John Raven C.

Angeles
Pre- College
Critical Thinking
MAS

A. The Three Basic Operations of the Mind

Apprehension

Simple Apprehension- is the operation of the mind which is

responsible for the process of grasping or abstracting the
essence or principle of the thing regardless the
affirmation or negation about it.
And the product of this mental act is what we called idea
and what we called term is its verbal manifestation.
Idea- is abstract in the sense that its focal point is just
the principle or essence of the thing and it is considered
as the intellectual representation of a thing.

For instance:
Our idea of a cow is our mental image or apprehension of
an animal called cow. This idea of a cow will apply to any
and all cows, irrespective of their individual differences
among themselves, provided they possess the same essential
qualities which constitute the idea of a cow. Hence, a
precept is distinct from an idea.1

Terms- is the verbal manifestation of idea and it is a

conventional sign that is expressive of an ideas and the
idea made concrete through terms.

For Instance:
THE VICE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES IS A
WOMAN
Woman is a word used to express an idea of the “The Vice
President of the Republic of the Philippines”

CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS

According to Comprehension

1 https://www.slideshare.net/JoelMiano/logicideas-terms
1. Simple- expresses one conceptual note.
2. Compound- expresses more than one conceptual note
3. Concrete- expresses something which can perceived through
senses
4. Abstract-expresses the nature or essence of a thing and
leave aside the concrete and sensible features of a thing
According to Extension
1. Singular- represents a single object only
2. Universal- represent each member of the class as a whole
3. Collective- it represents a number of things constituting
unit group or whole.
4. Particular- it stands for an indefinite part of a whole.
In Logic, a term is considered particular if it
represents “at least one but not all” of the individuals
composing a class.
According to Origin
1. Immediate- intuitive
2. Mediate- abstractive
According to Relation
1. Compatible- are terms that can coexist in a subject, that
is, there is no logical obstacle for them to be present
in a subject at the same time.
2. Incompatible- a term that cannot coexist in the subject.
For they rule out each other. There are four kinds of
incompatible ideas.
a. Contradictory- two terms, one of which negates the
other, between them, there is no middle ground.
b. Contrary- are terms that belong to the same class but
deny each other. Between these terms, there is/are
middle ground/s.
c. Privative- a term which expresses perfection and the
other is lack which must to be possessed
d. Correlative- two opposed ideas that bear relevance to
one another and so you cannot understand it without
the other.
According to Meaning
1. Univocal – a term which carries the same meaning in
its several uses.
 2. Equivocal- a term that carries different meanings in
its different uses.
3. Analogous- a term carries a meaning which is partly
the same and partly different.
According to Quality
1. Positive in form, Positive in meaning
2. Positive in form, Negative in meaning
3. Negative in form, Negative in meaning
4. Negative in form, Positive in meaning
According to Object
1. Real- something that has an existential actuality.
2. Logical- it is used as the conceptual device to
facilitate learning.
3. Imaginary- merely fabricated product of the mind.
Supposition of Terms
Supposition- Is a relation between a term, and the objects which
it ultimately signifies2. Relation that is obtained between the
term and what it specifically designates in a proposition.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUPPOSITION
A. Proper Supposition- stands for the proper object in a real
order
a. Material Supposition- stands for the term itself
without referring to its meaning.
b. Formal Supposition- stands for the real meaning of the
term.
i. Logical Supposition- mere concept.
ii. Real Supposition stands for the thing itself
B. Improper Supposition- Includes the use of metaphor and
figurative speech.
Predicaments and Predicables
1. Predicaments- set of the fundamental ideas in terms which
all other ideas can be expressed. They are concepts capable
of classifying all other concepts.
2. Predicables- refer to the kinds of relations which may be
obtained between a term and the subject of which it is
predicated. There are five predicables GENUS, SPECIFIC
DIFFERENCE, SPECIES, PROPERTY, LOGICAL ACCIDENT.

2 http://www.logicmuseum.com/wiki/Supposition
 DEFINITION- Determines the precise meaning of the term.
Types of Definition
Nominal Definition- circumscribes the meaning of the word
without undergoing to real nature of this word
1. Ostensive Definition- Indicates the meaning of the term or
object by showing or pointing out at the object.
2. Synonymous Definition- It gives the same connotation of the
term, the definition is so exact to replace the one with
the other in any context without shift to its meaning.
3. Etymological Definition- It gives the origin of the word.
Real Definition- tells what the thing is, it digs deeper to the
nature of the thing.
a. Essential Definition- it is constructed by the genus
and specific difference.
b. Non- Essential Definition- it gives more notable
characteristics.
1. Distinctive Definition- it gives the natural
characteristics of a thing (Property)
2. Genetic Definition- it furnishes the mode of
the origin of the thing.
3. Causal Definition- defines a thing by its
efficient and final cause
4. Accidental Definition- gives the contingent
characteristics connected to the object.
Division of Terms
Division is the separation of a whole into parts, a systematic
enumeration of the component parts of a whole.
THREE KINDS OF DIVISION
1. Physical Division- enumeration of quantitative parts into
quantitative whole.
2. Logical Division- enumeration of logical parts into logical
whole.
3. Metaphysical Division- division by separating the genus and
specific difference.
JUGEMENT
JUDGMENT-is a mental operation that pronounces the identity or
non-identity between two ideas.
PROPOSITION- is linguistic and sensible sign of the judgment,
the proposition must manifest the affirmation or negation;
interrogative and imperative however cannot qualify in the
category as proposition.
Elements of Proposition
1. Subject
2. Predicate
3. Copula
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION- gives direct assertion of agreement or
disagreement between subject term and predicate term.

Elements of Categorical Proposition

1. Quantifier- indicates the degree of universality of the
subject
i. Universal Quantifier (UNIVERSAL PROPOSITION) - make
use of words such ALL, EVERY, ANY, etc.
ii. Particular Quantifier- (PARTICULAR PROPOSITION)- make
the use of words such some, at least one, most, almost
all, the majority, etc.
2. SUBJECT TERM- something which is affirmed or denied.
3. PREDICATE TERM- which is affirmed or denied by the subject
term
4. COPULA- gives the form of the proposition. The degree of
agreement or disagreement between the subj. and pred. is
can be identify in the copula.
Quality- is the relation established between the two terms of
the proposition.
Agreement- Affirmative
Disagreement- Negative
Quantity- refers to the number of individuals to whom the
subject term applies.
A - Universal/ Singular affirmative proposition
E - Universal/ Singular negative proposition
I - Particular Affirmative Proposition
O - Particular Negative Proposition
Reasoning
Reasoning- is a mental act whereby starting with the several
judgments which we relate with one another, we arrive with a new
judgment.
Inference
Inference- is a process of drawing up of conclusion from one or
more premises.3
Two Types of Inference
1. Mediate- the conclusion is drawn from two premises.
2. Immediate- the conclusion is drawn only by one premise.
The mental product of inferential thinking is argument.4The
external expression of argument is called syllogism.5
Categorical Syllogism- A categorical syllogism is an argument
consisting of exactly three categorical propositions (two
premises and a conclusion) in which there appear a total of
exactly three categorical terms.
Hypothetical Syllogism- hypothetical syllogism is a valid
argument form which is a syllogism having a conditional
statement for one or both of its premises.

Deduction and Induction

Deductive reasoning- is a logical process in which a conclusion
is based on the concordance of multiple premises that are
generally assumed to be true.
a. Since all humans are mortal, and I am a human, then I
am mortal.
b. All dolphins are mammals, all mammals have kidneys;
therefore all dolphins have kidneys.
c. Since all squares are rectangles, and all rectangles
have four sides, so all squares have four sides.

3 Premises- previously known truths in every reasoning process, it must make a

claim neither true nor false.
4 Argument- an inferential thinking which is composed of premises and

conclusion.
5 Syllogism- is a form of deductive reasoning where you arrive at a specific

conclusion by examining two other premises or ideas.

 d. If Dennis misses work and at work there is a party,
then Dennis will miss the party.
Inductive Reasoning - refers to reasoning that takes specific
information and makes a broader generalization that is
considered probable, allowing for the fact that the conclusion
may not be accurate.
a. Bob is showing a big diamond ring to his friend Larry.
Bob has told Larry that he is going to marry Joan. Bob has
bought the diamond ring to give to Joan.
b. The chair in the living room is red. The chair in the
dining room is red. The chair in the bedroom is red. All
chairs in the house are red.
c. All brown dogs in the park are small dogs. Therefore, all
small dogs are brown.
d. All children in the day care center like to play with
Legos. All children, therefore, enjoy playing with Legos.
Formal and Informal Fallacies
Fallacies- the false argument that has an appearance of truth.
Formal Fallacies-They present errors involving the forms of
good arguments such as if the premises are true the conclusion
cannot be false.
Informal Fallacies- is committed when either irrelevant
psychological factors are allowed to distort reasoning
process, as when one uses pity or threat, or character of
assassination, or when one is confused by linguistic
ambiguities in one’s premises and conclusions.
A. Fallacy of Language/ Ambiguity- it expresses lack of
preciseness of word, phrases or sentences used to express
thought.
1. Equivocation- this fallacy is committed when a word
carrying different meanings is used in the same context in
a particular argument.
2. Amphiboly- allows a multiple interpretation. The
grammatical interpretation is not clear and therefore it is
open to various interpretations.
3. Prosody- false emphasis in speech, a false stress in voice
is placed upon a given word in order to mislead, confuse or
produce wrong interpretation. FALLACY OF ACCENT.
4. Fallacy of Composition- consists in taking collectively
what should be taken individually. Presuming every class
does have the same quality, GENERALIZING.
5. Fallacy of Division- consists of taking individually what
should be taken collectively.
6. Fallacy of Word Construction- infers a similarity of
meaning from the similarity of material pattern used in two
words.
B. Fallacy of Relevance- this kind of fallacy arises when
something about an arguments tempts us simply to overlook
the fact that there really is no connection between the
premises and conclusion.
1. Accident- this fallacy is committed on someone argues that
what is true as a general rule, is true in some special
cases.
2. Petitio principii (begging the question)- this is simply
the restatement of the conclusion.
3. Argumentum ad hominem- this fallacy consists in attacking
the person instead of proving or disproving the point at
issue, this is also considered as discrediting the
authority of the speaker while deviating from the real
issue.
4. Argumentum ad Populum- this fallacy is committed when one
attempts to win in popular assent to a conclusion by using
persuasively emotive language.
5. Argumentum ad Misericordiam- it consists of pleading of
mercy and disregarding the point in question or issue.
6. False Cause- it mistakes what is not the cause of given
effect ot its real cause.
7. Argumentum ad Veracundiam (Appeal to misplaced authority)-
this fallacy is committed if one presents the opinion of a
person who is not an authority in the field of question.
8. Argumentum ad Baculum- this fallacy is composed of some
arguments which is showing moral pressure, physical force.
9. Appeal to Advantage- An appeal is made to a person to
adhere to a policy, but he is forced to do it because the
advantage preferred is given.
10. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam- this argument is committed
whenever one argues that something must be true on basis
that it has not been proven false