Heredity and Evolution Heredity

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HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

HEREDITY

The rules of heredity determine the process by which the traits and the characteristics
are relatively inherited. “The inheritance of characteristics from one generation to
another generation is called heredity.” The inheritable characteristics (traits) may be
morphological / anatomical / physiological / reproductive. If we take a very close look at
the rules of inheritance, both father and mother contribute an equal amount of genetic
material to the child. This means that each trait can be influenced by both paternal and
maternal genetic material – i.e. DNA. Gregor Johann Mendel (1822- 1884) conducted
the first ever scientific experimental study on heredity. Mendel, an Austrian Augustinian
monk, observed variations in the characteristics of garden pea plant (Pisum sativum)
which, he had cultivated in his monastery garden. Mendel was curious to find out the
results of crossing of pea plants with variation in traits. The visible contrasting
characteristics that Mendel focussed on the garden pea plants were:

• Seed shape - Round / Wrinkled

• Seed colour - Yellow / Green

• Flower colour - Violet / White

• Pod shape - Full / Constricted

• Pod colour - Green / Yellow

• Flower position - Axillary / Terminal

• Stem height - Tall / Dwarf

1.1.1. Mendel’s Monohybrid Cross

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Mendel selected tall and dwarf garden pea plants, Pisum sativum, for his experiments.
Mendel selected tall and dwarf pea plants for his experiments. He observed their
growth for nearly two years and found that tall plants always produce tall plants and
dwarf plants produce dwarf plants - generation after generation, on self pollination and
under natural conditions. He termed those tall and dwarf plants as “wild types” or “pure
breeding” varieties. He crossed a tall plant with a dwarf plant, and observed how the
traits are transmitted the progeny and calculated the percentage of tallness and
dwarfness in subsequent generations. When a pure breeding tall plant (TT) was crossed
with a pure breeding dwarf plant(tt), all plants were tall in the first filial generation(F1)
i.e. there was not any medium height plants or dwarf plants. This means that only one
of the parental traits was seen and not a mixture of the two. When such an F1 tall plant
(Tt) was allowed to self-pollination, both the tall and dwarf plants appeared in second
filial generation (F2) in the ratio of 3:1. This indicates that both tallness and dwarfness
were inherited in the F1 plants but only one trait was expressed, i.e. tallness. The trait
which is expressed is called dominant. The hidden trait is called the recessive trait. The
first experiment of Mendel considering the inheritance of a single trait (Height of the
plant-Tall/Dwarf) is called Monohybrid Cross. Expression of morphological characters (as
tall or dwarf plant, violet or white flower) is called Phenotype. Genetic make up of an
individual for a particular trait is called Genotype. The genotype of a character is
influenced by certain factors.

PHYSICAL BASIS OF HEREDITY

The unit of inheritance or the determinant of a trait (character) is called gene. The genes
are the factors which form the physical basis for inheritance of Characters. The alternate
forms of the same gene are called alleles. The expression of contrasting pair of alleles
(Tt) makes up an allelomorph. Examples : Height of plant ( Tt), shape of seed (Rr).
Recombination in expressing phenotype leads to variation.

1.2. VARIATION

All around us, we see different organisms belonging to different species, differing from
one another. Variation may be defined as differences in the characteristics among the
individuals of the same species, (A) Intra specific variation or among the different
genera (B) Intergeneric variation or among different species (C) Inter specific variation.
No two individuals are

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1.2.1. Types of Variations

a. Somatic Variation - It pertains to body cells and it is not inherited.

b. Germinal Variation - It pertains to germ cells or gametes and it is inheritable. It leads


to speciation and evolution.

Significance of Variation

 It is the source of raw material for evolution.


 Animals are able to adapt themselves to the changing environment.
 Organisms are better suited to face the struggle for existence.
 Variations give the organisms an individuality of their own.
 Without variations there would be no science of evolution, as all individuals of a
race would be identical in all aspects.

1.3. THEORY OF NATURAL

SELECTION

Charles Darwin made a number of observations in many parts of the world and put forth
the law of natural selection involving struggle for existence and survival of the fittest.
Variation leads to genetic diversity, which is the staircase of evolution.

1.3.1. Evolution

Evolution may be defined as a gradual development of more complex species from pre-
existing simpler forms. It is an extremely slow process and has been occuring since
millions of years, as revealed by fossil evidence. Evolution has thus resulted in the
diversity of organisms, influenced by environmental selection.

1.3.2. Human Evolution

Fifteen million years ago, the hairy bodied gorilla and chimpanzees like Hominids existed
in Africa. 3-4 million years ago, men like hominids walked into Eastern Africa. Evidence
shows that they hunted with stone weapons but were mostly fruit eaters. They were
probably not taller than four feet, but walked upright in the grass lands of East Africa.
These creatures were called the first human-like beings – the Hominid. The Hominid was
called Homo habilis. The next stage of human evolution came into existence 1.5 million
years ago with the rise of Homo erectus who were meat eaters. The Neanderthal man

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who lived in East and Central Asia 1 million years ago, used to hide to protect them
selves and buried their dead. Archaic Homo sapiens arose in South Africa and moved
across continents and developed into distinct races during the ice age. It is believed that
homosapiens came into existence about 75,000 to 10,000 years ago. Pre-historic caves
were developed about 18,000 years ago, agriculture came around 10,000 years back
and human settlements started.

1.3.3. The Tree of Evolution

To understand evolution, a branching diagram (a tree diagram) is used to illustrate the


inferred evolution, relationships, among various biological species or other entities
based upon similarities and differences in their physical and genetic characters.

1.4. GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is the modification of the genetic information of living organisms by


manipulation of DNA i.e. by adding, removing or repairing part of genetic material (DNA)
and changing the phenotype of the organism. It is also known as gene manipulation or
Recombinant DNA Technology (r-DNA Technology) Recent advances made in Genetics,
Molecular Biology and Biochemistry have resulted in the origin of this new branch of
science.

Merits of Genetic Engineering

 Understanding of the gene structure and function through basic research.


 Production of large quantities of human insulin, interferons(Anti-Viral Proteins
produced by Virus infected cells) human growth hormones and vaccines for foot
and mouth disease of cattle (komari – in Tamil) etc.
 This technique is also employed in the transfer of genes involved in Nitrogen
fixation (Nif–genes). This will help cultivators to increase productivity.

1.4.1. Basic techniques in Genetic Engineering

Genetic Engineering has developed after the discovery of two enzymes- the enzymes
which can cut DNA into fragments and the enzymes which can join such fragments.

A. Restriction enzymes or Restriction endonucleases are molecular scissors which cut


DNA at specific sites.

Scope of Biotechnology:

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Fuel

Biogas

Microbial metabolites

1. Enzymes
2. Vitamins
3. Steroids
4. Ethanol

Waste treatment:

1. Sewage
2. Toxic Wastes
3. Waste oil
4. Agricultural wastes

Fruit and Drink

1. Dairy product
2. Brewing
3. Banking
4. Single cell protein

Organic acids:

1. Acetic acid
2. Citric acid
3. Butynic acid

Mining

Mineral extraction

Genetic engineering:

1. Transgenic plants
2. Transgenic animals

Medical Products:

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1. Insulin
2. Growth hormone
3. Vaccines
4. Antibiotics
5. Monoclonal antibodies

B. DNA ligases are the paste enzymes which help in joining the broken DNA fragments.

1.5. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND CLONING

Biotechnology uses biological organisms or biological processes through modern


techniques which could be profitably used in the field of medicine, agriculture, animal
husbandary and in environmental cleaning. There are several applications of
Biotechnology in the field of brewing industry, enzyme technology, manufacturing of
antibiotics, organic acids, vitamins, vaccines, steroids and monoclonal anti-bodies.
Brewing Industry: Fermentation of alcoholic beverages like beer, wine etc.

Enzyme Technology: Enzymes are biocatalysts that speed up reaction in cells. They can
be used to catalyze the industrially important reactions and are more efficient than
inorganic catalysts. Many enzymes are utilized in the pharmaceutical industry.
Antibiotics: These are substances produced by some microbes that help in increasing
the immunity of human beings and which are toxic to other micro-organisms. Organic
Acids: Acetic acid is used for the production of vinegar.

Vitamins: These are chemical compounds present in variable minute quantities in


natural foodstuffs. They do not furnish energy but are very essential for energy
transformation and regulation of metabolism

Vaccines: Vaccines are substances that confer immunity against specific diseases. They
act as antigens and stimulate the body to manufacture antibodies.

Steroids: They are derivatives of lipids eg: Cholesterol containing steroid drugs like
prednisolone, produced from the fungus Rhizopus.

Monoclonal antibodies: These are the antibodies produced from cloned cells by
hybridoma technology. Monoclonal antibodies are now used in treatment of cancer.

Cloning: Cloning is an experimental technique, wherein a group of morphologically and


genetically identical organisms are produced. A clone may be defined as an exact carbon

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copy or copies of a single genetical parent. The word 'clone' refers only to living species.
If the cloning technique is applied could be cloned from desirable adult cells.

1.5.1 Types of clones

Natural clones: The natural clones are formed through a natural process.

(DNA replication)

Induced clones: The induced (artificial) clones are developed by nuclear transfer into
the host cell. e.g. cloning of Dolly sheep.

1.6. STEM CELL - ORGAN CULTURE

One of the most fascinating branches in applied embryology is stem cell culture. The
stem cells are the most unspecialized mass of cells. They have two important

Characteristic features:

1. They have the potentiality of growing and multiplying into an enormous number of
the same type of cells by repeated mitosis.

2. They can be induced to become any other type of tissue with specific functions i.e.
they can be induced to become a cardiac muscle, beta cells of pancreas (which produces
insulin), special neurons in brain etc.

1.6.1. Types of Stem Cells

There are two kinds of stem cells

1. Embryonic Stem Cells: The embryonic stem cells can be extracted from early embryo
which is developed by “invitro fertilization” (fertilization done artificially in the
laboratory).

After fertilization, the zygote develops into a hollow blastula by cell division. The
inner mass of undifferentiated cells are isolated and they are considered as embryonic
stem cells.

2. Adult or Somatic Stem Cells: The body of higher animals and human beings has many
well differentiated tissues like epithelial, connective, muscular, vascular, supporting,
nervous and reproductive tissues. In these tissues, there are some undifferentiated cells

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and are considered as the adult or somatic stem cells. They can grow, multiply and can
be differentiated into same type of tissues into which they are implanted. The
mechanism of adult or somatic stem cell culture is similar to that of embryonic stem cell
culture. The somatic stem cells are derived from sources such as bone marrow,
embryos, amniotic fluid and umbilical cord.

1.7. MICROBIAL PRODUCTION

As we discussed earlier, the field of biotechnology is very vast and has a great scope in
different fields like agriculture, medicine, food industry etc. The microbial products of
everyday uses are:

Vaccine: Killed or live germs suspension which is employed to induce the production of
antibodies and develops immunity.

Antibiotics: Antibiotics are chemical substances derived from microbes like fungi,
bacteria etc. employed to kill infectious germs (pathogens) and cure a disease.

Vitamin B12: Biotechnologically synthesized vitamin B12 is used to cure pernicious


anaemia.

Enzymes: Biochemically significant enzymes are derived from microbes eg: Amylase is
derived from amyloproteins of bacteria.

Insulin: Diabetes is treated by the biotechnologically produced insulin.

1.8. BIOSENSOR AND

BIOCHIPS

Biosensor: It is a device consisting of an immobilized layer of biological material such as


enzyme, antibody, hormone, nucleic acids, organelles or whole cells and its contact with
a sensor. The sensor converts biological signals into an electrical signal. It is used in
medical field and industries.

1. Blood glucose level can be detected.

2. Production of any toxin in the body due to infection can be detected.

3. Pollution in drinking water can be monitored.

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4. Odour, freshness and taste of food can be measured.

Biochips

Biochips are microchips which are developed by employing techniques of


Biotechnology. In future, biological computers will be developed using biochips.
Biochips will be useful in defence, medicine etc.

1.9. SCIENCE TODAY - GENE

THERAPY

Insulin dependent diabetes is treated with insulin injection. Insulin dependent diabetes
is caused by the degeneration of beta cells of pancreas due to a defective gene.
Applying the principle of Biotechnology, it is possible to correct the defective gene.
When the defective gene is corrected with a new gene, the genetic defect developed is
rectified and cured. Gene therapy is the means to treat or even cure genetic and
acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using a normal gene to supplement or replace
the defective gene. It can be used to treat defects in Somatic i.e. (body) or gametic
(sperm or egg) cell.

Types of Gene Therapy

1. Somatic gene therapy:- The defective gene in somatic cells is replaced with a
corrective gene. This change is not passed to the next generation.

2. Germ line gene therapy:- Egg and sperm of the parents are changed for the purpose
of passing the changes to the next generation.

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