SOLAR & WIND NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

2.1 Photovoltaic Effect:

Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic
effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels comprising a number of cells
containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaic include
mono crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride,
and copper indium selenide/sulfide.[1] Due to the growing demand for renewable energy
sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced
considerably in recent years.
As of 2010, solar photovoltaic generates electricity in more than 100 countries
and, while yet comprising a tiny fraction of the 4800 GW total global power-generating
capacity from all sources, is the fastest growing power-generation technology in the
world.
Between 2004 and 2009, Grid-connected PV capacity increased at an annual
average rate of 60 percent, to some 21 GW. Such installations may be ground-mounted
(and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a
building, known as Building Integrated Photovoltaics or BIPV for short. Off-grid PV
accounts for an additional 3–4 GW.
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and
sophistication, the cost of photovoltaic has declined steadily since the first solar cells
were manufactured. Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in
tariffs for solar-generated electricity; have supported solar PV installations in many
countries.
The photovoltaic effect is the generation of a voltage (or a corresponding electric
current) in a material upon exposure to light. Though the photovoltaic effect is directly
related to the photoelectric effect, the two processes are different and should be
distinguished. In the photoelectric effect, electrons are ejected from a material's surface
upon exposure to radiation of sufficient energy. The photovoltaic effect is different in that
the generated electrons are transferred between different bands (i.e. from the valence to
conduction bands) within the material, resulting in the buildup of a voltage between two

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electrodes. In most photovoltaic applications the radiation is sunlight and for this reason
the devices are known as solar cells. In the case of a p-n junction solar cell, illumination
of the material results in the generation of an electric current as excited electrons and the
remaining holes are swept in different directions by the built-in electric field of the
depletion region. The photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond
Becquerel in 1839.

Fig 2.1: PV effect converts the photon energy into voltage across the pn junction
As of October 2010, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are
the Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 80 MW), the Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park
(Spain, 60 MW), the Strasskirchen Solar Park (Germany, 54 MW), the Lieberose
Photovoltaic Park (Germany, 53 MW), the Puertollano Photovoltaic Park (Spain, 50
MW), the Moura photovoltaic power station (Portugal, 46 MW), and the Waldpolenz
Solar Park (Germany, 40 MW).
APPLICATIONS:
In Buildings
Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either integrated into
them, mounted on them or mounted nearby on the ground.
Arrays are most often retrofitted into existing buildings, usually mounted on top
of the existing roof structure or on the existing walls. Alternatively, an array can be
located separately from the building but connected by cable to supply power for the
building. In 2010, more than four-fifths of the 9,000 MW of solar PV operating in
Germany was installed on rooftops.
In Transport
PV has traditionally been used for electric power in space. PV is rarely used to
provide motive power in transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide
auxiliary power in boats and cars. A self-contained solar vehicle would have limited

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power and low utility, but a solar-charged vehicle would allow use of solar power for
transportation. Solar-powered cars have been demonstrated.
Standalone Devices:
Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power calculators and
novelty devices. Improvements in integrated circuits and low power LCD displays make
it possible to power such devices for several years between battery changes, making PV
use less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing
use recently in locations where significant connection cost makes grid power
prohibitively expensive. Such applications include water pumps, parking meters,
emergency telephones, trash compactors, temporary traffic signs, and remote guard posts
& signals.
Rural Electrification
Developing countries where many villages are often more than five kilometers
away from grid power have begun using photovoltaic. In remote locations in India a rural
lighting program has been providing solar powered LED lighting to replace kerosene
lamps. The solar powered lamps were sold at about the cost of a few months’ supply of
kerosene. Cuba is working to provide solar power for areas that are off grid. These are
areas where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent case for going solar though
the lack of profitability could relegate such endeavors to humanitarian goals.
Solar roadways
A 45 mi (72 km) section of roadway in Idaho is being used to test the possibility
of installing solar panels into the road surface, as roads are generally unobstructed to the
sun and represent about the percentage of land area needed to replace other energy
sources with solar power.
Solar Power Satellites
Design studies of large solar power collection satellites have been conducted for
decades. The idea was first proposed by Peter Glaser, then of Arthur D. Little Inc; NASA
conducted a long series of engineering and economic feasibility studies in the 1970s, and
interest has revived in first years of the 21st century. From a practical economic
viewpoint, the key issue for such satellites appears to be the launch cost. Additional
considerations will include developing space based assembly techniques, but they seem

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to be less a hurdle than the capital cost. These will be reduced as photovoltaic cell costs
are reduced or alternatively efficiency increased.
PERFORMANCE:
Temperature
Generally, temperatures above room temperature reduce the performance of
photovoltaic.
Optimum Orientation of Solar Panels
For best performance, terrestrial PV systems aim to maximize the time they face
the sun. Solar trackers aim to achieve this by moving PV panels to follow the sun. The
increase can be by as much as 20% in winter and by as much as 50% in summer. Static
mounted systems can be optimized by analysis of the Sun path. Panels are often set to
latitude tilt, an angle equal to the latitude, but performance can be improved by adjusting
the angle for summer or winter.
Irradiation:
Irradiation is the process by which an item is exposed to radiation. The exposure
can be intentional, sometimes to serve a specific purpose, or it can be accidental. In
common usage the term refers specifically to ionizing radiation, and to a level of
radiation that will serve that specific purpose, rather than radiation exposure to normal
levels of background radiation or abnormal levels of radiation due to accidental exposure.
This term also applies to 'non-ionizing radiation as microwaves or to low frequency
(50/60 Hz power supply), high frequency (as cellular phones, radio and TV
transmissions).
Insolation:
Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area
in a given time. It is commonly expressed as average irradiance in watts per square meter
(W/m2) or kilowatt-hours per square meter per day (kW·h/(m2·day)) (or hours/day). In
the case of photovoltaics it is commonly measured as kWh/(year/KW) (kilowatt hours per
year per kilowatt peak rating).
The given surface may be a planet, or a terrestrial object inside the atmosphere of
a planet, or any object exposed to solar rays outside of an atmosphere, including
spacecraft. Some of the solar radiation will be absorbed while the remainder will be

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reflected. Most commonly, the absorbed solar radiation causes radiant heating, however,
some systems may store or convert some portion of the absorbed radiation, as in the case
of photovoltaics or plants. The proportion of radiation reflected or absorbed depends on
the object's reflectivity or albedo, respectively.
2.2 SOLAR CELL:
A solar cell is a solid state device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar modules,
also known as solar panels. The energy generated from these solar modules, referred to as
solar power, is an example of solar energy.
The origin of the PV potential is the difference in the chemical potential, called
the Fermi level, of the electrons in the two isolated materials. When they are joined, the
junction approaches a new thermodynamic equilibrium. Such equilibrium can be
achieved only when the Fermi level is equal in the two materials. This occurs by the flow
of electrons from one material to the other until a voltage difference is established
between them, which have a potential just equal to the initial difference of the Fermi
level. This potential drives the photocurrent in the PV circuit.
Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical
application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often
used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight.
Cells are described as photovoltaic cells when the light source is not necessarily
sunlight. These are used for detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the
visible range, for example infrared detectors), or measurement of light intensity.

Fig 2.2: Basic construction of PV cell

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The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell, also called a
solar cell. Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials used in
microelectronics, such as silicon (melted sand) or cadmium telluride. For solar cells, a
thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form an electric field, positive on one
side and negative on the other. When light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are
knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. If electrical conductors are
attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can
be captured in the form of an electric current. This electricity can then be used to power a
load, such as a light or a tool. Each PV cell converts about 5 to 15 percent of the sunlight
that hits it into electrical current. Photovoltaic cells are modular. That is, one can be used
to make a very small amount of electricity, or many can be used together to make a large
amount of electricity.

Fig 2.3:The pv array set up

Photovoltaic cell produces only about one-half volt of electricity, cells are often
mounted together in groups called modules. Each module holds about forty photovoltaic
cells. By being put into modules, the current from a number of cells can be combined. PV
cells can be strung together in a series of modules or strung together in a parallel
placement to increase the electrical output.
When multiple PV cell modules are put together, they can form an arrangement
called an array or array field. In general, the larger the area of a module or array, the
more electricity that will be produced. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct
current (dc) electricity. They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical
arrangements to produce any required voltage and current combination.

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2.2.1 Types Of Photovoltaic Cells:
A monocrystalline PV cell is blue or gray-black in color. At the rounded corner of
each cell is a white backing. This backing shows through and makes a pattern that is easy
to see. Some people do not use monocrystalline PV cells on their home or businesses
because of their appearance. A module of PV cells is usually covered with tempered glass
and surrounded by an aluminum frame.
A polycrystalline PV cell looks a little different than a monocrystalline PV cell.
Polycrystalline PV cells are shaped like rectangles and colored sparkling blue. There is
no white background showing. Thus, these PV cells look more uniform in appearance.
Like monocrystalline cells, they are often covered in tempered glass and placed in an
aluminum frame.

Fig 2.4: Structure of a model Solar Cell

Another type is the amorphous or thin-film cell. This type of PV cell is less
durable and not as efficient for energy conversion. Thin-film cells are the future of PV
cell technology because they use less semiconductor material, do not need as much
energy to manufacture, and are easier to mass produce than other PV cells. Light weight
and flexible, this technology can be weaved into the fabric of a building in applications
where surface area is not an issue. Applications include building canopies, facades and
rain screens.

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Fig 2.5: Construction of PV module: (1) frame, (2) weatherproof junction box, (3) rating
plate, (4) weather protection for 30-yr life, (5) PV cell, (6) tempered high-transmittivity
cover glass, (7) outside electrical bus, (8) frame clearance. (From Solarex/BP Solar,
Frederick, MD.
2.2.2 Main Operation:
Solar cell works in three steps:
Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting
materials, such as silicon.
Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them
to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition
of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction.
An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current
(DC) electricity.
2.2.3 Equivaleent Circuit:

Fig 2.6:PV cell equivalent circuit

The complex physics of the PV cell can be represented by the equivalent
electrical circuit. The circuit parameters are as follows. The current I at the output
terminals is equal to the light-generated current IL, less the diode current Id and the shunt-

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leakage current Ish. The series resistance Rs represents the internal resistance to the
current flow, and depends on the pn junction depth, impurities, and contact resistance.
The shunt resistance Rsh is inversely related to the leakage current to ground. In an ideal
PV cell, Rs = 0 (no series loss), and Rsh =(no leakage to ground). In a typical high-
quality 1 in.2 silicon cell, Rs varies from 0.05 to 0.10  and Rsh from 200 to 300 . The
PV conversion efficiency is sensitive to small variations in Rs, but is insensitive to
variations in Rsh. A small increase in Rs can decrease the PV output significantly. In the
equivalent circuit, the current delivered to the external load equals the current IL
generated by the illumination, less the diode current Id and the shunt leakage current Ish.
The open-circuit voltage Voc of the cell is obtained when the load current is zero, i.e.,
when I = 0, and is given by the following:
Voc=V+IRsh
The shunt resistance (Rsh) is very large and the series resistance (Rs) is very small.
Therefore, it is common to neglect these resistances in order to simplify the solar cell
model. The resultant ideal voltage-current characteristic of a photovoltaic cell is given by
the relation below and illustrated by the figure above.
I=Iph-ID
q(V+Rs I) V+Rs I
I=Iph-I0[exp ( ) − 1] −
AkB T Rsh
Where,
Iph = photocurrent,
ID = diode current,
I0 = saturation current,
A = ideality factor,
q = electronic charge 1.6x10-9,
kB = Boltzmann’s gas constant (1.38x10-23),
T = cell temperature,
Rs = series resistance,
Rsh = shunt resistance,
I = cell current,
V = cell voltage
The power output of a solar cell is given by
PPV = VPV * IPV
Where,
IPV = Output current of solar cell (A).
VPV = Solar cell operating voltage (V).
PPV =Output power of solar cell (W).

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The power-voltage (P-V) characteristic of a photovoltaic module operating at a standard
irradiance of 1000 W/m2 and temperature of 25oC is shown below.

Fig 2.7: Power-Voltage (PV) Characteristic of a

Photovoltaic Module.
It can be seen from the characteristics, that there is a unique point on the characteristics at
which the photovoltaic power is maximum. This point is termed as the maximum power
point (MPP). The power corresponding to this point is termed as power at maximum
power point (Pmpp) and the voltage as voltage at maximum power point (Vmpp). Due to
high cost of solar cells, it must be ensured that the photovoltaic array operates at all time
to provide maximum power output. Hence a maximum power point tracker must be used
to track the maximum power of the system. This is commonly known as maximum power
point tracking (MPPT). Now if the irradiance level of the photovoltaic system is changed
from the standard 1000 W/m2 to say 600 W/m2 or 400 W/m2 then the P-V characteristic
will change as shown in the figure below.

Fig 2.8: Variation of P-V Characteristics of Photovoltaic Module

The above graph shows that, the maximum power of the PV system also reduces
accordingly. The maximum power point tracker must now track the new maximum
power point for the changed irradiance level.
SOLAR PANEL

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A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged interconnected
assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a
component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in
commercial and residential applications.
Because a single solar panel can only produce a limited amount of power, many
installations contain several panels. This is known as a photovoltaic array. A photovoltaic
installation typically includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, batteries and
interconnection wiring. Photovoltaic systems are used for either on- or off-grid
applications, and on spacecraft.

Fig 2.9: Solar Panel System

Working:
Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the
top layer (superstrate) or the back layer (substrate). The majority of modules use wafer-
based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon.
Crystalline silicon is a commonly used semiconductor. In order to use the cells in
practical applications, they must be: connected electrically to one another and to the rest
of the system protected from mechanical damage during manufacture, transport,
installation and use (in particular against hail impact, wind and snow loads). This is

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especially important for wafer-based silicon cells which are brittle protected from
moisture, which corrodes metal contacts and interconnections, and for thin-film cells the
transparent conductive oxide layer, thus decreasing performance and lifetime. Most solar
panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. Electrical
connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to
provide a desired amount of current source capability. Separate diodes may be needed to
avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total shading, and at night. The p-n junctions
of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse current characteristics that
these are not necessary. Reverse currents are not only inefficient as they represent power
losses, but they can also lead to problematic heating of shaded cells. Solar cells become
less efficient at higher temperatures and so it desirable to minimize heat in the panels.
Very few modules incorporate any design features to decrease temperature, but installers
try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels.
Solar Trackers
A solar tracker is a generic term used to describe devices that orient various payloads
toward the sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical
devices.

Fig 2.10: Sun-tracking actuator principle.

In standard photovoltaic (PV) applications trackers are used to minimize the angle of
incidence between the incoming light and a photovoltaic panel. This increases the amount
of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power generating capacity. In
standard photovoltaic applications, it is estimated that trackers are used in at least 85% of
commercial installations greater than 1MW from 2009 to 2012. In concentrated
photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrated solar thermal (CSP) applications trackers are used

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to enable the optical components in the CPV and CSP systems. The optics in
concentrated solar applications accepts the direct component of sunlight light and
therefore must be oriented appropriately to collect energy. Tracking systems are found in
all concentrator applications because systems do not produce energy unless oriented
toward the sun.
Major Components Of A Solar Panel:
Glass Cover- Provides protection from the elements .Anti-Reflective Coating -
Substance used to prevent the light that strikes from bouncing off the panel. .Top
Negative Contact - Negative Post (Terminal, like in your battery) .N-Type Layer - Semi-
conductor layer dipped in phosphorus .P-Type Layer - Semi-conductor layer dipped in
boron .Bottom Positive Contact - Positive Post (Terminal, like in a battery)
Open-Circuit Voltage and Short-Circuit Current
The two most important parameters widely used for describing cell electrical
performance are the open-circuit voltage Voc and the short-circuit current Isc under full
illumination. The short-circuit current is measured by shorting the output terminals and
measuring the terminal current. Ignoring the small diode and ground leakage currents
under zero terminal voltage, the short-circuit current under this condition is the
photocurrent IL.

Fig 2.11: Current vs. voltage (I-V) characteristic of the PV module in sunlight and
in the dark.
The maximum photo voltage is produced under the open-circuit voltage. Again,
by ignoring the ground leakage current, Equation 9.3 with I = 0 gives the open circuit
voltage as follows:

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 AkT I
Voc= Log n ( L + 1)
Q ID

The term kT/Q is expressed in voltage (0.026 V at 300 K). In practical

photocells, the photocurrent is several orders of magnitude greater than the reverse
saturation current. Therefore, the open-circuit voltage is many times the kT/Q value.
Under conditions of constant illumination, IL/ID is a sufficiently strong function of the
cell temperature, and the solar cell ordinarily shows a negative temperature coefficient of
the open-circuit voltage.
2.3 WORKING FACTORS OF PV ARRAY:
The major factors influencing the electrical design of the solar array are as
follows:
Sun Intensity
The magnitude of the photocurrent is maximum under a full bright sun (1.0 sun).
On a partially sunny day, the photocurrent diminishes in direct proportion to the sun
intensity. At a lower sun intensity, the I-V characteristic shifts downward. On a cloudy
day, therefore, the short-circuit current decreases significantly. The reduction in the open-
circuit voltage, however, is small. The photo conversion efficiency of the cell is
insensitive to the solar radiation in the practical working range. For example, the analysis
shows that the efficiency is practically the same at 500 W/m2 and at 1000 W/m2. This
means that the conversion efficiency is the same on a bright sunny day as on a cloudy
day. We get a lower power output on a cloudy day only because of the lower solar energy
impinging on the cell.
Sun Angle
The cell output current is given by I = Iocos, where Io is the current with normal
sun (reference), and  is the angle of the sun line measured from the normal. This cosine
law holds well for sun angles ranging from 0 to about 500. Beyond 500, the electrical
output deviates significantly from the cosine law, and the cell generates no power beyond
850, although the mathematical cosine law predicts 7.5% power generation
Shadow Effect
The array may consist of many parallel strings of series-connected cells. Two
such strings are shown in figure. A large array may get partially shadowed due to a

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structure interfering with the sun line. If a cell in a long series string gets completely
shadowed, it loses the photo voltage but still must carry the string current by virtue of its
being in series with all other cells operating in full sunlight. Without internally generated
voltage, the shadowed cell cannot produce power. Instead, it acts as a load, producing
local I2R loss and heat. The remaining cells in the string must work at higher voltage to
make up the loss of the shadowed cell voltage.

Fig 2.12: Bypass diode in PV string minimizes power loss under heavy shadow
A higher voltage in healthy cells means a lower string current as per the I-V
characteristic of the string. The current loss is not proportional to the shadowed area, and
may go unnoticed for a mild shadow on a small area. However, if more cells are
shadowed beyond the critical limit, the I-V curve goes below the operating voltage of the
string, making the string current fall to zero, losing all the power of the string. This
causes loss of one whole string from the array.
Temperature Effects
With increasing temperature, the short-circuit current of the cell increases,
whereas the open-circuit voltage decreases. The effect of temperature on PV power is
quantitatively evaluated by examining the effects on the current and the voltage
separately. Suppose Io and Vo are the short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage at
the reference temperature T, and  and  are their respective temperature
coefficients. If the operating temperature is increased by α, then the new current and
voltage are given by the following:
Isc=Io(1+α.∆T) and Voc=Vo(1-β.∆T)
Because the operating current and the voltage change approximately in the same
proportion as the short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage, respectively, the new
power is as follows:

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 P=VI=Io(1+α. .∆T) Vo(1-β.∆T)
This can be simplified in the following expression by ignoring a small term:
P=Po[1+(α -β.)∆T]

Fig 2.13: Effect of temperature on P-V characteristic

Effect of Climate:
On a partly cloudy day, the PV module can produce up to 80% of its full sun
power. It can produce about 30% power even with heavy clouds on an extremely overcast
day. Snow does not usually collect on the module, because it is angled to catch the sun. If
snow does collect, it quickly melts. Mechanically, the module is designed to withstand
golf-ball-size hail.
FACTOR SPECIFICATION
Location and Latitude Coimbatore 11o 00’ N
Day and Time March 22, 14.30-15.30 (LST)
Average Intensity of solar radiation 560 W/m2
Collector Tilt 26o
No. of glass cover 2
Heat Removal factor 0.82
Transmittance of glass 0.88
Absorptance of the plate 0.93
Top Loss coefficient (UL) 7.95 W/m2
Collector fluid temperature 75oC
Ambient temperature 25oC
TABLE 2.1: Data for a flat-plate collector used for heating

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