Chaptter_4_page 1

Chapter 4. Pumps and Motors

4.1 General:

Pump/motor Symbols

4.1.1 Pumps/motors
- Pumps are units that transfer mechanical (electrical) power into fluid power
- Motors transfer fluid power into mechanical power (translational or rotary)
- Pumps can be driven by electric drives, internal combustion engine, turbine
drive, PTO’ s(Powe rtakeof fs)e
tc.
- It is essential that the rpm of the input drive be compatible with the rated rpm
of the pump. The use of gears for high speed main drives is often employed.
Also belts and chains are used which can also acts as gears to reduce or
increase speed.
- As a quick review, if N1 is the number of gears in gear 1 and N2, in gear 2, the
N
gear ratio is 1 .
N2
- If electric drives are used, the most common outputs speeds are:
860 - 1140 - 1750 - 3420 rpm
(900 - 1200 - 1800 - 3600 rpm) Nominal ratings

- Most industrial drives are 1140 or 1750 rpm, 21 MPa, 80 lpm

- aircraft and missile pumps (typical):
 11,000 -14,000 rpm at 40 –50 lpm and 21 MPa

4.1.2 Pump/Motor Ratings

- Displacement: l/rev (in3/rev)

- Flow Rate l/min (gpm(US))
- Pressure (MPa), (Bars), (psi)
- power( PQ)
 Chaptter_4_page 2

4.2 Pump/motor types

- This section introduces the various types of pumps and motors that are
available for hydraulic systems.
- Since pumps and motors are similar in many cases, just one shall be discussed.
- There are two main categories of pumps and motors - hydrodynamic and
positive displacement

4.2.1 Hydrodynamic

- Two basic types exist - centrifugal and turbine pumps.

Figure 4.1.1 Centrifugal (non –positive displacement) pump

USE:
Used as auxiliary functions in hydraulic systems. (Primarily for circulating
fluid through cooling and cleaning devices and supercharging larger piston or
other rotary pumps.)

Used in most applications where the only resistance encountered is that

created by the weight of the fluid itself and friction.

LIMITATION:
Because there is no positive seal between inlet and outlet, the pump can be
completely blocked with the pump running. Therefore, their flow capabilities
depend on the load resistance.
 Chaptter_4_page 3

4.2.2 Positive Displacement

- A positive displacement pump delivers a fixed amount of fluid per revolution.

- Two types: Fixed Displacement - capacity (outlet flow) is fixed
Variable Displacement - flow capacity can be varied

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS DO NOT GENERATE PRESSURE. THEY

GENERATE FLOW TO A CIRCUIT. THE NATURE OF THE CIRCUIT LOAD
DETERMINES THE PUMP PRESSURE.

Positive Displacement Pumps

Fixed Displacement
Variable Displacement

Gear Balanced Piston Vane Piston

Vane

Exter. Inter. Radial Bent Axial Direct Pilot

Axis Operated Operated
Radial Bent Axis Axial
Piston Piston

Figure 4.2.1 Pump classification

4.2.3 Gear Pumps and Motors

4.2.3.1 External Gear Pumps and Motors. (Figure 4.2.2)

Most gear motors are uni-directional unless special units are employed

OPERATION: - Spur gears trap fluid between gear teeth and casing. In a pump
capacity, fluid is removed from suction cavity reducing pressure.
Fluid is drawn from a reservoir to replace it.
- When used as a motor, an external drain which is connected to the
bearings for lubrication is needed.
- Torque is produced through pressure on the surface of gear teeth.
- These are not balanced units and hence can have reduced mechanical
efficiency under high pressures.

LIMITATIONS: - Usually restricted to pressures of 13.8 MPa (2000 psi) and 2400 rpm.
But can be operated up to 31 MPa (4500 psi) with special bearings.
- Spur gear types can be noisy.
 Chaptter_4_page 4

Figure 4.2.2 External Gear Pump

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES (Also applies to internal and gerotor types.)

- Simplicity of operation and they have a high dirt tolerance.

- Offset by a lower efficiency.
- Most popular in low pressure range.
- Display good life expectancy.
- Low in cost.
- Are fixed displacement by nature.

4.2.3.2 Internal Gear Pumps/motors (Figure 4.2.3)

- Gears unmesh and remesh at a relatively low speed (smoother flow)

- Usually a lower pressure range unit.

OPERATION: - With reference to Figure 4.2.3, the drive gear is attached to shaft.
(pump operation) Withdrawal of the drive gear from the internal
rotor gear on the suction sides creates a partial vacuum drawing fluid.
Intermeshing of gears at outlet discharges fluid to system.
- Characteristics similar to external gear pumps.
- Used where gear shaft must pass through pump such as automatic
transmissions.
 Chaptter_4_page 5

Figure 4.2.3 Internal Gear Pump

4.2.3.3 Gerotor

Figure 4.2.4 Gerotor

 Chaptter_4_page 6

OPERATION: - With reference to Figure 4.2.4, the inner rotor is driven and drives the
outer rotor in the mesh. The tips of the inner rotor contact the outer
rotor to seal the chambers from each other.
- Used for presses, injection molding machines, etc.
- Two pumps cascaded in series can increase pressure. Pressure
usually limited to 13.8 MPa (2000) psi.
- Pump capacity is determined by vol. of missing tooth x number of
driving teeth = total vol./rev.

4.2.3.4 Problems with gear pumps

Leakage can occur in gear pumps/motor and can occur
- cross ports (outlet to inlet)
- around the outside (minor)
- in the middle (major)
- along the sides
To minimize, use bronze wear plates

4.2.3.5 Screw Pumps

- Flow is generated by the action of meshing screws.

- Two screw pump - two parallel rotors with intermeshing threads rotating in a
closely machined housing.
- Flow is axial.
- No flow pulsations as delivery is continuous.
- Very quiet operating pump.

Figure 4.2.5 Screw Pump

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

- Quiet and smooth flow.

- Excellent pressure and flow ranges.
- Used in submarines (noise is critical).
 Chaptter_4_page 7

4.2.4 Sliding Vane Pumps & Motors

In sliding vane pumps and motors, the pumping action is created by the
changing volume between sliding vanes. Such a pump is shown schematically
in Figure 4.2.5. As the rotor on the shaft rotates, the vanes slide in and out of
the vane guides. For the pump shown, the volume trapped between the two
vanes either decreases (discharging fluid) or increases (drawing in fluid). The
vanes are held out against the stator (ring) by centrifugal action and by ported
pressurized fluid at the bottom of the vanes as illustrated. Other high
performa ncet ype sofp umps /motorsus e“ rockers pr
ings”t oke ept heva nesi n
contact with the outer casing.

This unit is unbalanced. If one looks at Figure 4.2.5, a net force acts on the
shaft bearings because one side of the rotor is at high pressure and the other at
low pressure. This unbalance can reduce the mechanical efficiency .

This unit as shown is also fixed displacement.

Figure 4.2.5 Schematic of a Vane Pump (Unbalanced and fixed displacement)

An example of a balanced vane pump is shown in Figure 4.2.6. There are two
discharge and inlet ports now. Thus the differential force is counterbalanced
by an opposite force which then acts to balance the net force on the bearings.
Thus mechanical efficiency is improved.

Note also the different size porting holes. The reason for this is to cerate a
more uniform discharge of flow at different locations of the vane chambers.
For the point where the vane chamber is small, the fluid velocity can be very
high. Thus the discharge hole at that location is made larger to compensate.
 Chaptter_4_page 8

It is just barley visible in Figure 4.2.6 but on two kidney ports on the valve
plate (right hand side), there are small little grooves on each end. The purpose
of these grooves to prevent pressure spikes from occurring in the small
transition regions between the high pressure and low pressure ports. If fluid is
trapped in a small volume with no where to go between the two regions,
pressure can rise dramatically; hence groves bleed off the fluid to the low
pressure side effectively reducing these spikes but not substantially increasing
leakage between the two ports.

Figure 4.2.6. Vane pump (Balanced)

LIMITATIONS of VANE PUMPS/MOTORS:

Pressures can be limited to 17 MPa (2500 psi) for a single stage (or
unbalanced) pump or motor. Speed of rotation is limited to less than 2500
rpm due to centrifugal forces.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES:

Variable displacement vane pumps are commercially available.

The units are reliable, efficient, and easy to maintain.
Ring and surface wear is compensated by vanes moving out of their slots.
Note: Vane pumps can suffer from cavitation problems due to "shooting" of the
vane to the ring during the transition from low pressure to high pressure.
 Chaptter_4_page 9

4.2.4.1 Other considerations

- Pressure plates (seals rotor to body) are used to seal the vanes at their sides
- Rocker arms - force vanes against cam ring. The use of pressurized fluid at the
bottom may cause excessive forces on the vanes at high pressures.
- Shuttle valve arrangement makes it reversible
- Va ri
a bledi s
pl aceme ntpos s iblebyva ryingr ing“ t
hr ow”ore cc entricity( tobe
discussed).

4.2.4.2 High performance vane motors

- Ring, rotor, vane, and side plates as an assembly is removable as a cartridge
- Vanes held out against the ring by coil springs

4.2.4.3 Combination high pressure Vane Pumps (Figure 4.2.7)

A special type of pump can be created by using one vane pump as the pre-
charger to a second pump. This can step up pressure considerably. Both units
are driven at the same speed. But if one unit is just slightly out of sink with the
other, then cavitation or excessive pressure in the intermediate line can. This is
compensated for by the controller shown in Figure 4.2.7. It is left as an
exercise to the reader to reason how the controller works.

Figure 4.2.7 Combination pump

4.2.4.4 Variable displacement pumps (Vane) (Pressure Compensated) Figure 4.2.8

- Thisi sa ccompl i
shedbyva ry ingt he“ringt hrow”( ecc entricit
y )
.
- This is acheived by making the cam ring housing adjustable from maximum
eccentricity (Figure 4.2.8(a)) to a concentric position. Fig 4.2.8(b)
 Chaptter_4_page 10

Figure 4.2.8 (a) Maximum eccentricity Figure 4.2.8 (b) Minimum throw

At this point it is useful to introduce the idea of pressure compensation

Consider Figure 4.2.9.
Cam ring

Maximum Flow

Rotor is fixed

Cam ring moves to reduce eccentricity

To zero

Figure 4.2.9 Pressure compensation

 Chaptter_4_page 11

- A pressure compensated pump is one that changes its volume output with
changes in system pressure.

In the top figure, there is no pressure on the blank side of the piston, hence no
force. The spring on the left hand side forces the can ring and the piston the
right as shown in the top figure. The pump is now at maximum eccentricity and
hence flow is maximum. Pressure builds up on the blank end of the piston due
to the load, but flow is still maximum until the spring pretension is just
overcome by pressure forces on the piston (labeled as the
cut-off pressure in Figure 4.2.10). At this point, the cam ring shifts to the left,
reducing eccentricity and hence reducing flow. Eccentricity is reduced until
the rotor is at zero eccentricity (this is called the deadhead pressure –see
Figure 4.2.10).

It is very important to realize that a pressure force greater than the sum of
spring pretension and the spring constant (times compression displacement of
the spring) must exist to reduce eccentricity. This is partially why the slope of
the pressure compensated pump between the cut off and deadhead pressuare is
at some slope. If this pressure is reduced below the spring pretension, then the
spring pushes the can ring back to its original position and flow is now
maximum. In essence in this particular region, the pump acts as a fixed
displacement region.

The pump flow characteristics are shown in Figure 4.2.10. The red line shows
ana ctualc
urvewhi chi snot“ flat”a stheidealc asebe causeofl eaka gei nthe
system.

The main purpose of the pressure compensator is to limit the maximum

pressure in the circuit and to become a demand flow system. This will be
discussed at great length in later chapters.

Figure 4.2.10 Characteristics of a Pressure Compensated pump. (The reduction in

the actual flow vs. pressure from the ideal is due to leakage (an indicator
of volumetric efficiency)
 Chaptter_4_page 12

4.2.5 Reciprocating Pumps & Motors

Types: Radial piston, axial piston

BASIC PRINCIPLES:

- A piston reciprocating in a bore will draw in fluid as it is retracted and expel it

on the forward stroke (pump) and vice-versa for a motor.
- Radial piston type arranged radially in a cylinder block.
- Axial piston type arranged parallel to each other and to cylinder block. (Can
also be subdivided into in line (swash plate or wobble plate) and bent axis
types.)

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES:

- Units provide the highest degree of sophistication found in pumps and motors
- Highest volumetric efficiency (97%)
- Higher pressure ratings (69 MPa (10,000 psi) and higher)
- High operating speeds (12,000 rpm)
- Since very efficient, less power is converted to heat, and hence smaller sizes
and weight are possible

4.2.5.1 Radial Piston Pumps & Motors (Figure 4.2.11)

OPERATION: Cylinder block rotates on a stationary pintle and inside a circular

reaction ring or rotor. As rotor block rotates, centrifugal forces,
charging pressure, or some form of mechanical action causes the pistons
to follow the inner surface of the ring which is offset from the centerline
of cylinder block. Reciprocating action of the pistons discharge fluid or
draw fluid into the appropriate posting chambers isolated by the pintle.
The displacement can be varied by moving the reaction ring (slide
block) to increase or decrease piston travel.

Figure 4.2.11 Pintle valve pump

 Chaptter_4_page 13

4.2.5.2 Radial Piston Pumps & Motors

-Similar to the pintle valve arrangement in which the pistons move radially about
some axis.
- These pumps can operate at very high pressures and produce very large flows
- Have a volumetric efficiency of 93% and an overall efficiency of 85-87%
- Displacement of the pump/motor = single piston area times its stroke times the
number of pistons.

- Pumps with small displacement best suited for high pressure applications
- Start up priming may be necessary (noise a factor)

4.2.5.3 In-Line Axial Displacement Pumps & Motors

An in line axial displacement pump is one in which the pistons are in line with
the rotating shaft. Figure 4.2.12 shows the various parts of such a pump or
motor. Because it is a very common type of unit, we shall spend some time
looking at each part.

Figure 4.2.12(a) Axial in-line piston pump

 Chaptter_4_page 14

Figure 4.2.12(b) Axial in-line piston pump (Schematic but not exactly the same
as shown in part(a))

- These pumps have high flow and pressure capabilities

- All pistons are in line with the shaft
- Usually there are an odd number of pistons (which have been shown to
minimize pressure fluctuations)

OPERATION:
Pumps have a cylinder block with its pistons which is rotated on a shaft in such
a way that the pistons are driven back and forth in their cylinders in a direction
parallel to the shaft. In other designs, the cylinder and barrel remain stationary
but the drive plate rotates.

- Figure 4.2.13 shows a typical piston and Figure 4.2.14 shows a side view of
thepi stonhe lda gains tthe“ swa shpl at
e ”vi aar etaini ngr
ing.Ther etaining
ring is also shown in Figure 4.2.15. The piston is attached through a swivel
ball at its end, to a piston slipper. This slipper slides on a smooth surface
(called a swash plate) as the barrel and hence pistons rotate about the shaft.
- Note the circular grooves around the piston base (Figure 2.4.13). These groves
appear here to help distribute the pressure evenly around the piston and hence
toke e pi tcentere d.Itp revents“ hy draulicloc k”whi chc anc
auset hepi stonst o
become so de-centered that they literally fuse to the chambers in which they
slide in (almost like a spot weld at the point of contact).
 Chaptter_4_page 15

Figure 4.2.13 Typical piston

Figure 4.2.14 Side view of piston, slipper, retaining ring and swash plate

- Figure 4.2.15 shows the “ barre l”i

nwhi
cht
hepi
st
onr
eci
proc
ate
s.Theba
rre
l
rotates around the middle shaft.
-

Figure 4.2.15 Barrel of an inline pump/motor

 Chaptter_4_page 16

Figure 4.2.16 shows an end assembly which houses the swash plate on which
the slippers slide. The swash plate itselfislocat
edona“ y oke ”whi chi s ,in
turn”i sa t
tache dt oas haftca l
ledapi ntl
e.They okepi votsa boutt hepi ntl
e
which means that the angle the swash plate makes with respect to the barrel can
be varied.

Figure 4.2.16 End assembly showing swash plate, yoke and pintle.

A side view of the pistons, barrel, retaining ring yoke and pintle is shown in
Figure 4.2.17.

Figure 4.2.17 Side view of barely and yoke

 Chaptter_4_page 17

- Unlike other pumps, piston pumps/motors have a case drain

- Fluid in case drain is essential for lubrication of bearings etc.
- Case drains can withstand some pressure, but usually not higher than ½ to 1
bar.
 Chaptter_4_page 18

4.2.5.4 Valve end plate

The fluid which exits the barrel chambers is directed to the outside lines via a
valve plate or end plate. For the pump illustrated in this work, the valve plate
and end plate are essentially one of the same. Consider Figure 4.2.18. Consider
only the centre area. (The unit that sticks out is called a control piston and shall
be discussed later). The barrel rotates about the shaft which fits through the
shaft hole and bearings. The kidney shape holes are called kidney ports and as
the pistons travel towards (away) the plate and rotate within the barrel, the fluid
is discharged (drawn in) through one of the ports. Because there are nine pistons
in this unit, the kidney ports are exposed to four of them at any one time. Note
again the groves at one ends of the kidney port.

Figure 4.2.18 Valve plate (End assembly)

Consider Figures 4.2 19 (a), (b) and (c). This represents a side view of the barrel
and valve plate. As the pistons travel towards the end plate and as the barrel in
which they are houses rotates about the shaft, a separation torque exists which
tries to move the valve plate and barrel apart. This is a consequence of the piston
diameter being just slightly larger than the diameter of the kidney port.

Pressure which acts on AB-B is larger that on kidney port area A A-A. Further, the
Centre line of the AB-B does not exactly line up with the Centre line of A A-A .
Thus a torque on the barrel and the valve plate exists which try to separate them
as illustrated in Figure 4.2.19(c).
 Chaptter_4_page 19

Valve plate
Barrel
Exaggerated size of port B-B
B A

AB-B A A-A
Expanded view
B A Of A-A

Kidney port in valve plate

AB-B is > AA-A

>
The net effect is for the force from the barrel from AB-B
to push the valve plate away from the barrel.

(a) Side view

(b) Nomenclature
Let x = effective point at which the pressure on the barrel acts
Let y = effective point at which the pressure from the kidney port acts
If F . x >>F y, then twisting of the barrel occurs.
p u

(c) Separation occurs

 Chaptter_4_page 20

Figure 4.2.19 Bending torques on the barrel and valve plate

4.2.5.5 Variable displacement Axial-Piston Pumps & Motors

Consider again the axial piston in line pump of Figure 4.2.20

Figure 4.2.20 Axial piston pump

- The swash plate is installed in a movable yoke (not shown in Figure 4.2.20).
"Pivoting" the yoke on pintles via the yoke change the swash plate angle to
increase or decrease the piston stroke as illustrated in Figures 4.2.21 and
4.2.22 (where the yoke is shown)

Maximum stroke Minimum stroke

Swash Plate
Pintle

Swash plate angle 

Flow rate is varied by adjusting

the swash plate angle
about the pintle.
 Chaptter_4_page 21

Figure 4.2.21 Variable Swashplate angle.

Figure 4.2.22 Side view of barrel, yoke and pistons.

4.2.5.6 Pressure compensated piston pump (in line)

Pressure compensation can also be applied to piston pumps. The essential

components of the compensator are shown in Figure 4.2.23

Figure 4.2.23 Components of a pressure compensator.

 Chaptter_4_page 22

Consider Figure 4.2.23 and the schematic of its assembly in Figure 4.2.24

Figure 4.2.24 Schematic of a pressure compensator

For pump pressures less than Pset point (which is set by the compensator spring
manually), the compensator spool is located as shown in Figure 4.2.24. The
control spool is at tank pressure and the yoke spring forces the control spool to
its uttermost right position (and hence the swash plate is rotated to its
maximum angle as shown. The pump acts as a fixed displacement pump for all
pressures less than Pset point. When the system pressure builds up to the Pset point
(of the compensator spring), the spool moves upwards as illustrated in Figure
4.2.25. High pressure fluid is now ported to the control piston which pushes the
swash plate and yoke assembly about the pintle to their vertical position. At
this point, the swash plate angle is zero and minimum flow to the circuit exists.

Figure 2.4.25 Minimum swash plate angle.

 Chaptter_4_page 23

4.2.5.7 Bent Axis fixed displacement pumps (Figure 4.2.26)

- Bent axis pumps/motors have their piston axis at an angle with respect to the
shaft
- Good for higher flows, pressures and speeds
- Transmission of torques (forces) better suited
- The operation is the same as the axial displacement pump/motor except torque
is transmitted to the main shaft via a universal joint shaft
- The piston barrel rotates inside a yoke. If the yoke is rotated as shown in Figure
4.2.27, then a variable stroke is possible.
- The cylinder block (barrel) turns with the drive shaft but at an offset angle.

4.2.26 Bent Axis variable displacement pumps and motors

 Chaptter_4_page 24

Figure 4.2.27 Variable displacement (stroke) bent axis pump/motor

 Chaptter_4_page 25

4.3 Pump and Motor Analysis

In this section, the basic characteristics and describing equations are discussed.
These equations and definitions will provide the basis for pump (motor) selection and for
component and systems analysis.

4.3.1 Definitions:

(a) Displacement (Dm, Dp) is the amount of fluid that a motor (pump) will accept
(deliver) in turning one revolution - i.e., capacity of one chamber x no. of chambers.
in3/rev ; cm3/rev; m3/rev

(b) Torque Rating of a Motor - Torque generated/690kPa (100 psi) of pressure

e.g. If a load is 50 Nm at an operating pressure of 13.8MPa (13800kPa) the rating

of the motor would be

50 * 690
T.R. = = 2.5 Nm/690kPa
13800

(c) Ideal Pump Flow (Delivery) (U.S. gpm)

.
Pump: Q p D p p

.
Motor: Qm Dm m

As a specials case, in the English system, displacement is often

in3
given in ( rev ). If the speed is specified in rpm, the flow in
US gals per minute (gpm) is given by:

Displacement in3
Q(gpm US) = ( rev ) . Speed (rpm)
231
.
D p p
= gpmUS
231

(d) Pump Rating - Max operating pressure capacity and their output (lpm or gpm)
at a given speed.
 Chaptter_4_page 26

(e) Pressure Rating - Pressure at which reasonable life expectancy can be obtained
under specified operating conditions - if operation conditions
exceed this rating, excessive wear may occur.

(f) Pump (Motor) Characteristics - A graphical display of pump delivery, volumetric

efficiency, mechanical efficiency, input
horsepower, etc., as function of outlet (load)
pressure.

(g) Volumetric Efficiency

Actual Flow
vp = Ideal Flow (Pump) :
Actual flow is less than ideal because fluid is lost
due to leakage in the seals and piston clearances
etc.

Ideal Flow
vm = Actual Flow (Motor) :
Actual flow is greater than ideal because to make
theidealf l
owi namot or,some“ extrafluid“mus t
be added to compensate for leakage.

.
Dp 
.
Actual flow D p p Leakage flow

Actual flow in to the motor

.
Dm Leakage flow
.
Dm 
 Chaptter_4_page 27

(h) Mechanical Efficiency

Ideal Torque Required

mp = Actual Torque Required (Pump)

Actual Torque required = Ideal Torque + Losses

Actual Torque Output

mm = Ideal Torque Output (Motor)
Ideal Torque = Actual Torque + Losses

(i) Overall Efficiency

Power out
op = for both pumps and motors
Power in
= Volumetric efficiency * mechanical efficiency (to be shown presently)

(j) Hydraulic Power

Hydraulic power to a motor is defined as the product of the differential pressure

across the motor times the average motor flow (Pm . Qm).
Hydraulic power from a pump is defined as the product of the output port pressure
(inlet is a tank pressure and is neglected) times the average motor flow (Pp . Qp)

Mechanical power of a motor is the product of actual torque and the shaft speed (in
.
rad/sec) m L where L actual torque.

4.3.2 Ideal pump/motor analysis (Merritt)

The objective of the next two sections is to develop basic equations for the
efficiency (mechanical and volumetric) first for an ideal pump/motor and then for a
“pr acti
cal”pump/motor. These sections are EXTREMELY important in gaining
insighti nto whypump a nd mot
orc ha ra cterist
icsa ppearint hema nuf actures’
specification, the way they do.

For the ideal case, there are no losses, (100% efficient). Although pumps and
motors are not 100% efficient, this analysis is useful for initial pump and motor
considerations. Quite often we use these equations first to understand what circuit
or component efficiencies might be and then modify them to reflect the real
situation.
 Chaptter_4_page 28

Consider an ideal motor. Consider an ideal pump

Since we assume the motor to be 100% efficient, Since we assume the motor to
be 100% efficient,
H.Pout = H.Pin H.Pout = H.Pin

H.Pin = hydraulic H.P = Pm . Qm (4.1)

.
H.Pout = mechanical H.P = Tm . m (4.2)_
.
(m in Nm or in lbf, m in rad/min).

From equations 4.1 and 4.2,

.
Pm . Qm = Tm m
For a pump, the input torque
.
would be
Pm m Pp Q p
From which Tm = (4.3) Tp 
Qm Dp

.
Now, Qm = Dm . m , consequently equation 4.3
becomes

Tm = Pm . Dm
Tp = Pp . Dp

Units m Nm in lb,
Pm N/m2 l b/in2
Dm m3/rad in3/rad

 Only one motor or pump parameter need be specified to define the torque
capabilities of an ideal motor - that is Dm - motor displacement or Dp –pump
displacement Motor sizes are designated by the ideal theoretical displacement.

Pump sizes are usually designated by the flow obtained at a certain shaft speed.
 Chaptter_4_page 29

4.3.3 Practical pump/motor analysis

To demonstrate how losses affect the performance of pumps and motors, a

particular example shall be considered - that of a piston pump shown below. The
analysis for a motor is essentially the same and so we will not repeat it here.
This analysis will be very important in gaining insight into the characteristics of a
motor (pump). It is not an academic exercise as we hope you will soon appreciate.

Qem 2

Q2
P2

Qim

Q1
P1
Qem1

Figure 4.3.1 Schematic of a piston motor and nomenclature

Let Cim = internal or cross-port leakage coefficient m3/(secPa) in3/sec/psi

Pm = differential pressure across the motor Pa psi
Cem = external leakage coefficient m3/(secPa) in3/sec/psi
Pi = pressure in chamber Pa psi

In this example, the pistons and piston cylinder rotate about the stationary cam
plate. Fluid porting is accomplished by the valving plate.

OBJECT: Determine the volumetric, mechanical and overall efficiency of a practical

motor.

ASSUMPTIONS: Clearances between all parts are small such that leakage flow is
laminar. This means that Q Pm
- Drain case pressure negligible,
 Chaptter_4_page 30

- Neglect compressibility
- P2 is assumed at tank pressure and is small compared to the motor
inlet or pump outlet value.

4.3.3.1 Flow Considerations

For flow into chambers the continuity equations gives:

.
Q1 - Qim - Qeml = Dm m 4.4

.
Dm m + Qim - Qem2 = Q2 4.5

Q1 + Q2
Defining Qm = , as the average flow,
2

Q1 + Q2 1 .
2 = 2 [ 2 D 
m m + 2 Qim - Qem2 + Qem1 ] 4.6

Now since leakage flows are assumed laminar,

Qim = Cim (P1 - P2) = leakage flow internal  C im P1 if P2 is assumed small

Qem1 = Cem1 P1 = leakage flow external

Qem2 = Cem2 P2 = leakage flow external  0 if P2 is assumed small

 Equation. 4.6 becomes

. Cem1 P1
Qm = Dm m + Cim (P1 ) + P2 neglected
2

C em1
Also, since is a constant, we can rewrite this as
2
. C
Qm = Dm m + Cim P1 + C em
'
P1 where '
C em  em1
2

or
 Chaptter_4_page 31

.
Qm Dm (C im C em
'
) P1

For the more general case in which P2 is not small nor negligible, and assuming Cem1 
Cem2,
.
Qm Dm (C im C em
'
) ( P1 P2 ) General case

Now defining the load pressure Pm as P1 - P2

.
Qm = Dm m + (Cim + Cem
'
) Pm General case 4.7

.
Qm Dm (C im C em
'
) P1 P2 neglected

This,the n,i
sthe“
gene
ral
”fl
owe
qua
tioni
ntoamot
orwhi
chr
efl
ecti
nte
rna
lande
xte
rna
l
leakage.

Before proceeding, we have a few more things to consider. A great deal of research on
the leakage coefficients has been carried out.

'
The term (Cim + Cem ) Pm is called SLIP FLOW, Qs. This term is used quite often and it
represents the amount of fluid that is not converted to shaft rotation.

Since the slip flow is laminar, it has been shown to be proportional to the motor (pump)
displacement and inversely proportional to the viscosity or

Cs Dm
'
(Cim + Cem )


Cs is defined as the leakage slip coefficient and is determined experimentally. Thus

Cs Dm C D
Qs = P1 or , Qs  s m ( Pm ) for the general case
 

.C s Dm
Qm = Dm m + Pm General case

. C D
Qm Dm  s m P1 P2 neglected

 Chaptter_4_page 32

4.3.3.2 Torque Considerations

Consider the torques which act on a motor.

(a) Ideal Torque = Dm (P1 - P2) = Tm However this torque is reduced by a viscous
torque, friction torques, and seal friction torques.

(b) Viscous Damping Torque

- Arises because a torque is required to shear fluids in small clearance. Viscous

Damping Torque is a function of the velocity:
. .
 Td = m m = Cd Dm m 4.8

where: m = viscous friction coefficient N-m sec in lbf sec.

Cd = damping coefficient
= absolute viscosity N sec/m2 lbf sec/in2

This states that the viscous friction coefficient m is a function of the motor
displacement, Dm, the fluid viscosity, , and a damping constant which is
determined experimentally. This expression has been derived and verified
experimentally (Merritt) and is a very convenient way to express the viscous
friction for our purposes.

(c) Friction Torque

- Friction forces arise as a result of movement of the piston in its bore, loaded
bearings, etc. An opposing friction torque exists which is proportional to the
motor displacement Dm,  and the pressures at the inlet and outlet ports
(Merritt).

Tf = Cf Dm (P1 + P2) 4.9

In many cases, P2 is at tank pressure and so we can rewrite this as

Tf = Cf (P1) Dm 4.9(a)

where Cf is a dimensionless coefficient relating the friction - torque parameter

to the ideal torque.

This torque is sometimes called Coulomb friction for a fixed pressure

- A large value of Cf indicates metal to metal contact, therefore serious wear.

 Chaptter_4_page 33

(d) Breakaway Torque Tc

- A constant value due seal friction, etc. In fact this is called stiction and when
combined with the friction torque (Coulomb), the friction characteristics are
often referred to as slip-stick.

Net Torque to the Load

The net torque available to the load is equal to the ideal torque minus friction type
torques for a motor,
The net torques required to drive the pump is the sum of the ideal toque and
friction types torques.

.
TNet = Dm (P1 - P2) - Cd Dm m - Cf Dm (P1 + P2) - Tc Motor
Applied
to Load 4.10
.
TNet = Dm (P1) - Cd Dm m - Cf Dm (P1) - Tc Motor
Applied P2 neglected
to Load
.
TNet = Dp (P1 - P2) + Cd Dp p + Cf Dp (P1 + P2) + Tc Pump
To Drive
Pump
.
TNet = Dp (P1) + Cd Dp p + Cf Dp (P1) + Tc Pump
To Drive P2 neglected
Pump

4.3.4 Volumetric Efficiency

Our objective was to determine the efficiencies of the motor (pump). If we use the
general relationship, we have a problem in that we see the term (P1 +P2) in the torque
equations. In our flow general equation we have P1 –P2. Thus to make this simple, we
shall consider the case where P2 = 0. There is only a slight loss of generality because
many applications have P2 at tank pressure. We are looking only at trends here as these
equations are far from being exact, anyways. So lets go for it: let P2 = 0. Our two
equations for a motor are
. C D .
Qm Dm  s m P1 TNet = Dm (P1) - Cd Dm m - Cf Dm (P1) - Tc

 Chaptter_4_page 34

From this information, the volumetric and mechanical efficiencies can be calculated.

ideal flow Dm 
Recall vm = actual flow to motor = m

Qm

.
Dm m 1
= = =
. P1 Dm C P
1 s .1
Dm m + Cs
 
m

For a motor
1
vm = 4.16
C P
1 s .1

m

Similarly for a pump

1
vp = 4.17
C P
1 s .1

m

4.3.5 Mechanical Efficiency

.
actual torque Dm P1 - Cd Dm m - Cf Dm P1 - Tc
Recall tm = ideal torque = Dm P1

For a motor:
.
m Tc
tm = 1 - Cd  P - Cf - D P 4.18
1 m 1

Similarly, for a pump

 Chaptter_4_page 35

1
tp = 4.19
.
p Tc
1 + Cd P + Cf + D P
1 m 1

4.3.6 Overall efficiency

The overall efficiency om or op is defined as the product of the mechanical efficiency
times the volumetric efficiency. (See problem at the end of this section). Therefore

For a motor
.
Cd m Tc
1- - C f -
P1 Dm P1
om = vm tm = Cs P1 4.20
1+
.
m
Similarly for a pump

Cs P1
1-
.
p
op = vp tp = 4.21
.
Cd p Tc
1+ + C f +
P1 Dm P1

(1) Generally, Tc is small when compared to the other terms and can be neglected. In
fact Tc occurs only at low velocities and so when the motor or pump is in operation, it is
zero, So this is not a limiting assumption
.
m
2) The quantity P is dimensionless. This is very important because it facilitates
1
interpretation.

(3) If we can measure Cs, Cd, Cf, then the static performance with P2 = 0 can be
.
m
defined as a function of P
1
 Chaptter_4_page 36

Typical Efficiency Curves for a motor (pump) are illustrated in Figure 4.3.2:

vm


om tm

.
m
P1
Figure 4.3.2 Efficiency Curves

Now, if the speed or angular velocity of shaft is fixed, and P1 varied, the efficiencies
vary: At low P1, the volumetric efficiency is large, the mechanical efficiency is small,
hence, the overall efficiency is small. At high P1, Vm is low, Tm large, and once again
om is small.

The significance of this curve is immense. Yes, it is an approximation but in reality,

ma nufact
ur es’c ur
vesdof oll
owt he set r
ends
.Italsos a ysthatthereisa n“optima l”ra ng e
that any pump or motor should operate in and that we cannot expect the same
performance if conditions vary widely.
 Chaptter_4_page 37

4.4 Analysis of a variable displacement pump and motor

4.4.1 Assumptions:

(1) Volumetric & mechanical efficiencies = 100%

(2) No leakage in circuit
(3) Ignore dynamic effects

Define

.
p = pump speed (rpm)
Dp = pump displacement
.
m = motor speed (rpm)
Dm = motor displacement

Circuit

Figure 4.4.1 Basic circuit

Basic Equations:

Pump: Motor
. .
Qp = pump flow = Dp p Qm = Dm m

By assumption 2,

Qp = Qm
 Chaptter_4_page 38

. .
Dp p = Dm m

. Dp .
 Motor speed = m = ( D ) p (4.22)
m

Torque on the hydraulic motor shaft =

Dm Pm
Tm = (Over 2because Dm is define per revolution) (4.23)
2

Output power from the motor =

. .
HPm = Qm Pm = Dm m Pm = Dp p Pp (4.24)
.
Case (a) Let us that the input speed p is fixed and we shall vary Dp (variable
displacement pump)

Our output characteristics (using eq's 4.22,4.23 & 4.24) are

P 3 Tm = DmPm
2 
Tm  P2 P m
= constant
.
m

P 1

Independent of
Independent of Motor speed pressure

Dp Dp

.
Figure 4.4.2 Characteristics: input speed p fixed, Dp varied
 Chaptter_4_page 39

P 3
 P2

HPm

P 1

Independent of speed

Dp

.
Figure 4.4.3 HP Characteristics: input speed p fixed, Dp varied

When Dm is fixed and Dp varies, this is often called a "CONSTANT TORQUE

TRANSMISSION"

- This is true for both open and closed circuits (T.B.A.)

Case (b) Fixed displacement pump, fixed pump speed, variable motor displacement

Our output characteristics become (using eq's 1, 2 & 3)

P3

HPm P2 P m = constant

.
m

P 1
Independent of
pressure
Dm D
m

.
Figure 4.4.4 Characteristics: input speed p fixed, Dm varied
 Chaptter_4_page 40

P 3
 P2

T
m

P 1

Dm

.
Figure 4.4.5 Torque characteristics: input speed p fixed, Dm varied

.
When Dp, p are fixed and Dm varies, this is often called a "CONSTANT POWER
TRANSMISSION"