Chapter 7: D.

C MACHINES

INTRODUCTION: DC generators and motors are collectively known as

DC machines. A DC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. It works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction. A DC motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It
works on the principle that a current carrying conductor kept in a magnetic
field experiences a force. DC motors have a wide range of applications such as
electric locomotives, textile mills, cranes etc.

D.C Generator:

Working principle: A DC generator works on the principle of Faraday’s laws

of electromagnetic induction. A coil ‘abcd’ is rotated in a magnetic field
produced by a permanent magnet or an electro magnet as shown in Fig 7.1.
When the plane of the coil is at right angles to the direction of the lines of
flux, the coil will be moving parallel to the lines of flux. Hence the coil does
not cut any flux and the induced e.m.f. is zero. When the plane of the coil is
parallel to the lines of flux, flux cut is maximum and hence maximum e.m.f is
induced in the coil. Since the coil sides alternately come under north and
south poles, the direction of the induced voltage in the coil reverses at regular
intervals and thus we get an a.c voltage across the terminals of the coil. To
convert this a.c. voltage into unidirectional voltage, a copper drum is mounted
on the same shaft as that of the coil. The drum is split into two halves and
insulation is placed between them. The two ends of the coil are connected to
the two halves of the drum. Two fixed carbon brushes P & Q make contact
with the surface of the drum. The voltage between the brushes becomes
unidirectional as brush P always makes contact with the coil side under
North Pole and the brush Q always makes contact with the coil side under
South Pole.
 Fig.7.1
The wave forms of the voltage induced in the coil and the voltage
between the brushes P & Q are as shown in Fig 7.2.

Fig.7.2

Construction:
A D.C generator mainly consists of two parts:
(1) Armature which is the rotating part which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
(2) Field which is stationary part which produces the magnetic flux. They
are separated by a small air gap.
Construction of the DC generator and DC motor is same as shown in
fig 7.3. It consists of following parts
(1) Yoke or Magnetic Frame: Yoke is usually made up of cast iron or
cast steel. Yoke provides the mechanical support to the poles and
serves as a cover. It is cylindrical in shape. It also provides the path
for magnetic flux.
 Fig.7.3

2)Poles: The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole
shoes serve two purposes:
(i) They spread out the flux in the air gap and also reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path.
(ii) They support the exciting coils (field coils)
The poles are made of an alloy steel of high permeability.
The pole core is laminated to reduce the eddy current losses. The pole
core supports the field coils. The function of field windings (or coils) is
to provide the number of ampere–turns for excitation required to give
the flux through the armature.
3)Armature: The armature consists of armature core and armature
winding. The armature core is made of high permeability silicon steel
laminations which are insulated from one another by varnish. It supports
the armature conductor. It causes the conductor to rotate between the
magnetic field and it provides low reluctance path for the magnetic field
produced by the field coils. The conductors placed in the slots are not only
insulated from one another but also from the slots of the armature core.
The armature conductors are connected together either as a lap winding or
wave winding.
 4) Commutator: The commutator converts the alternating E.M.F.
generated in the armature winding into direct current voltage in the
external circuit. The commutator is cylindrical in shape and is built of
wedge shaped segment made of hard drawn copper which are insulated
from one another and from the shaft by mica strips. The segments are
connected to the armature conductors.
5) Shaft and Bearings: The shaft of a DC generator is rotated by a prime
mover to which the armature fixed to it also rotates.
6) Brushes: They are made of carbon. Brushes are fixed in brush holders
and with the help of springs, are made to contact the commutator
segments. DC output voltage is taken out through these brushes.
Armature windings: There are two type of armature windings as shown in
Fig 7.4
(i)Lap windings and ii) Wave windings
Lap windings: In Lap winding the finishing point of one coil is connected
to the starting point of next coil as shown in figure below. In this winding
the number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles and the total
armature current divides equally among the parallel paths. These are used
in low voltage high current machines.
Wave Windings: In wave winding the finishing point of one coil is
connected to the starting point of another coil, which is well away from the
first coil as shown. In this winding there are only two parallel paths
irrespective of the number of poles. Wave windings are used in high voltage
low current machines.

LAP WINDING WAVE WINDING

Fig.7.4
E.M.F. Equation:
Let Z = Total number of armature conductors or coil sides on
armature
= Number of slots *Number of conductors/slot.
 = Useful flux/pole in Wb
N = Speed of the armature in rpm
P = Number of poles.
A=Number of parallel paths
The E.M.F. induced in a conductor when rotated in a magnetic field is
directly proportional to the rate of change of flux.
In one revolution, the flux cut by a conductor = d = P Wb
The time taken by the conductor to make one revolution = dt =60/N
secs

dφ φP φPN
Hence the EM.F. Induced in one conductor =  
dt 60 60
N

The E.M.F. induced/ parallel path =[ EM.F. Induced/conductor

*number of conductors/parallel path]
φPN Z
= 
60 A
φZN
In case of lap winding A = P  E Volts
60

φZNP
In case of wave winding A = 2  E Volts
120
DC MOTOR :

A DC motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. It is similar in construction to a DC generator. A DC
machine can work both as a generator and a motor. As a matter of fact any
DC generator will run as motor when its field and armature windings are
connected to a source of direct current. The field winding produces the
necessary magnetic field and the flow of current through the armature
conductor produces a force which rotates the armature.

Principle of Operation of DC Motor:

“Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force whose direction is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule”.
A coil AB is kept around the armature and the current is passed
through it as shown in fig.7.5. The side A experiences a force F downward and
the side B experiences a force F upward, hence there is net turning moment
in the anticlockwise direction. When coils are placed throughout the surface
of armature and current passed through them, the armature will experience a
continuous force and start rotating.

Fig.7.5
Back E.M.F. or Counter E.M.F.: In a DC motor when the armature
rotates, the conductors on it cut the magnetic field in which they revolve, so
that an E.M.F. is induced in the armature. The induced E.M.F. acts in
opposition to the current in the machine and therefore, to the applied voltage,
so that it is customary to refer to this voltage as the back E.M.F. (As per
Lenz’s Law). The magnitude of this back E.M.F. can be calculated by using
formula for the induced E.M.F. in a generator, proportional to the product of
the flux and the speed, denoted by Eb.
 φZNP
E b 
60A
or Eb  N

The value of this E.M.F. is always lesser than the applied voltage. This
difference actually drives current through resistance of the armature circuit.
If this resistance is represented by Ra, the back E.M.F. by Eb and the applied
voltage by V, then
V = Eb + IaRa

 V  Eb
Armature current Ia =
Ra

The voltage V applied across the motor armature has to

i) Overcome the back emf Eb and
ii) Supply the armature ohmic drop IaRa
Therefore V= Eb +Ia Ra
This is known as the voltage equation of a motor.
Multiplying both sides by Ia, we get
V Ia = Eb Ia +Ia2 Ra
Here, V Ia=Electrical input to the motor,
Eb Ia= Electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed in the armature,
Ia2 Ra= Cu loss in the armature

Armature torque of a motor : The torque is meant the turning moment or

twisting moment of a force about an axis. Let Ta be the torque developed by
the armature of a motor in N-m, N is speed in r.p.m,
Then power developed = Ta x ω Watt
Here ω is the angular velocity in radian / second
2πN
If N is in rpm then ω= ( ) rad/s
60
2πN
Then power developed = ( ) * Ta watts (work done /second).
60
But Electrical power converted into mechanical power in the armature = EbIa
watts.
2πN
Comparing two expressions, ( ) * Ta = Eb Ia
60
Ф𝐏𝐍 𝒁
Substituting Eb = ∗
𝟔𝟎 𝑨
 2πN ФPN 𝑍
( ) * Ta = ∗ ∗Ia
60 60 𝐴
PZФIa PZФIa
Ta= =0.159 Nm.
2πA A

Shaft torque of a DC motor: The armature torque is the gross torque, which
is developed by the armature. A certain percentage of torque is developed by
the armature is lost to overcome the iron and friction losses. Net torque (gross
torque – torque lost in iron and friction losses) is known as shaft torque.
If Ta is torque developed by armature in N-m.,
T is torque lost in iron and friction losses.
Tsh is the shaft torque or useful torque.
EbIa
Ta  where N is speed of armature in
2N
60

rpm
Iron and friction losses in watts
Lost Torque T  Nm
2 N
60
(EbIa  Iron and friction losses )
Shaft Torque , Tsh  Ta  T  Nm
2 N
60

Types of DC Motors: Depending on how the field winding is connected to

the armature, dc motors can be classified as:
i. Shunt motors
ii. Series motors
iii. Compound motors
a) Cumulatively compound
b) Differentially compound

(i) Shunt motors: In a shunt motor the field winding is connected in

parallel with the armature as shown in fig.7.6a. below.
 Fig.7.6a) DC shunt motor Fig.7.6b)Series motor
IL is the line current, If is the field current.
If=V/Rsh where Rsh is the resistance of shunt field winding.
Armature current Ia=IL-If and Back elf Eb=V-IaRa ,
Brushes which are made of carbon will have a resistance hence voltage drop
 E b  V  I a R a  Brush contact drop

(ii) Series motors: In a Series motor the field winding is connected in series
with the armature as shown in Fig.7.6b).
It is observed that the line current IL, Field current Ise the armature current Ia
are one and the same. Back emf  E b  V  I a (R a  R sc )  Brush contact drop

where Rsc is the resistance of the series field windings.

(iii) Compound Motor: A compound motor has both the series and the shunt
field windings as shown in Fig 7.7a) and Fig.7.7b) That may be a short shunt
or long shunt.

Fig .7.7a) Fig.7.7b)

If the flux produced by series field winding is in the same direction as
that of the flux produced by the shunt field winding, then it is called a
cumulatively compound motor.
 If the series flux opposes the shunt field flux, then it is called a
differentially compound motor. These two are again classified in to long
shunt and short shunt.
In long shunt compound motor, the shunt field is in parallel with
armature and series field in series. In short shunt, the shunt field is in
parallel with armature alone
Characteristics of DC motors
1.) DC shunt motors:
i)Ta/Ia Characteristics
(Electrical characteristics):
As we know Ta=0.159 Z Ia(P/A)

Ta   Ia , but  is almost remains

practically constant in DC shunt motors, hence TaIa., and the plot is

a straight line as shown. The shaft torque is shown dotted. Since a heavy
starting load will need a heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be
started on heavy load.

ii)N/Ia characteristics:

From the expression, Eb= ZNP /(60A)

Eb   N

If  is assumed constant, then N  Eb. As Eb is

also practically constant, speed is constant.

But strictly speaking, both Eb and  decrease with increase in load. Therefore
there is some decrease in speed shown in dotted lines.
The speed remains almost constant with increase in load current.
Therefore DC shunt motor is also called as a constant speed motor.

iii)N/Ta Characteristics
(Mechanical characteristics)

As Ta Ia , N /Ta plot will be

same as N/ Ia plot.
DC series motor:
i) Ta /Ia Characteristics:
Ta  Ia ,
Since   Ia in case of series motors,
Ta  Ia2.
As Ia increases, Ta increases as the square of
the current Ia. Once the saturation is reached flux
remains constant, Ta  Ia. Thus it is known that the starting torque of a series
motor is high.

ii) N/Ia Characteristics:

N  Eb/
i.e, N  V-Ia(Ra+Rse)/
Change in Eb for various load currents
is small and hence may be neglected. Hence
speed varies inversely as armature current. When load is heavy, Ia is large.
Hence speed is low. But when load is light, Ia is low, speed becomes
dangerously high. Hence a series motor should never be started without the
mechanical load on it.

iii) N/Ta Characteristics (Mechanical

characteristics)

(V - I a R a )
W.K.T. N


Ta  I a2
I a  Ta
N 1
Ta

The plot is as shown .

Compound motors
i)Ta/ Ia Characteristics:
For compound motors as Ia increases,
series field flux se increases whereas shunt
field flux sh remains constant. For cumulative

connection, total flux =se+sh increases. Ta 

Ia. Hence torque increases.
For differential connection, as IL increases, Ia
increases,  = sh- se decreases. As armature
torque Ta  Ia, the increase of Ia increases the torque Ta but reduction in flux
reduces torque Ta. When se > sh ,
Ta starts decreasing.

ii) N/Ia Characteristics:

We have, N  (V-IaRa)/
For cumulative connection, as IL increases, Ia
increases, the resultant flux is increased. As Ia
increases, the speed decreases as I aRa drop
increases and it is further decreased due to
increase of .
For differential, as Ia increases, N decreases due to increase of IaRa drop.
But  decreases due to which speed increases.

iii)N/Ta Characteristics:
Ta Ia
For cumulative compound motor, as
the load increases Ia increases, the flux
 increases. Hence Ta increases faster and
speed decreases faster.
 For differential compound motors, as load increases, Ia increases, but the
flux decreases and Ta decrease faster and speed increases.

Applications of DC motors:
1. DC Shunt motor: Employed for constant speed applications; may be used
for adjustable speed not greater than 2:1 range. Field of applications include
lathes, centrifugal pumps, fans and blowers, machine tools, wood working
machines, reciprocating pumps, spinning and weaving machines, printing
presses etc.
2. DC Series motor: Suitable for drives requiring high starting torque and
where adjustable, varying speed is satisfactory. Field of applications includes
cranes, hoists, trolley cars, conveyors, electric locomotives etc.
3. Cumulatively Compound DC motor: Suitable for drives requiring high
starting torque and only fairly constant speed, pulsating loads with fly wheel
action. Field of applications includes shears, punches, elevators, conveyors,
rolling mills, heavy planes etc.
4. Differentially Compound DC motor: suitable for drives requiring wide
variation in speed.

Need for a starter:

From the equation for the back e.m.f of a motor,Eb = V-IaRa ,
armature current is given by Ia = (V-Eb)/Ra where V is the supply voltage, Eb is
the back Ra is the armature resistance. When the motor is at rest, there is no
back E.M.F developed in the armature. Hence full supply voltage is applied
across the stationary armature. It draws a very large current since armature
resistance is small. Thus the armature windings get heated up severely and
hence get damaged. Therefore at starting a resistance R is connected in series
with armature so that the starting current is limited to a safe value. Once the
motor picks up speed, back E.M.F is built up and Ia automatically reduces.
Now the external resistance R can be gradually reduced to zero as the motor
picks up speed.