Improving Radar Performance by

Optimizing Overall Signal-to-Noise

Ratio
Better noise-figure measurements enhance
characterization of excess noise in receivers

Application Note
Radar Measurement Series

Overview Problem
In radar system design, optimizing the overall signal-to-noise ratio Radars need to extract very small signals—those coming from
(SNR) of the system will improve the overall performance of the targets of interest—in an environment that may include artifacts
system. This is typically done in one of two ways: by increasing such as clutter, jamming signals and spurious noise (e.g., signals
the signal or by reducing noise. Because a radar is a transmit/ from other radars). Any internally generated noise in the radar
receive system, improved SNR can be achieved by increasing the receiver circuit reduces the ability of the radar to discern the
transmitted power by using bigger, more-powerful amplifiers, by targets of interest. Noise generated within a receiver component
using larger or higher gain antennas, or a combination of these is indistinguishable from any legitimate signal within the signal
changes. frequency band and will be amplified equally along with expected
signals in any subsequent gain stages.
SNR can also be increased by decreasing receiver-contributed noise,
which is usually determined by the quality of the low-noise amplifier Measuring noise properties is an essential step in the process of
(LNA) at the front end of the receiver. In general, it is easier and less minimizing the noise generated within a receiving system. The fol-
expensive to decrease receiver noise—and achieve a better noise lowing equation determines the minimum signal level required to
figure (NF)—than to increase transmitter power. overcome system noise at the maximum range of the radar:

In the pursuit of a better SNR, NF is a figure-of-merit that describes Smin = kToBnFn(So/No)min

the amount of excess noise present in a system. The definition of
Where:
noise figure is very straightforward. The noise factor (F) of a network
Smin = the minimum signal level
is defined as the input SNR divided by the output SNR:
k= Boltzman’s constant
To = room temperature
F = (Si/Ni)/(So/No), where
Bn = receiver noise bandwidth
Si = input signal power Fn = noise factor
(So/No)min = the minimum SNR required by the receiver
So = output signal power processor to detect the signal
Ni = input noise power
A close inspection of this equation illustrates the importance of
No = output noise power receiver NF. For example, k and To are effectively constants, Bn is
Noise figure is simply the noise factor expressed in decibels: NF = dictated by the radar design, and the SNR cannot be improved
10*log (F). This definition is true for any electrical network, including once the signal arrives at the receiver. Thus, receiver NF becomes
those that shift the frequency of the input signal to a different output the key term for receiver optimization. In reality, this is a somewhat
frequency, such as up- and downconverters.
simplistic model of performance, as other items such as system One more note: The procedure below includes steps to calibrate the
losses and pulse integration will also affect performance. However, instrument. This removes the major sources of error generated by
the NF performance of the receive circuit is a key performance the measuring instrument, ensuring that you are measuring the DUT
factor. and not the noise figure of the instrument.

The above equation might lead you to believe that improvements

in noise figure will enable great improvement in system perfor- Solution : Y-factor noise figure measurement
mance at modest cost. Today’s low-noise amplifiers can deliver
very low NF values. When properly engineered into the receiver The Y-factor or hot/cold-source method is the most common way to
architecture, the system NF penalty can be minimal. As a result, measure noise figure. This technique is relatively easy to implement
it may seem more economical to reduce receiver noise figure by and provides good measurement accuracy in most situations, espe-
3 dB than to increase transmitter power by the same amount. cially when the noise source has a good source match and can be
However, reality is not quite that simple. Instead, the receiver must directly connected to the DUT. In addition to the DUT, two pieces of
also provide adequate gain, phase stability, amplitude stability, test equipment are needed:
dynamic range, and fast recovery from overload and jamming. In
addition, protection must be provided against overload or satura- • A noise-figure, signal or spectrum analyzer that covers a suitable
tion and burnout from nearby transmitters. As a final point, the frequency range and has an NF measurement application installed.
receiver design must also be highly reliable.
• A noise source (see sidebar on page 3).
With these considerations in mind, some designers choose to
The following procedure describes how to perform the Y-factor
make the first stage of the radar receiver a mixer rather than a
measurement using an Agilent X-series signal analyzer (typically an
low-noise RF amplifier. Even in these cases, NF is a critical metric
N9020A MXA or N9030A PXA), the N9069A NF application (runs
that must be optimized within other given constraints.
in the analyzer) and an N4000A Series smart noise source (SNS).
The NF application and the SNS are designed to simplify the mea-
surement process and ensure useful results.
Solution : Making noise figure measurements

Two techniques are commonly used to make NF measurements.

These are the Y-factor method, which is sometimes called the hot/
cold source method, and the other is the cold-source or direct-noise
method. The Y-factor method uses a signal or spectrum analyzer
and a noise source. The cold-source method uses a vector network
analyzer, which leads to a higher equipment cost than the Y-factor
method but enables measurements such as S-parameters, compres-
sion and intermodulation distortion with a single set of connections
to the DUT.

This note explains the Y-factor method and describes when you
should consider using the cold-source method. As a starting point,
the procedures outlined here assume you know the frequency of
interest of your radar and understand the gain characteristics of the
receiver. This latter point is important because the choice of noise
source is dependent on the gain.

You will also need to determine how you will access the device
under test (DUT). In an ideal situation, the DUT would have imped-
ance-matched connectors on its input and output. Because this is
seldom the case, you will need to determine how to best connect
the test equipment. For example, it may be most convenient to con-
nect through an ATE test fixture. Please refer to the “Tips” section
below for additional considerations.

2
Making the measurement
This procedure assumes the N9069A NF application is installed
in a signal analyzer that supports your chosen noise source at the
appropriate frequency range. The initial setup has five steps:
1. Select the appropriate frequency range for the device being
tested.
2. Select an internal amplifier option for the frequency range.
3. Enter the ENR table for the SNS Series noise source into the
signal analyzer: [Meas Setup] key, then {ENR} softkey, {SNS
setup} softkey, {Noise Source} softkey, set to SNS (Auto)
{Auto Load ENR}.
4. Use a cable to connect the noise source to the signal analyzer;
the SNS Series sources use the 11730A cable. Verify that the
ENR data has been transferred to the signal analyzer
Figure 1. Measurement setup with analyzer, noise source and DUT.
5. Save the ENR table: [Save] key, then {Data}, {ENR Table},
{Meas} Table, {Save As} name [Enter]. 4. Input the appropriate values for your DUT into the setup menu
and run the measurement.
Next, calibrate the NF application and analyzer:
1. Connect the input to the noise source to the rear of the
analyzer via the 11730A cable. Connect the output of Selecting a noise source
the source to the input of the analyzer.
The quality of the noise source affects the accuracy and
2. Set the start frequency: [Freq Channel] key, {Start Freq repeatability of your measurements. The excess noise
softkey, [10] keys, {GHz} softkey (enter your choice of ratios (ENR) of Agilent noise sources are calibrated with
frequency). traceability to national standards institutes. Nominal ENR
3. Set the stop frequency: {Stop Freq} softkey, [3] keys, values of 6 dB and 15 dB are commonly available.
{GHz softkey (enter your choice of frequency). We recommend a 15 dB noise source for most cases in
4. Set the number of points: {Points} softkey, [30] keys, which NF is expected to be 15 dB or more. A 6 dB noise
{Enter} (enter the number of points). source is recommended in two cases:
5. Set the averaging function: [Meas Setup] key, {Average • When measuring a device with gain that is especially
Num} softkey, toggle to ON, [15] keys, {Enter} softkey. sensitive to changes in the source impedance.
6. Calibrate the N9069A: [Meas Setup] key, {Calibrate • When the DUT has a very low noise figure (e.g., it does
Now} softkey, [Enter]. not exceed 15 dB).
Agilent offers three families of noise sources. The N4000A
Make the NF measurement: Series smart noise sources (SNS) are the simplest to use
1. Select the NF application in the signal analyzer. This is for frequencies up to 26 GHz because they simplify mea-
typically completed on the front panel: [Mode] key, surement set up by automatically downloading calibration
then press {More} softkey until {Noise Figure} softkey data to the instrument. The 346 Series extends the fre-
is available. quency range to 50 GHz, and the 347 Series sources have
waveguide interfaces for higher frequencies.
2. Use the visual setup guide to get started: [Mode Setup]
key, {DUT Setup…} softkey, {Amplifier} softkey, or
select your DUT from the drop down menu with a
mouse.
3. Disconnect the noise source from the input of the analyzer
and connect it to the input of the DUT. Connect the output
of the DUT to the RF input of the analyzer (Figure 1). Using
fewer adapters will provide better measurement results.

3
 Alternative solution : Cold-source measurements Tips: Avoiding common difficulties

The cold-source or direct-noise method uses a vector network ana- A number of factors can affect the results of an NF measurement.
lyzer and requires only a known input termination, which is usually Below are some of the more common issues along with techniques
50 Ω at room temperature. The cold-source method also requires that will help you minimize or avoid problems when using the
an independent measurement of DUT gain. The procedure requires Y-factor method. In most cases, these items can be managed;
a single noise-power measurement as well as a gain measurement however, if any are difficult to control—or if measurements must
(both completed by the network analyzer). The network analyzer be made across a frequency-conversion or low-gain device- the
will require a noise source for instrument calibration as well as an cold-source method may be a better choice.
ECal module to be used as an impedance tuner.
Prevent interfering signals
Any form of RF interference, whether radiated or conducted, will mani-
When high precision is required, the cold-source method can pro-
fest itself as noise power and affect measurement accuracy. Therefore
vide the most-accurate measurements. Additionally, it is better able
it is imperative to eliminate these sources of interference. Fluorescent
to compensate for the source-mismatch situations that may occur
lights, cellular telephones, wireless routers and local radio transmitters
when testing transmit/receive (T/R) modules that use microstrip
can all interfere with the accuracy of noise measurements. Additionally,
input and output lines, or when switching separates the instru-
nearby heavy equipment or poorly shielded equipment cables (signal or
ment from the module in an ATE system. Because a vector network
analyzer is used, measurements can be made across low-gain, power) can all affect measurements. Suggestion: Always consider the
operating frequency range(s) of the DUT and look for possible sources
multi-stage devices and mixers (these measurements are particularly
of in-band interference that will affect your measurements.
problematic using the Y-factor technique).
Avoid adapters
The variables involved are too complex to cover in this application Corrections must be applied, especially for adapters at the input of
brief. If your testing involves one or more of the situations described the DUT. Wherever possible, use a noise source equipped with a
here and it is critical to obtain an NF measurement with a high level connector that is compatible with the input of the DUT.
of accuracy (e.g., a few tenths of a dB), we recommend using the Minimize mismatch uncertainties
cold-source method with the Agilent PNA-X vector network analyzer, Any impedance mismatches will create reflections of noise power
which can make appropriate corrections for common error sources. in the measurement and calibration path. The most likely problem
Figure 2 shows example results from cold-source and Y-factor mea- areas are in connections to the DUT. In some cases, an isolator
surements of a DUT in an ATE environment. can be used to absorb reflected power—but be aware that isola-
tors work over a limited frequency range.
4.500

Use averaging
Amplifier: Noise source: 346C (14 dB ENR)
Gain = 15 dB
Input/output match = 10 dB
Y-factor with noise source connected to
DUT via switch matrix
This will increase measurement times but it reduces display jitter
NF = 3 dB
Gamma opt = 0.27 ∠ 0 o
4.000 Fmin = 2.7 dB
Rn = 12 – 33

and provides a more consistent measurement. Jitter is reduced by

3.500
0.75 dB
the square root of the number of readings.
Y-factor with noise source
Avoid nonlinearities
0.5 dB
NF (dB)

directly at DUT input

PNA-X
NF measurements assume the entire system is operating in a linear and
0.2 dB
3.000

stable region. Ensure that both the DUT and instrument are being oper-
2.500 ated in the linear region.
Calibrate, then measure
2.000
0.5 2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 14.5 16.5 18.5 20.5 22.5 24.5 26.5 The best measurements will be made immediately after calibration.
GHz
* Note: this example ignores drift contribution

Figure 2. Example of NF uncertainty in an ATE environment

Conclusion

The process of reducing noise figure starts with a solid understand-

ing of the uncertainties in your components, subsystems, systems
and test setups. Quantifying those uncertainties depends on flexible
tools that provide accurate reliable results. Whether you use the
Y-factor or cold-source method, Agilent’s NF solution set—instru-
ments, applications and accessories—helps you optimize test
setups, identify unwanted sources of noise and, ultimately, decrease
the receiver-contributed noise in your radar system.
4
 www.agilent.com
www.agilent.com/find/AD

Additional resources For more information on Agilent Technologies’

products, applications or services, please
contact your local Agilent office. The com-
Agilent has published a number of applica- plete list is available at:
tion notes that cover the fine details of noise www.agilent.com/find/contactus
figure measurements. If you are interested in Agilent Advantage Services is committed
learning more, please consider the following to your success throughout your equip- Americas
ment’s lifetime. We share measurement Canada (877) 894 4414
resources: and service expertise to help you create Brazil (11) 4197 3500
the products that change our world. To Mexico 01800 5064 800
• Application Note 57-1: Fundamentals keep you competitive, we continually United States (800) 829 4444
of RF and Microwave Noise Figure invest in tools and processes that speed
Measurements, publication 5952-8255EN up calibration and repair, reduce your cost Asia Pacific
of ownership, and move us ahead of your Australia 1 800 629 485
• Noise Figure Measurement Accuracy: development curve. China 800 810 0189
The Y-factor method, publication 5952-
3706EN Hong Kong 800 938 693
India 1 800 112 929
Japan 0120 (421) 345
• 10 Hints for Making Successful Noise www.agilent.com/find/advantageservices Korea 080 769 0800
Figure Measurements, publication 5980-
Malaysia 1 800 888 848
0288EN
Singapore 1 800 375 8100
Taiwan 0800 047 866
• High-Accuracy Noise Figure Measurements Other AP Countries (65) 375 8100
Using the PNA-X Series Network Analyzer
(uses the cold-source method), publica- www.agilent.com/quality
tion 5990-5800EN Europe & Middle East
Belgium 32 (0) 2 404 93 40
Denmark 45 70 13 15 15
Finland 358 (0) 10 855 2100
France 0825 010 700*
*0.125 €/minute
Germany 49 (0) 7031 464 6333
www.agilent.com/find/emailupdates Ireland 1890 924 204
Get the latest information on the Israel 972-3-9288-504/544
products and applications you select. Italy 39 02 92 60 8484
Netherlands 31 (0) 20 547 2111
Spain 34 (91) 631 3300
Sweden 0200-88 22 55
United Kingdom 44 (0) 118 9276201
For other unlisted Countries:
www.agilent.com/find/contactus
Revised: October 14, 2010

Product specifications and descriptions

in this document subject to change
without notice.

© Agilent Technologies, Inc. 2011

Printed in USA, May 5, 2011
5990-7527EN