changes in determinant according to Corollary;
the determinant of r.e.f., which is a triangular matrix, is the product of its
diagonal elements. (We do not need to keep account of the e.r.o.s them-
selves; the change of the determinant can be recorded at each step, as ad-
ditional coefficients arising in the same line of equalities.)

Example. We use vertical bars notation for the determinant for a change.
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ 0 2 3 ¯ ¯ 1 0 1 ¯ ¯ 1 0 1 ¯
¯ ¯ R1 ↔R2 ¯ ¯ (1/2)R2 ¯ ¯ R3 −3R2
¯ 1 0 1 ¯ = − ¯¯ 0 2 3 ¯¯ = −2·¯¯ 0 1 3/2 ¯¯ =
¯ ¯
¯ 0 3 2 ¯ ¯ 0 3 2 ¯ ¯ 0 3 2 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 1 0 1 ¯¯
¯
− 2 · ¯¯ 0 1 3/2 ¯¯ = −2 · 1 · 1 · (−5/2) = 5.
¯ 0 0 −5/2 ¯

Note that when we multiplied a row by 1/2, the factor 2 appeared in the
r.h.s., because the next determinant is 1/2 of the previous, so the previous
is 2 times the next.

Determinants of Elementary Matrices


Recall that the elementary matrix results from performing an elementary
row operation on an identity matrix. Setting A = In in Theorem 4.3 yields
the following theorem.

Theorem 4.4. Let E be an n × n elementary matrix.


MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 42

a. If E results from interchanging two rows of In , then det E = −1.


b. If E results from multiplying one row of In by k, then det E = k.

c. If E results from adding a multiple of one row of In to another row,


then det E = 1.

Lemma 4.5. Let B be an n × n matrix and let E be an n × n elementary


matrix. Then
det(EB) = (det E)(det B)

We can use Lemma 4.5 to prove a very important theorem: the charac-
terization of invertibility in terms of determinants.

Theorem 4.6. A square matrix A is invertible if and only if det A 6= 0.

Determinants and Matrix Operations


Theorem 4.7. If A is an n × n matrix, then

det(kA) = k n det A

Theorem 4.8. If A and B are n × n matrices, then

det(AB) = (det A)(det B)

Theorem 4.9. If A is invertible, then


1
det(A−1 ) =
det A

Theorem 4.10. For any square matrix A,

det A = det(AT )

Example. Suppose that A, B, C are 3 × 3 matrices with determinants


|A| = 5, |B| = 3, |C| = 2. Then, e.g., det(2A) = 23 · 5 = 40;

det(A3 B 2 C T A−1 ) = det(A)3 ·det(B)2 ·det C·(1/ det A) = 53 32 2(1/5) = 52 32 2 = 450.


MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 43

Cramer’s Rule and the Adjoint


Cramer’s Rule gives a formula for describing the solution of certain systems
of n linear equations in n variables entirely in terms of determinants.
We will need some new notation for this result and its proof. For an
n × n matrix A and a vector ~b in Rn , let Ai (~b) denote the matrix obtained by
replacing the ith column of A by ~b. That is,

Ai (~b) = [~a1 · · · ~b · · · ~an ]

Theorem 4.11. Cramer’s Rule


Let A be an invertible n × n matrix and let ~b be a vector in Rn . Then the
unique solution ~x of the system A~x = ~b is given by

det(Ai (~b))
xi = for i = 1, . . . , n
det A

Theorem 4.12. Let A be an invertible n × n matrix.


Then
1
A−1 = [Cij ]T
det A
Notation:
[Cij ]T = adj A
(adjoint of A)..

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