Time evolution operator external constant magnetic field parallel to the z-axis, it

In quantum mechanics will precess in the xy-plane: the probability for the result
h̄/2 in the measurement SGx̂ oscillates between 0 and 1
• unlike position, time is not an observable.
as a function of time. In any case, the probability for the
• there is no Hermitean operator whose eigenvalues result h̄/2 or −h̄/2 remains always as the constant 1.
were the time of the system. Generalizing, it is natural to require that
X X
• time appears only as a parameter, not as a |ca0 (t0 )|2 = |ca0 (t)|2 .
measurable quantity. a0 a0

So, contradictory to teachings of the relativity theory, In other words, the normalization of the states does not
time and position are not on equal standing. In depend on time:
relativistic quantum field theories the equality is restored
hα, t0 |α, t0 i = hα, t0 ; t|α, t0 ; ti
by degrading also the position down to the parameter
level. = hα, t0 |U † (t, t0 )U(t, t0 )|α, t0 i.
We consider a system which at the moment t0 is in the
This is satisfied if we require U(t, t0 ) to be unitary, i.e.
state |αi. When time goes on there is no reason to expect
it to remain in this state. We suppose that at a later U † (t, t0 )U(t, t0 ) = 1.
moment t the system is described by the state

|α, t0 ; ti, (t > t0 ), 2. Composition property

The evolution from the time t0 to a later time t2 should
where the parameter t0 reminds us that exactly at that be equivalent to the evolution from the initial time t0 to
moment the system was in the state |αi. Since the time is an intermediate time t1 followed by the evolution from t1
a continuous parameter we obviously have to the final time t2 , i.e.
lim |α, t0 ; ti = |αi, U(t2 , t0 ) = U(t2 , t1 )U(t1 , t0 ), (t2 > t1 > t0 ).
t→t0

and can use the shorter notation Like in the case of the translation operator we will first
look at the infinitesimal evolution
|α, t0 ; t0 i = |α, t0 i.
|α, t0 ; t0 + dti = U(t0 + dt, t0 )|α, t0 i.
Let’s see, how state vectors evolve when time goes on:
Due to the continuity condition
evolution
|α, t0 i −→ |α, t0 ; ti. lim |α, t0 ; ti = |αi
t→t0

We work like we did with translations. We define the we have

time evolution operator U(t, t0 ): lim U(t0 + dt, t0 ) = 1.
dt→0
|α, t0 ; ti = U(t, t0 )|α, t0 i, So, we can assume the deviations of the operator
U(t0 + dt, t0 ) from the identity operator to be of the order
which must satisfy physically relevant conditions.
dt. When we now set
1. Conservation of probability U(t0 + dt, t0 ) = 1 − iΩdt,
We expand the state at the moment t0 with the help of
the eigenstates of an observable A: where Ω is a Hermitean operator, we see that it satisfies
X the composition condition
|α, t0 i = ca0 (t0 )|a0 i.
a0 U(t2 , t0 ) = U(t2 , t1 )U(t1 , t0 ), (t2 > t1 > t0 ),

At a later moment we get the expansion is unitary and deviates from the identity operator by the
X term O(dt).
|α, t0 ; ti = ca0 (t)|a0 i. The physical meaning of Ω will be revealed when we
a0 recall that in classical mechanics the Hamiltonian
generates the time evolution. From the definition
In general, we cannot expect the probability for the
system being in a specific state |a0 i to remain constant, U(t0 + dt, t0 ) = 1 − iΩdt
i.e. in most cases
we see that the dimension of Ω is frequency, so it must be
|ca0 (t)| 6= |ca0 (t0 )|. multiplied by a factor before associating it with the
Hamiltonian operator H:
For example, when a spin 21 particle, which at the
moment t0 is in the state |Sx ; ↑i, is subjected to an H = h̄Ω,
or (ii) The Hamiltonain H depends on time but the operators
iH dt H corresponding to different moments of time commute.
U(t0 + dt, t0 ) = 1 − .
h̄ For example, a spin 12 particle in the magnetic field whose
The factor h̄ here is not necessarily the same as the factor strength varies but direction remains constant as a
h̄ in the case of translations. It turns out, however, that function of time. A formal solution of the equation
in order to recover Newton’s equations of motion in the
classical limit both coefficients must be equal. ∂
ih̄ U(t, t0 ) = HU(t, t0 )
Applying the composition property ∂t
U(t2 , t0 ) = U(t2 , t1 )U(t1 , t0 ), (t2 > t1 > t0 ) is now
  Z t 
we get i 0 0
U(t, t0 ) = exp − dt H(t ) ,
h̄ t0
U(t + dt, t0 ) = U(t + dt, t)U(t, t0 )
 
iH dt which, again, can be proved by expanding the exponential
= 1− U(t, t0 ),
h̄ function as the series.
(iii) The operators H evaluated at different moments of
where the time difference t − t0 does not need to be time do not commute For example, a spin 21 particle in a
infinitesimal. This can be written as magnetic field whose direction changes in the course of
 
H time: H is proportional to the term S · B and if now, at
U(t + dt, t0 ) − U(t, t0 ) = −i dt U(t, t0 ).
h̄ the moment t = t1 the magnetic field is parallel to the
x-axis and, at the moment t = t2 parallel to the y-axis,
Expanding the left hand side as the Taylor series we end then H(t1 ) ∝ BSx and H(t2 ) ∝ BSy , or
up with [H(t1 ), H(t2 )] ∝ B 2 [Sx , Sy ] 6= 0. It can be shown that the
∂
ih̄ U(t, t0 ) = HU(t, t0 ). formal solution of the Schrödinger equation is now
∂t
This is the Schrödinger equation of the time evolution U(t, t0 ) =
operator. Multiplying both sides by the state vector ∞  n Z t Z t1
X −i
|α, t0 i we get 1+ dt1 dt2 · · ·
n=1
h̄ t0 t0
∂
ih̄ U(t, t0 )|α, t0 i = HU(t, t0 )|α, t0 i. Z tn−1
∂t dtn H(t1 )H(t2 ) · · · H(tn ).
t0
Since the state |α, t0 i is independent on the time t we can
write the Schrödinger equation of the state vectors in the This expansion is called the Dyson series. We will assume
form that our Hamiltonians are time independent until we
∂
ih̄ |α, t0 ; ti = H|α, t0 ; ti. start working with the so called interaction picture.
∂t Suppose that A is an Hermitean operator and
In fact, in most cases the state vector Schrödinger
equation is unnecessary because all information about the [A, H] = 0.
dynamics of the system is contained in the time evolution
operator U(t, t0 ). When this operator is known the state Then the eigenstates of A are also eigenstates of H, called
of the system at any moment is obtained by applying the energy eigenstates. Denoting corresponding eigenvalues of
definition the Hamiltonian as Ea0 we have
|α, t0 ; ti = U(t, t0 )|α, t0 i,
H|a0 i = Ea0 |a0 i.
We consider three cases:
(i) The Hamiltonian does not depend on time. For example,
The time evolution operator can now be written with the
a spin 12 particle in a time independent magnetic field
help of these eigenstates. Choosing t0 = 0 we get
belongs to this category. The solution of the equation
   
∂ iHt XX
00 00 iHt
ih̄ U(t, t0 ) = HU(t, t0 ) exp − = |a iha | exp − |a0 iha0 |
∂t h̄ h̄
a0 a00
 
is X
0 iEa0 t

iH(t − t0 )
 = |a i exp − ha0 |.
U(t, t0 ) = exp − h̄
a0
h̄
as can be shown by expanding the exponential function as Using this form for the time evolution operator we can
the Taylor series and differentiating term by term with solve every intial value problem provided that we can
respect to the time. Another way to get the solution is to expand the initial state with the set {|a0 i}. If, for
compose the finite evolution from the infinitesimal ones: example, the initial state can be expanded as
 N  
(iH/h̄(t − t0 ) iH(t − t0 )
X X
lim 1 − = exp − . |α, t0 = 0i = |a0 iha0 |αi = ca0 |a0 i,
N →∞ N h̄ a0 a0
we get in an eigenstate |a0 i of an operator A commuting with the
 Hamiltonian H. Suppose, we are interested in the
iHt expectation value of an operator B which does not
|α, t0 = 0; ti = exp − |α, t0 = 0i
h̄ necessarily commute either with A or with H. At the
 
X
0 0 iEa0 t moment t the system is in the state
= |a iha |αi exp − .
h̄
0 a |a0 , t0 = 0; ti = U(t, 0)|a0 i.
In other words, the expansion coefficients evolve in the
In this special case we have
course of time as
hBi = ha0 |U † (t, 0)BU(t, 0)|a0 i
 
iEa0 t
ca (t = 0) −→ ca (t) = ca (t = 0) exp −
0 0 0 .    
h̄ 0 iEa0 t iEa0 t
= ha | exp B exp − |a0 i
h̄ h̄
So, the absolute values of the coefficients remain
= ha0 |B|a0 i,
constant. The relative phase between different
components will, however, change in the course of time that is, the expectation value does not depend on time.
because the oscillation frequencies of different For this reason the energy eigenstates are usually called
components differ from each other. stationary states
As a special case we consider an initial state consisting of We now look at the expectation value in a superposition
a single eigenstate: of energy eigenstates, in a non stationary state
|α, t0 = 0i = |a0 i. X
|α, t0 = 0i = ca0 |a0 i.
At some later moment this state has evolved to the state a0

iEa0 t
 It is easy to see, that the expectation value of B is now
0
|α, t0 = 0; ti = |a i exp − .
h̄ XX 
i(Ea00 − Ea0 )t

hBi = c∗a0 ca00 ha0 |B|a00 i exp − .
Hence, if the system originally is in an eigenstate of the 0 00
h̄
a a
Hamiltonian H and the operator A it stays there forever.
Only the phase factor exp(−iEa0 t/h̄) can vary. In this This time the expectation value consists of terms which
sense the observables whose corresponding operators oscillate with frequences determind by the Bohr
commute with the Hamiltonian, are constants of motion. frequency condition
Observables (or operators) associated with mutually Ea00 − Ea0
commuting operators are called compatible. As mentioned ωa00 a0 = .
h̄
before, the treatment of a physical problem can in many
cases be reduced to the search for a maximal set of As an application we look at how spin 21 particles behave
compatible operators. If the operators A, B, C, . . . belong in a constant magnetic field. When we assume the
to this set, i.e. magnetic moments of the particles to be eh̄/2me c (like
electrons), the Hamiltonian is
[A, B] = [B, C] = [A, C] = · · · = 0,
 
e
and if, furthermore, H=− S · B.
me c
[A, H] = [B, H] = [C, H] = · · · = 0, If we choose B k ẑ, we have
that is, also the Hamiltonian is compatible with other 
eB

operators, then the time evolution operator can be H=− Sz .
me c
written as

iHt
 X 
iEK 0 t
 The operators H and Sz differ only by a constant factor,
0
exp − = |K i exp − hK 0 |. so they obviously commute and the eigenstates of Sz are
h̄ 0
h̄
K also energy eigenstates with energies
Here K 0 stands for the collective index: eh̄B
E↑ = − for state |Sz ; ↑i
2me c
A|K 0 i = a0 |K 0 i, B|K 0 i = b0 |K 0 i, C|K 0 i = c0 |K 0 i, . . .
eh̄B
E↓ = + for state |Sz ; ↓i.
Thus, the quantum dynamics is completely solved (when 2me c
H does not depend on time) if we only can find a
We define the cyclotron frequency ωc so that the energy
maximal set of compatible operators commuting also with
difference between the states is h̄ωc :
the Hamiltonian.
Let’s now look at the expectation value of an operator. |e|B
We first assume, that at the moment t = 0 the system is ωc ≡ .
me c
The Hamiltonian H can now be written as Lastly we look at how the statevectors corresponding to
different times are correlated. Suppose that at the
H = ω c Sz , moment t = 0 the system is described by the state vector
|αi, which in the course of time evolves to the state
when we assume that e < 0. |α, t0 = 0; ti. We define the correlation amplitude C(t) as
All information about the evolution of the system is
contained in the operator C(t) = hα|α, t0 = 0; ti

iωc Sz t
 = hα|U(t, 0)|αi.
U(t, 0) = exp − .
h̄ The absolute value of the correlation amplitude tells us
If at the moment t = 0 the system is in the state how much the states associated with different moments of
time resemble each other.
|αi = c↑ |Sz ; ↑i + c↓ |Sz ; ↓i, In particular, if the initial state is an energy eigenstate
|a0 i, then  
it is easy to see that at the moment t it is in the state iEa0 t
C(t) = exp − ,
  h̄
iωc t
|α, t0 = 0; ti = c↑ exp − |Sz ; ↑i and the absolute value of the correlation amplitude is 1 at
2
  all times. When the initial state is a superposition of
iωc t energy eigenstates we get
+c↓ exp + |Sz ; ↓i.
2  
X iEa0 t
If the initial state happens to be |Sz ; ↑i, meaning that in C(t) = |ca0 |2 exp − .
0
h̄
the previous equation a

When t is relatively large the terms in the sum oscillate

c↑ = 1, c↓ = 0,
rapidly with different frequencies and hence most
we see that the system will stay in this state at all times. probably cancel each other. Thus we expect the
This was to be expected because the state is stationary. correlation amplitude decreasing rather rapidly from its
We now assume that the initial state is |Sx ; ↑i. From the initial value 1 at the moment t = 0.
relation We can estimate the value of the expression
1 1
|Sx ; ↑i = √ |Sz ; ↑i + √ |Sz ; ↓i
 
X
2 iEa0 t
2 2 C(t) = |ca0 | exp −
0
h̄
we see that a
1
c↑ = c↓ = √ . more concretely when we suppose that the statevectors of
2
the system comprise so many, nearly degenerate, energy
For the probabilities that at the moment t the system is eigenvectors that we can think them almost to form a
in eigenstates of Sx we get continuum. Then the summation can be replaced by the
ωc t integration
|hSx ; ↑ |α, t0 = 0; ti|2 = cos2
2 Z 
X 
2 ωc t −→ dE ρ(E), ca0 −→ g(E) ,

|hSx ; ↓ |α, t0 = 0; ti|2 = sin .
2 a 0

E≈Ea0

Even if the spin originally were parallel to the positive where ρ(E) is the density of the energy eigenstates. The
x-axis a magnetic field parallel to the z-axis makes the expression
direction of the spin to rotate. There is a finite
probability for finding the system at some later moment
 
X iEa0 t
in the state |Sx ; ↓i. The sum of probabilities C(t) = |ca0 |2 exp −
0
h̄
a
corresponding to different orientations is 1.
It is easy to see that the expectation values of the can now be written as
operator S satisfy Z  
iEt
 
h̄ C(t) = dE |g(E)|2 ρ(E) exp − ,
hSx i = cos ωc t h̄
2
 
h̄ which must satisfy the normalization condition
hSy i = sin ωc t
2
Z
dE |g(E)|2 ρ(E) = 1.
hSz i = 0.

Physically this means that the spin precesses in the In many realistic physical cases |g(E)|2 ρ(E) is
xy-plane. concentrated into a small neighborhood (size ∆E) of a
point E = E0 . Rewriting the integral representation as
 
iE0 t
C(t) = exp −
h̄
 
i(E − E0 )t
Z
× dE |g(E)|2 ρ(E) exp − ,
h̄

we see that when t increases the integrand oscillates very

rapidly except when the energy interval |E − E0 | is small
as compared with h̄/t. If the interval, which satisfies
|E − E0 | ≈ h̄/t, is much shorter than ∆E —the interval
from which the integral picks up its contribution—, the
correlation amplitudes practically vanishes. The
characteristic time, after which the absolute value of the
correlation amplitude deviates significantly from its initial
value 1, is
h̄
t≈ .
∆E
Although this equation was derived for a quasi continuous
energy spectrum it is also valid for the two state system
in our spin precession example: the initial state |Sx ; ↑i
starts to lose its identity after the time
≈ 1/ωc = h̄/(E↑ − E↓ ) as we can see from the equation

ωc t
|hSx ; ↑ |α, t0 = 0; ti|2 = cos2 .
2
As a summary we can say that due to the evolution the
state vector describing the initial state of the system will
not any more describe it after a time interval of order
h̄/∆E. This property is often called the time and energy
uncertainty relation. Note, however, that this relation is
of completely different character than the uncertainty
relation concerning position and momentum because time
is not a quantum mechanical observable.