Estimating the Shear Modulus of Gravelly Soils

Bobby O. Hardin1 and Michael E. Kalinski2

Abstract: A special large-scale torsional resonant column apparatus was used to test gravelly soils. Values of small strain elastic shear
modulus 共Gmax兲 and modulus reduction relationships 关shear modulus 共G兲 versus shear strain 共␥兲兴 were measured for specimens of uniform
and graded crushed limestone gravel, graded river gravel, standard Ottawa and crushed limestone sands, and gravel–sand–silt mixtures.
Measurements of Gmax were used to modify existing three-dimensional constitutive equations for soil elasticity for application to gravelly
soils. The value of Gmax for relatively clean uniform and graded gravels was found to increase with particle size. Soils with a variety of
gradations were tested to identify the particular particle size in a graded material that is effective in determining Gmax. With respect to
modulus reduction, the need to normalize both modulus and strain is demonstrated. Normalization of both modulus and strain 共G / Gmax
versus ␥ / ␥r, where ␥r is defined as reference strain兲 leads to relationships that are approximately independent of stress level for a given
material.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1090-0241共2005兲131:7共867兲
CE Database subject headings: Shear modulus; Gravel; Shear strain; Soil dynamics.

Introduction formation of particles, constituting elastic–plastic behavior. When

cyclic loading response is computed by equivalent linear analysis,
When predicting the dynamic response of a soil site to earthquake elastic–plastic soil behavior is modeled in an ad hoc way by de-
excitation, nonlinear soil behavior is often approximated by an fining shear modulus reduction curves. From the point of view of
equivalent linear analysis, where soil constitutive behavior is de- constitutive equation formulation, the modulus reduction model
fined by the secant shear modulus 共G兲, Poisson’s ratio 共␯兲, and to be presented for gravelly soils is less fundamental than the
damping ratio 共Idriss and Seed 1968兲. Since G decreases with Gmax model, because elastic and plastic strains are not considered
increasing strain amplitude 共␥兲, iteration is necessary to match G separately. However, modulus reduction relationships are impor-
used in the linear analysis, and corresponding computed shear tant for current practice where soil response to earthquakes is
strains, to modulus reduction 共i.e., G versus ␥兲 relationships mea- computed by equivalent linear analysis.
sured for soils. The purpose of this paper is to present and model Estimates of Gmax may be obtained in practice by in situ meth-
modulus reduction relationships measured for gravelly soils. ods such as cross-hole seismic or surface wave testing. Values of
Two separate aspects of soil behavior, both related to strain Gmax measured in situ by these tests can be used to calibrate the
amplitude, are generally considered when modeling modulus re- stiffness coefficients in the three-dimensional model for soil elas-
duction relationships for soils. For small-strain cyclic loading 共␥ ticity. The model can then be used to predict changes in Gmax that
less than approximately 0.001%兲, slippage at particle contacts is occur with loading, resulting from changing stresses and soil den-
negligible, and soil response results primarily from elastic defor- sity. Shear modulus reduction is not commonly defined by in situ
mation of particle material near particle contacts. The correspond- tests, and is more typically measured in the laboratory or esti-
ing elastic shear modulus is usually called Gmax, and modeling mated using modulus reduction models.
Gmax contributes to the definition of soil elasticity. Measurements Over the past 35 years, many researchers have extensively
of Gmax for gravelly soils reported herein will be used to expand investigated modulus reduction relationships for soils through
the applicability of the three-dimensional constitutive equations laboratory experiments using resonant column and cyclic triaxial
for elasticity of particulate materials originally proposed by Har- methods 共e.g., Seed and Idriss 1970; Hardin and Drnevich 1972;
din and Blandford 共1989兲. Seed et al. 1986; Vucetic and Dobry 1991兲. Most of the research
Larger strains involve significant slippage at particle contacts has been done in sands, silts, and clays. In cohesive soils, the
and possibly rearrangement of particles in addition to elastic de- effects of plasticity index 共PI兲, overconsolidation ratio 共OCR兲,
void ratio 共e兲, number of cycles of loading 共N兲, and mean
1
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Kentucky, 161 effective confining stress 共␴0⬘兲 have all been well documented.
Raymond Building, Lexington, KY 40506-0281. In sands, the effects of ␴⬘0 and e on G and Gmax are also well
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Kentucky, documented.
161 Raymond Building, Lexington, KY 40506-0281. Unlike sands, silts, and clays, less effort has been dedicated
Note. Discussion open until December 1, 2005. Separate discussions toward understanding the dynamic behavior of gravelly soils.
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by This is mainly due to the inherent difficulties in recovering undis-
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
turbed specimens of gravelly soils for laboratory testing, and the
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on October 2, 2003; approved on November 9, 2004. size requirements for test specimens expressed as a function of
This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental particle size. For instance, ASTM D4015 共ASTM 2003兲 requires
Engineering, Vol. 131, No. 7, July 1, 2005. ©ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/ that for resonant column testing of specimens with diameters
2005/7-867–875/$25.00. larger than 70 mm, the largest particle size 共D100兲 should be less

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Fig. 1. Modulus reduction curves for sands and well-graded gravels
关based on data from 共Seed et al. 1986兲兴

than one-sixth of the specimen diameter. Previous research, as

described in the following section, has demonstrated the relation-
ship between G / Gmax and ␥ in gravelly soils, but an empirical
method to synthesize modulus reduction data using basic proper-
ties of gravelly soils has not been developed.
Torsional resonant column testing of specimens of uniform
and graded crushed limestone gravel, graded river gravel, stan-
dard Ottawa and crushed limestone sands, and gravel–sand–silt
mixtures, including crushed limestone known as “dense graded
aggregate,” were performed to identify the relationship between
G , ␥, grain size, and soil gradation. As a result, the three- Fig. 2. Large scale resonant column apparatus for testing gravelly
dimensional constitutive equations for soil elasticity originally de- soils
veloped by Hardin and Blandford 共1989兲, and modulus reduction
equations originally developed by Hardin and Drnevich 共1972兲
for sands, silts, and clays, have been expanded to include gravelly
soils. Testing Method

A large resonant column testing apparatus, shown schematically

in Fig. 2, was designed to subject cylindrical specimens to tor-
Previous Research to Measure Shear Modulus sional vibration. The specimen diameter and length were 15 and
in Gravelly Soils 30 cm, respectively, and specimens were confined by vacuum.
This type of resonant column apparatus is called “free–free” be-
Seed and Idriss 共1970兲 observed the relationship between G and cause both ends of the specimen vibrate, and neither end is fixed.
␴⬘0 using laboratory cyclic triaxial testing, and expressed the rela- Excitation is at the bottom of the specimen and resonance is de-
tionship in the form of tected by motion at the top of the specimen.
The vibrating table, with arms and attached magnets 共Fig. 2兲,
G = 1,000 K2冑␴⬘0
is attached by means of springs to a fixed reaction frame. The
共1兲 outer ends of four steel springs are attached to the reaction frame,
which provides a fixed boundary condition. The other ends of
where G and ␴⬘0 are expressed in terms of pounds per square foot the springs are attached to the vibrating table. Thus, the rigid
共psf兲, and K2 is an empirical soil modulus coefficient that is a mass of the vibrating table and relatively weightless springs fixed
function of e and ␥. The value of K2 at small strains 共K2max兲 was by the reaction frame comprise a single-degree-of-freedom
found to range from 30 to 75 for sands, and K2max was found to 共SDOF兲 system.
increase with decreasing e. Seed and Idriss 共1970兲 also recog- The torsional stiffness of the springs, K0, is determined by
nized that gravelly soils are stiffer than sands in the small-strain measuring the change in resonant frequency of the SDOF system
range 共less than around 0.001%兲 based on in situ measurements. as an additional steel mass with known polar moment of inertia JA
Seed et al. 共1986兲 expanded upon the Seed and Idriss 共1970兲 is fixed to the vibrating table. Without the additional mass, the
study by performing cyclic triaxial testing on 30-cm-diameter resonant frequency is f 1. With the additional mass, the resonant
specimens of gravelly soils. This study also demonstrated that frequency is f A. The torsional stiffness of the springs is then cal-
K2max is significantly higher for gravels than for sands, and quan- culated as
tified the range as being between 80 and 180. Seed et al. 共1986兲
showed that the shape of the modulus reduction curves is different
K0 = 共4␲2 − JA f 2A兲/共1 − f 2A/f 21兲 共2兲
for sands and well-graded gravels 共Fig. 1兲. However, an empirical
approach to estimating modulus reduction curves for gravelly The resonant frequency of the SDOF system with the bottom
soils was not presented. platen rigidly attached ready for specimen construction is f B, and

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the mass polar moment inertia of the lower vibrating mass during
testing 共including vibrating table and bottom platen兲, J0, is:
J0 = K0/共4␲2 f 2B兲 共3兲
The mass polar moment of inertia of the top mass 共including
top platen, accelerometers, and other fixed hardware兲, Jt, is com-
puted by calculating and superimposing the mass polar moment
of inertia of each of the individual parts. Values of K0 , J0, and Jt
are required to compute G from measured resonant frequency, f,
of the complete resonant column device with soil specimen in
place. The theory for computing G from f is given in ASTM
D4015, the standard for resonant column testing 共ASTM 2003兲,
and is also presented by Drnevich et al. 共1978兲.
Measurements of Gmax with a small resonant column device
were made for two specimens of crushed limestone sand and one
specimen of Ottawa sand. This device, called the “Hardin oscil-
lator” 共Richart et al. 1970兲, is also a SDOF system before a speci-
men is attached. The Hardin oscillator is similar in concept to the
SDOF part of the apparatus in Fig. 2, except that it attaches to the
top of the specimen while the bottom of the specimen is fixed.
This smaller vibration device and specimen were placed within a
pressure chamber.
Fig. 3. Properties of materials tested
Testing Program
Fourteen specimens were tested in the large resonant column ap-
paratus shown in Fig. 2, and three were tested with the small
apparatus. Specimen materials are identified in Fig. 3. Particle Blandford 共1989兲. However, the proposed constitutive matrix was
size distribution curves are shown, and specimen size, void ratio, not symmetric. In this paper, the off-diagonal elements of the
percent saturation, and water content are listed for each specimen, Hardin and Blandford matrix are modified to make the matrix
along with an icon illustrating the resonant column device that symmetric as required by the laws of thermodynamics. Each sym-
was used for each specimen. metric pair of off-diagonal elements in the modified matrix is
obtained from the square root of the product of the same pair in
Modeling the Elastic Shear Modulus „Gmax = Gije… the Hardin and Blandford 共1989兲 equations.
for Gravelly Soils For the case where principal axes of stress and principal axes
of soil fabric coincide, the relationship between the stress incre-
Three-dimensional incremental constitutive equations defining the ment vector 兵d␴⬘其 and elastic strain increment vector 兵d␧e其 is
elasticity of particulate materials were formulated by Hardin and defined as

冦冧 冤 冥冦 冧
d␧e11 C11 − ␯eC12 − ␯eC13 d␴⬘11
d␧e22 − ␯eC21 C22 − ␯eC23 ⬘
d␴22
d␧e33 F共e兲 − ␯ C31 − ␯ C32
e e
C33 d␴⬘33
= 共4a兲
d␥e12 OCRk p1−n
a 2共1 + ␯ e
兲C␶12 d␶12
d␥e23 2共1 + ␯e兲C␶23 d␶23
d␥e31 2共1 + ␯ e
兲C␶31 d␶31

where 0.5 for soil, and is analogous to the one-third power in the con-
1 stitutive equations for assemblies of elastic particles. The S terms
Cij = 共4b兲 are elastic stiffness coefficients.
共Sii␴⬘niiS jj␴⬘njj兲1/2
Because particulate materials yield during unloading, exclu-
1 sively elastic behavior is limited to infinitesimal increments of
C␶ij = 共4c兲 unloading, providing that creep strains are eliminated 共Hardin and
Sij共␴ii⬘ ␴⬘jj兲n/2 Blandford 1989兲. Elastic properties of particulate materials are
isolated by measuring limiting values of stiffness for cyclic load-
F共e兲 = 0.3 + 0.7e2 共4d兲
ing at small strains, where energy dissipation 共hysteresis兲 is es-
In Eqs. 共4a兲–共4d兲, k depends on PI; pa⫽atmospheric pressure; and sentially zero.
␯e⫽elastic Poisson’s ratio. The elastic constant n is approximately Eqs. 共4a兲–共4d兲 is the result of synthesis of about 30 years of

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 Table 1. Definition of Shape Number
Particle shape ns
Angular 25
Subangular 20
Subround 17
Round 15

F共e兲Geij versus 共␴⬘ii␴⬘jj兲1/2 for tests of four different uniform grada-

tions of crushed limestone. Particle size distribution curves for the
four materials are shown at the top of Fig. 4. The largest particle
size is 19 mm, and particle sizes for the sand specimen are be-
tween 0.6 and 1.18 mm.
The heavy dashed straight line in Fig. 4, approximating the
baseline behavior of uniform limestone sand, is defined by Eq. 共5兲
with S31 = 1,600, ␯e = 0.1, OCRk = 1, n = 0.5, and f共D兲 = 1. Speci-
mens of uniform sand 共materials 1, 15, and 16 from Fig. 3兲,
indicated by dashed lines with triangle symbols, are plotted for
comparison, and agree well with the baseline curve. This repre-
sentation of sand behavior serves as a baseline for the definition
Fig. 4. Gmax versus stress level for clean uniform crushed limestone
sand and gravels
of f共D兲 by considering results for uniform gravel specimens. The
test data for uniform gravels show a tendency to approach sand
behavior as stress level increases, up to about one atmosphere 共the
research results including tests of a variety of uncemented sands, gravels were confined by vacuum兲. At extremely high stress lev-
silts, and clay soils, and it has been shown to approximate the els, where significant particle crushing has occurred, it is reason-
behavior of other particulate materials such as wheat 共Ziolkowski able to expect that gravel behavior would approach that of sand as
et al. 1985兲. In formulating Eqs. 共4a兲–共4d兲, the objective was to particle sizes are reduced by crushing. This kind of behavior is
explicitly account for as many factors as possible to make the modeled by
stiffness coefficients Sij approximately constant. Values of Sij for f0

冉 冊冉 冊
clean sands with different gradations, particle shapes and mineral f共D兲 = 1 + 共6兲
contents vary from approximately 1,200 to 1,600. Values of Sij ns ␴⬘0
1 + f0
measured in the laboratory for silty sands, silts, and clays, includ- 30 pa
ing undisturbed samples of low and high plasticity cohesive soils,
where f 0⫽constant that depends on particle size distribution and
sensitive clays, and remolded specimens of pure silt, kaolinite,
ns⫽shape number that quantifies particle shape 共Table 1兲.
or bentonite, vary approximately from 700 to 2,000 共Hardin
The shape numbers in Table 1 were introduced by Hardin
1978兲. Values of Sij increase with time under constant effective
共1985兲 in an analysis of crushing of soil particles, and were also
stress for soils that contain even a small percentage of silt and/or
used to model one-dimensional strain in cohesionless soils 共Har-
clay particles. After long periods of in situ aging, Sij 艌 1,200
din 1987兲. Test results presented herein for angular crushed lime-
may be expected. The scalar functions F共e兲 and OCRk account for
stone 共ns = 25兲 and rounded river gravel 共ns = 15兲 indicate their
effects of void ratio and preconsolidation.
potential usefulness in modeling other soil properties.
For Eqs. 共4a兲–共4d兲 to represent the behavior of gravelly soils
Baseline behavior for sand, silt, and clay soils is defined by
with approximately constant Sij, it is necessary to add a new
f 0 = 0, which corresponds to f共D兲 = 1 based on Eq. 共6兲. The behav-
scalar function f共D兲 to account for effects of particles size when
ior of each of three uniform gravels 共materials 2, 3, and 4 from
grain size 共D兲 is larger than sand size. The necessary modification
Fig. 3兲 is approximated in Fig. 4 by a heavy solid line defined by
of Eqs. 共4a兲–共4d兲 and the nature of the function f共D兲 is based on
Eq. 共6兲 with ns = 25. Values of f 0 are 0.43, 0.91, and 1.22, for
measurements of elastic shear moduli, which are defined in Eq.
particle size ranges of 2.36–4.75, 4.75–9.5, and 12.5–19 mm,
共4a兲 共Geij = d␶ij / d␥eij兲. Insertion of the proposed particle size func- respectively.
tion f共D兲 into Eqs. 共4a兲–共4d兲 yields: Having shown that f 0 increases with particle size for uniform
OCRk f共D兲 Sij materials, the next step is to identify the specific particle size in a
Geij = p1−n共␴⬘ii␴⬘jj兲n/2 共5兲 graded material that is effective in determining the value of f 0.
F共e兲 2共1 + ␯e兲 a
The test results in Fig. 5 are for graded crushed limestones 共ma-
where f共D兲 = 1 for sands, silts, and clays. The model for sand, silt, terials 6, 7, and 8 from Fig. 3兲 with the three different particle size
and clay soils will be referred to herein as “baseline behavior.” distributions shown at the top of Fig. 5. Baseline behavior of
crushed limestone sand 共S31 = 1,600, ␯e = 0.1, and n = 0.5兲 is de-
fined by the heavy dashed line. Heavy solid lines approximating
Analysis of Test Results and Modeling of Gmax the data are defined by Eq. 共6兲 with f 0 = 0.28, 0.52, and 0.67,
where f 0 increases with particle size.
The objective of this section is to extend the soil elasticity model Test results for two different gradations of river gravel 共mate-
关Eqs. 共4a兲–共4d兲 and 共5兲兴 to gravelly soils. This requires definition rials 10 and 11 from Fig. 3兲 are presented in Fig. 6 as solid lines.
of the proposed particle size function f共D兲. The proposed form of Baseline behavior for materials with round particles is defined by
the function f共D兲 is based on test results for clean uniform lime- results for Ottawa sand 共materials 9 and 17兲, which are repre-
stone sand and gravels in Fig. 4, which shows a log–log plot of sented by triangle symbols. The heavy dashed straight line ap-

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Fig. 5. Gmax versus stress level for graded crushed limestone
materials Fig. 7. Gmax versus stress level for four gravel–sand–silt mixtures

proximating the behavior of Ottawa sand is defined by Eq. 共5兲

with S31 = 1,300, ␯e = 0.1, OCRk = 1, n = 0.5, and f共D兲 = 1. The
heavy solid lines approximating the behavior of two graded river als, with the exception of size distribution, is unknown. The
gravel materials are defined by f 0 = 0.84 and 0.97, with ns = 15. heavy solid line in Fig. 7 is assumed to represent baseline behav-
Values of f 0 are greater than zero 关i.e., f共D兲 ⬎ 1兴 for uniform ior as defined by Eq. 共5兲 with S31 = 1,400, ␯e = 0.1, OCRk = 1, n
and graded, angular and rounded, gravelly soils shown in Figs. = 0.5, and f共D兲 = 1. Shear moduli for these four materials are at or
4–6. Test results will now be presented to show that soils con- below baseline behavior notwithstanding the fact that they con-
taining large amounts of gravel, but that also contain fines, may tain large fractions of gravel sized particles. The percentages of
exhibit behavior similar to the sand, silt and clay category, where particles that are finer than 1 mm varies from approximately 19 to
f 0 = 0 and f共D兲 = 1. Data for four gravel-sand-silt mixtures 共mate- 62%, indicating that the amount of finer material 共sand, silt, or
rials 5, 12, 13, and 14 from Fig. 3兲 are presented in Fig. 7. Particle clay兲 necessary to produce behavior similar to baseline behavior
size distribution curves are shown at the top of Fig. 7. The mate- is less than or equal to 19%.
rial identified by a “+” symbol 共material 5 from Fig. 3兲 is a Parenthetically, the materials in Fig. 7 contain small amounts
well-graded crushed limestone often referred to as “dense graded of moisture. Possible existence of matric suction was neglected in
aggregate.” The nature of the particles for the other three materi- computing effective stresses. The inclusion of matric suction
would increase effective stress and shift plotted points toward the
right, making data fall further below the baseline curve.
The variation of f 0 with particle size distribution for gravelly
soils is shown in Fig. 8. For each material a horizontal line is
drawn at f 0, extending from D0 to D100, to make a judgment with
respect to the specific particle size that is effective in determining
f 0. The data presented in Fig. 7 for gravel–sand–silt mixtures
indicate that the effective size is less than the particle size corre-
sponding to 19% passing 共D19兲. Data in Fig. 8 do not precisely
define the effective diameter, but the particle size corresponding
to 5% passing 共D5兲 has been chosen and identified by symbols.
The heavy solid line approximating the variation of f 0 with D5 is
defined as

␣ 冉
共D5 − Dsand兲␥w
pa
冊
冉 冊
f 0 = f max 共7兲
0
共D5 − Dsand兲␥w
1+␣
pa

0 = 1.6; ␣ = 2,800; and Dsand = 1 mm. The ratio pa / ␥w

where f max
where ␥w⫽unit weight of water, can be used in empirical equa-
Fig. 6. Gmax versus stress level for Ottawa sand and two gradations tions to normalize parameters that have length units. Its use in Eq.
of river gravel 共7兲 renders ␣ dimensionless.

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Fig. 8. Variation of f 0 with particle size distribution for gravelly soils

Modeling the Reduction of Secant Shear Modulus

with Strain for Gravelly Soils
Fig. 9. Effect of normalization of strain on modulus reduction
curves: 共a兲 G / Gmax versus ␥; 共b兲 G / Gmax versus ␥ / ␥r; and 共c兲
Nonlinear soil behavior is often approximated using an equivalent
G / Gmax versus ␥ / 共␴⬘0 / pa兲1/2 关see Fig. 10共n兲 for stress levels corre-
linear analysis procedure, where by iteration, G used in the analy-
sponding to each of the 4 symbol types兴
sis and computed strains are made to match modulus reduction
relationships measured for soils. Shear modulus reduction curves
used for these analyses are often normalized by defining It is instructive to consider the effect of isotropic states of
G / Gmax = G / Geij versus ␥ without normalizing strain 共Kramer stress 共i.e., ␴1⬘ = ␴3⬘ = ␴0⬘兲 in Eqs. 共5兲 and 共9兲 on ␥r. Substitution of
1996兲. these stresses into Eqs. 共5兲 and 共9兲 with n = 0.5, and then into Eq.
Values of G / Gmax for graded crushed limestone gravel 共mate- 共8b兲, yields:
rial 8 from Fig. 3兲 are plotted versus ␥ in Fig. 9共a兲, where the data
for each of four stress levels defines a different relationship. Fig.
9共b兲 shows that when both G and ␥ are normalized, the data for
all four stress levels can be approximated by a single curve. The
␥r =
F共e兲
k
OCR f共D兲
−
2共1 + ␯e兲
Sij
sin ␾⬘ 冑 ␴⬘0
pa
共10兲

reference strain parameter ␥r used to normalize strain in Fig. 9共b兲, Eq. 共10兲 demonstrates that ␥r increases with the square root of
was proposed by Hardin and Drnevich 共1972兲 in their hyperbolic initial effective stress for isotropic confinement. Values of ␥⬘0 can
model for shear modulus reduction: be used as an approximation for anisotropic states of stress, and
共␴0⬘ / pa兲1 / 2 can be used to normalize strain as shown in Fig. 9共c兲,
G 1
= 共8a兲 where the scatter is slightly more than in Fig. 9共b兲.
Gmax ␥ Use of ␥r for normalization of strain should apply more gen-
1+ 关1 + a exp共−b␥/␥r兲兴
␥r erally to all soils and conditions because the evaluation of ␶max
may be expected to account for stress path differences and for
where
effects of the cohesion component of strength. Use of 共␴0⬘ / pa兲1/2
␶max is attractive because of its simplicity.
␥r = 共8b兲 The development of pore water pressure with loading along a
Gmax
stress path should be considered when computing ␶max. A relation-
The maximum shear stress parameter ␶max represents the shear ship similar to Eq. 共9兲 must be developed for the stress path being
strength of the soil for the stress path being applied. Since pore followed. Additionally, when pore pressures increase with cycles
pressures do not develop for dry or nearly dry specimens of grav- of loading in an equivalent linear analysis, values of ␶max and ␥r
elly soils, ␶max can be computed from the major and minor initial should be adjusted before computing new values of G.
effective principal stresses 共␴⬘1 and ␴⬘3兲, and the effective friction Shear modulus reduction curves measured for twelve different
angle 共␾⬘兲: gravelly soils and two sands are presented in Fig. 10. Curves are
␶max =
1
2
冑共␴1⬘ + ␴3⬘兲2 sin2␾⬘ − 共␴⬘1 − ␴3⬘兲2 共9兲 shown for four different stress levels. For the large resonant col-
umn test, stress was applied by means of vacuum, with additional
Eq. 共9兲 with estimated ␾⬘ of 40° was used to normalize strain in axial stress 共10–11 kPa兲 produced by the weight of the apparatus
Fig. 9共b兲. attached to the top of the specimen and the weight of the speci-

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Fig. 10. Variation of shear modulus G with ␥ for two sands and Fig. 11. Variation of G / Gmax with ␥ for two sands and twelve
twelve gravelly soils gravelly soils

Summary and Conclusions

men itself. For the small resonant column test, the weight of the
apparatus was supported by a counterweight and the weight of the A special large-scale torsional resonant column test has been used
specimen was negligible, making the state of stress approximately to test gravelly soils. Values of Gmax and modulus reduction rela-
isotropic. The symbols for each of the combinations of ␴3⬘ / pa and tionships were measured for specimens of uniform and graded
␴1⬘ / pa are identified in Fig. 10共n兲. Particle size distribution curves crushed limestone gravel, graded river gravel, standard Ottawa
are shown for each material. The four curves for each material are and crushed limestone sands, and gravel–sand–silt mixtures in-
normalized with respect to shear modulus, but not with respect to cluding dense graded aggregate.
shear strain in Fig. 11. Normalization of shear modulus without Three-dimensional constitutive equations for elasticity of par-
normalizing shear strain results in four distinct curves for each ticulate materials developed by Hardin and Blandford 共1989兲 are
material. The relationship between G / Gmax = G / Geij and ␥ for a modified herein to make the elastic constitutive matrix symmetri-
given material clearly depends on stress level. In Fig. 12, the data cal 关Eqs. 共4a兲–共4d兲兴. Measurements of Gmax for gravelly soils
are normalized with respect to ␥r and Gmax, and reference strain is have been used to add the particle size function f共D兲, defined by
calculated using Eqs. 共8b兲 and 共9兲 with estimated values of ␾⬘. Eq. 共6兲, to these equations in order to extend their applicability to
Values ␾0⬘ were not measured. However, values are estimated in gravelly soils.
5° estimates 共35° and 40°兲, using the same value for all stress The value of Gmax for relatively clean uniform and graded
levels. Small differences in ␾⬘ do not greatly affect the plots gravels increases with particle size. Soils with a variety of grada-
shown. The G / Gmax = G / Geij versus ␥ / ␥r relationship for a given tions were tested in an effort to determine the particular particle
material is nearly independent of stress level. size in a graded material that is effective in determining Gmax.
Normalized shear modulus versus normalized shear strain re- Analysis of the data indicates that D5 can be used as an approxi-
lationships are approximated by a single dashed curve for each mate effective diameter. The behavior of materials with large
material in Fig. 12. These curves are defined by Eqs. 共8a兲 and gravel content, but that contain relatively small amounts of sand,
共8b兲 using the values of a and b shown in Fig. 12. Values of b silt, and/or clay, is similar to the sand–silt–clay category with
vary from 1 to 2. Twelve of the fourteen dashed curves are de- f共D兲 = 1. Tests of very angular crushed materials and materials
fined by b = 1. The lowest value of a = 0.3 is for Ottawa sand. with round particles have isolated the effect of particle shape on
Values of a range from 1.1 to 2.5 for clean crushed limestone f共D兲.
gravels 共both uniform and graded materials兲, and the highest val- With respect to modulus reduction, the need to normalize both
ues of a range from 5.7 to 6.2 for gravel–sand–silt mixtures, G and ␥ is demonstrated. Relationships normalized with respect
including the dense graded aggregate. to modulus but not with respect to strain vary with stress level.

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J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2005, 131(7): 867-875

 Notation

The following symbols are used in this paper:

a,b ⫽ empirical soil-specific parameters defining G
versus ␥;
Dsand ⫽ assumed nominal particle size in sand;
Dx ⫽ particle size corresponding to x% passing on a
soil gradation curve;
exp ⫽ 2.71828183…;
f ⫽ resonant frequency of the complete resonant
column system with soil specimen in place;
f A ⫽ resonant frequency of vibrating table with
additional steel mass;
f B ⫽ resonant frequency of vibrating table with
bottom platen rigidly attached;
f 0 ⫽ particle size distribution constant for determining
f共D兲;
f max
0 ⫽ maximum particle size distribution constant⫽1.6;
f 1 ⫽ resonant frequency of vibrating table without
additional steel mass;
f共D兲 ⫽ scalar particle size function;
F共e兲 ⫽ void ratio function;
e ⫽ void ratio;
G ⫽ shear modulus;
Gmax ⫽ small-strain shear modulus;
i,j ⫽ coordinate indices;
JA ⫽ mass polar moment of inertia of additional steel
mass attached to vibrating table;
Jt ⫽ mass polar moment of inertia of the top mass,
including top platen, accelerometers, and other
Fig. 12. Variation of G / Gmax with ␥ / ␥r for two sands and twelve
fixed hardware;
gravelly soils
J0 ⫽ mass polar moment of inertia of the vibrating
table with bottom platen rigidly attached;
k ⫽ parameter for incorporating PI into empirical
Hardin and Drnevich 共1972兲 proposed using ␥r to normalize estimate of Gmax;
strain for tests on sands, silts and clays. The efficacy of using ␥r K0 ⫽ torsional stiffness of springs in the resonant
to normalize strain has been demonstrated for all modulus reduc- column apparatus;
tion curves presented herein, both sands and gravelly soils. K2 ⫽ empirical soil modulus coefficient;
Normalization of both modulus and strain leads to relation- K2max ⫽ small-strain empirical soil modulus coefficient;
ships that are approximately independent of stress level for a N ⫽ number of cycles of loading;
given material. These relationships have been modeled using the n ⫽ elastic constant;
hyperbolic equation 关Eq. 共8a兲兴 proposed by Hardin and Drnevich ns ⫽ shape number;
共1972兲, wherein values of b vary from 1 to 2, with twelve of OCR ⫽ overconsolidation ratio;
fourteen relationships defined by b = 1. Values of the parameter a pa ⫽ atmospheric pressure;
were 0.3 for Ottawa sand, 1.1–2.5 for clean crushed limestone PI ⫽ plasticity index;
gravels, and 5.7–6.2 for gravel–sand–silt mixtures. S ⫽ elastic stiffness coefficient;
The value of ␥r for cohesionless soils subjected to isotropic ␣ ⫽ regression coefficient for determining f共D兲;
states of stress increases with the square root of effective stress. ␥ ⫽ shear strain;
As an approximation, strain can be normalized using 共␴0⬘ / pa兲1/2 ␥e ⫽ elastic shear strain;
rather than ␥r to avoid the need to estimate ␶max. However, the use ␥r ⫽ reference shear strain;
of ␥r should apply more generally to all soils and conditions, ␥w ⫽ unit weight of water;
because evaluation of ␶max may be expected to account for stress ␧e ⫽ elastic normal strain;
path differences and for the cohesion component of strength. ␯ ⫽ Poisson’s ratio;
␯e ⫽ elastic Poisson’s ratio;
␲ ⫽ 3.14159265…;
Acknowledgment ␴⬘ ⫽ effective normal stress;
␴⬘0 ⫽ mean effective confining stress;
Research to obtain the data analyzed for this paper was supported ␴1⬘ ⫽ major principal stress;
by the U.S. Air Force Weapons Laboratory under its Contract No. ␴3⬘ ⫽ minor principal stress;
F29601-73-C-0064. The content of this paper does not necessarily ␶ ⫽ shear stress;
reflect the position or policy of the government, and no official ␶max ⫽ maximum shear stress; and
endorsement should be inferred. ␾⬘ ⫽ effective friction angle.

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J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2005, 131(7): 867-875

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