Heredity and Evolution Heredity
Heredity and Evolution Heredity
Heredity and Evolution Heredity
HEREDITY
The rules of heredity determine the process by which the traits and the characteristics
are relatively inherited. “The inheritance of characteristics from one generation to
another generation is called heredity.” The inheritable characteristics (traits) may be
morphological / anatomical / physiological / reproductive. If we take a very close look at
the rules of inheritance, both father and mother contribute an equal amount of genetic
material to the child. This means that each trait can be influenced by both paternal and
maternal genetic material – i.e. DNA. Gregor Johann Mendel (1822- 1884) conducted
the first ever scientific experimental study on heredity. Mendel, an Austrian Augustinian
monk, observed variations in the characteristics of garden pea plant (Pisum sativum)
which, he had cultivated in his monastery garden. Mendel was curious to find out the
results of crossing of pea plants with variation in traits. The visible contrasting
characteristics that Mendel focussed on the garden pea plants were:
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Mendel selected tall and dwarf garden pea plants, Pisum sativum, for his experiments.
Mendel selected tall and dwarf pea plants for his experiments. He observed their
growth for nearly two years and found that tall plants always produce tall plants and
dwarf plants produce dwarf plants - generation after generation, on self pollination and
under natural conditions. He termed those tall and dwarf plants as “wild types” or “pure
breeding” varieties. He crossed a tall plant with a dwarf plant, and observed how the
traits are transmitted the progeny and calculated the percentage of tallness and
dwarfness in subsequent generations. When a pure breeding tall plant (TT) was crossed
with a pure breeding dwarf plant(tt), all plants were tall in the first filial generation(F1)
i.e. there was not any medium height plants or dwarf plants. This means that only one
of the parental traits was seen and not a mixture of the two. When such an F1 tall plant
(Tt) was allowed to self-pollination, both the tall and dwarf plants appeared in second
filial generation (F2) in the ratio of 3:1. This indicates that both tallness and dwarfness
were inherited in the F1 plants but only one trait was expressed, i.e. tallness. The trait
which is expressed is called dominant. The hidden trait is called the recessive trait. The
first experiment of Mendel considering the inheritance of a single trait (Height of the
plant-Tall/Dwarf) is called Monohybrid Cross. Expression of morphological characters (as
tall or dwarf plant, violet or white flower) is called Phenotype. Genetic make up of an
individual for a particular trait is called Genotype. The genotype of a character is
influenced by certain factors.
The unit of inheritance or the determinant of a trait (character) is called gene. The genes
are the factors which form the physical basis for inheritance of Characters. The alternate
forms of the same gene are called alleles. The expression of contrasting pair of alleles
(Tt) makes up an allelomorph. Examples : Height of plant ( Tt), shape of seed (Rr).
Recombination in expressing phenotype leads to variation.
1.2. VARIATION
All around us, we see different organisms belonging to different species, differing from
one another. Variation may be defined as differences in the characteristics among the
individuals of the same species, (A) Intra specific variation or among the different
genera (B) Intergeneric variation or among different species (C) Inter specific variation.
No two individuals are
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1.2.1. Types of Variations
Significance of Variation
SELECTION
Charles Darwin made a number of observations in many parts of the world and put forth
the law of natural selection involving struggle for existence and survival of the fittest.
Variation leads to genetic diversity, which is the staircase of evolution.
1.3.1. Evolution
Evolution may be defined as a gradual development of more complex species from pre-
existing simpler forms. It is an extremely slow process and has been occuring since
millions of years, as revealed by fossil evidence. Evolution has thus resulted in the
diversity of organisms, influenced by environmental selection.
Fifteen million years ago, the hairy bodied gorilla and chimpanzees like Hominids existed
in Africa. 3-4 million years ago, men like hominids walked into Eastern Africa. Evidence
shows that they hunted with stone weapons but were mostly fruit eaters. They were
probably not taller than four feet, but walked upright in the grass lands of East Africa.
These creatures were called the first human-like beings – the Hominid. The Hominid was
called Homo habilis. The next stage of human evolution came into existence 1.5 million
years ago with the rise of Homo erectus who were meat eaters. The Neanderthal man
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who lived in East and Central Asia 1 million years ago, used to hide to protect them
selves and buried their dead. Archaic Homo sapiens arose in South Africa and moved
across continents and developed into distinct races during the ice age. It is believed that
homosapiens came into existence about 75,000 to 10,000 years ago. Pre-historic caves
were developed about 18,000 years ago, agriculture came around 10,000 years back
and human settlements started.
Genetic Engineering has developed after the discovery of two enzymes- the enzymes
which can cut DNA into fragments and the enzymes which can join such fragments.
Scope of Biotechnology:
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Fuel
Biogas
Microbial metabolites
1. Enzymes
2. Vitamins
3. Steroids
4. Ethanol
Waste treatment:
1. Sewage
2. Toxic Wastes
3. Waste oil
4. Agricultural wastes
1. Dairy product
2. Brewing
3. Banking
4. Single cell protein
Organic acids:
1. Acetic acid
2. Citric acid
3. Butynic acid
Mining
Mineral extraction
Genetic engineering:
1. Transgenic plants
2. Transgenic animals
Medical Products:
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1. Insulin
2. Growth hormone
3. Vaccines
4. Antibiotics
5. Monoclonal antibodies
B. DNA ligases are the paste enzymes which help in joining the broken DNA fragments.
Enzyme Technology: Enzymes are biocatalysts that speed up reaction in cells. They can
be used to catalyze the industrially important reactions and are more efficient than
inorganic catalysts. Many enzymes are utilized in the pharmaceutical industry.
Antibiotics: These are substances produced by some microbes that help in increasing
the immunity of human beings and which are toxic to other micro-organisms. Organic
Acids: Acetic acid is used for the production of vinegar.
Vaccines: Vaccines are substances that confer immunity against specific diseases. They
act as antigens and stimulate the body to manufacture antibodies.
Steroids: They are derivatives of lipids eg: Cholesterol containing steroid drugs like
prednisolone, produced from the fungus Rhizopus.
Monoclonal antibodies: These are the antibodies produced from cloned cells by
hybridoma technology. Monoclonal antibodies are now used in treatment of cancer.
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copy or copies of a single genetical parent. The word 'clone' refers only to living species.
If the cloning technique is applied could be cloned from desirable adult cells.
Natural clones: The natural clones are formed through a natural process.
(DNA replication)
Induced clones: The induced (artificial) clones are developed by nuclear transfer into
the host cell. e.g. cloning of Dolly sheep.
One of the most fascinating branches in applied embryology is stem cell culture. The
stem cells are the most unspecialized mass of cells. They have two important
Characteristic features:
1. They have the potentiality of growing and multiplying into an enormous number of
the same type of cells by repeated mitosis.
2. They can be induced to become any other type of tissue with specific functions i.e.
they can be induced to become a cardiac muscle, beta cells of pancreas (which produces
insulin), special neurons in brain etc.
1. Embryonic Stem Cells: The embryonic stem cells can be extracted from early embryo
which is developed by “invitro fertilization” (fertilization done artificially in the
laboratory).
After fertilization, the zygote develops into a hollow blastula by cell division. The
inner mass of undifferentiated cells are isolated and they are considered as embryonic
stem cells.
2. Adult or Somatic Stem Cells: The body of higher animals and human beings has many
well differentiated tissues like epithelial, connective, muscular, vascular, supporting,
nervous and reproductive tissues. In these tissues, there are some undifferentiated cells
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and are considered as the adult or somatic stem cells. They can grow, multiply and can
be differentiated into same type of tissues into which they are implanted. The
mechanism of adult or somatic stem cell culture is similar to that of embryonic stem cell
culture. The somatic stem cells are derived from sources such as bone marrow,
embryos, amniotic fluid and umbilical cord.
As we discussed earlier, the field of biotechnology is very vast and has a great scope in
different fields like agriculture, medicine, food industry etc. The microbial products of
everyday uses are:
Vaccine: Killed or live germs suspension which is employed to induce the production of
antibodies and develops immunity.
Antibiotics: Antibiotics are chemical substances derived from microbes like fungi,
bacteria etc. employed to kill infectious germs (pathogens) and cure a disease.
Enzymes: Biochemically significant enzymes are derived from microbes eg: Amylase is
derived from amyloproteins of bacteria.
BIOCHIPS
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4. Odour, freshness and taste of food can be measured.
Biochips
THERAPY
Insulin dependent diabetes is treated with insulin injection. Insulin dependent diabetes
is caused by the degeneration of beta cells of pancreas due to a defective gene.
Applying the principle of Biotechnology, it is possible to correct the defective gene.
When the defective gene is corrected with a new gene, the genetic defect developed is
rectified and cured. Gene therapy is the means to treat or even cure genetic and
acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using a normal gene to supplement or replace
the defective gene. It can be used to treat defects in Somatic i.e. (body) or gametic
(sperm or egg) cell.
1. Somatic gene therapy:- The defective gene in somatic cells is replaced with a
corrective gene. This change is not passed to the next generation.
2. Germ line gene therapy:- Egg and sperm of the parents are changed for the purpose
of passing the changes to the next generation.