Peer Reviewed Journal of Forensic

L UPINE PUBLISHERS & Genetic Sciences

Open Access DOI: 10.32474/PRJFGS.2018.01.000121

ISSN: 2638-6062 Review Article

Significance of Diatoms in Diagnosis of Drowning

Deaths: A Review
Ajay Rana1*, Sakshi Manhas2
1
Biology & Serology Division, Regional Forensic Science Laboratory, Northern Range Dharamshala, India
2
University Institute of Applied Health Sciences, Chandigarh University, India
Received: July 05, 2018; Published: July 12, 2018
*Corresponding author: Ajay Rana, Biology & Serology Division, Regional Forensic Science Laboratory, Northern Range,
Dharamshala, Himachal Pradesh, India, Email:

Abstract
Diatom test is an important tool in diagnosis death in drowning cases. As the typical features of ante-mortem drowning
disappeared very rapidly with commencement of putrefaction and hence diatom test plays an important role for diagnosis and
confirmation of drowning deaths. Diatoms have number of characteristic like their widespread presence in water, high diversity in
species, habitat specificity and have a good potential for preservation and thus this group can be used in forensic geosciences for
criminal investigations. Extraction and identification of diatoms present in the tissue samples can be used as supportive evidence in
drowning and also for site specific diatoms. Temperature and pH variations also play important role in the distribution of diatoms
in a particular location. Diatoms species detection in both water and tissue samples gave a reliability of the diatom test in solving
cases pertaining to drowning deaths. Hence the possible means and methods must be practiced on a regular basis by the forensic
examiner as well practitioners so that new possibilities must always be explored for extraction and identification of diatoms in near
future. This paper reviews the recent year’s progress on diatom test and its application in forensic science.

Keywords: Diatoms;Drowning; Postmortem; Tissues; Acid digestion; Microscopical examinations

Introduction
for the successful determination of drowning deaths in Forensic
Diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) are unicellular, photosynthetic,
laboratories [4-6].
autotrophic organisms that have a characteristic structure-
frustules, comprising two thecas i.e. silica cell walls. Each frustule is Diagnosis of drowning deaths in forensic pathology is one of the
made up of two halves which are known as valves, one of which is most difficult tasks and number of tests were developed to confirm
slightly smaller than the other and fit together one inside the other. the cause of drowning deaths. Diatom test has emerged as one of
Depending on the shape of the frustule, the diatoms are subdivided the most important tests in forensic science by detection of diatoms
into two major orders-Centrales and Pennales. The Centrales are in tissues samples [7]. Diatom analysis can further used in forensic
radially symmetric and the Pennales have bilateral symmetry [1]. science by identifying the individuals, clothing or belongings from
The diatoms are a highly diverse taxon, comprising more than the sites of investigation [8]. The two factors for the diatoms test
200000 species [2]. Diatoms generally range in size from 2-200μm are the concentration of diatoms in the lungs and the development
and are composed of a cell wall comprising silica. This siliceous wall of a river monitoring programme in the district of the study [9].
can be highly patterned with a variety of pores, ribs, minute spines, Continuous monitoring of fresh water sites and comprehensive
marginal ridges and elevations which can be utilized to delineate species level inventories of diatom flora at these sites may be useful
genera and species [3]. in the medico legal investigation of drowning deaths [10].

In drowning deaths there is a suspicion of ante-mortem or Brief History of Diatom Test

postmortem drowning. In these medico legal aspects diatom
Diatoms were first detected in lung fluid by Hofmann [11].
test plays a very important role to ascertain the cause of death.
Incze [12] successfully detected diatoms in blood and parenchymal
Therefore, in drowning related death a correlation has to be
organs and demonstrated that diatoms could enter into the
established between the diatoms extracted from the organ samples
circulation through lungs. Diatoms were detected in bone marrow
and the water samples collected from the putative sites of drowning
by Tamasaka [13]. Porawski [14] in his study showed that presence

Citation: Ajay R, Sakshi M. Significance of Diatoms in Diagnosis of Drowning Deaths: A Review. Peer Re J Foren & Gen Sci 1(5)- 2018. PRJFGS.
MS.ID.000121. DOI: 10.32474/PRJFGS.2018.01.000121 77
Peer Rev J Foren & Gen Sci Copyrights@ Ajay Rana.

of diatoms in organs and bone marrow is indication of the ante- dangerous. Enzymatic digestive method develops by Kakizaki and
mortem inhalation of water during drowning. In the 1960’s and Yukawa [26] for solubilizing lung tissue by using Qiagen proteinase
1970’s, Timperman [15] presented his research for the presence K, Qiagen Buffer ATL and 5N HCL can accelerate and simplify diatom
of diatoms in the bone marrow, lung, liver, spleen, kidney and extraction from suspected drowning cases. Molecular biology
brain tissue and thus developed a method for diatom test for direct technique can be used for the detection of 16S rRNA subunits of
screening drowning deaths, whereas the presence of diatom can ribosomal RNA for the detection of planktonic DNA from human
be verified and analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The tissues in drowned victims [27,28]. Shiwei et al. [29] advocated
method of its extraction was improved by acid digestion of the tissues a new and rapid technique for drowning diagnosis of putrefactive
by Pollanen [16]. In 90% drowning cases, diatom in bone marrow corpse by using electric impedance spectroscopy. Fluorimetry can
matched with the drowning medium. Pollanen [17] reported that be used to locate and isolate diatoms in a sample of bone marrow or
the sensitivity of the diatom test has been one of its chief criticisms other tissue by luminescent properties. It can differentiate diatoms
to date. “The medico legal utility of the diatom test for drowning found at suspected site of drowning from other diatoms found in
could be significantly enhanced by increasing the sensitivity of the nature, by incorporating specific fluorescent tags [30].
test”. Cameron [18] reported that diatoms are diverse remains and
With the development of more streamlined extraction methods
can be identified with high taxonomic precision. These factors allow
with shorter processing times and higher sensitivity and specificity
diatoms to be used in a range of application in forensic geosciences.
for successfully recovery of diatoms from various tissues and fluids
Horton [19] in his study showed that diatom test act as a valuable
and their comparison with drowning medium has been useful
tool in forensic science for the detection of drowning deaths.
for the diagnosis of drowning deaths. Water from the drowning
Extraction of Diatoms from Samples medium should also be examined for the presence of diatoms. It
Complete destruction of tissues samples is required for the is important to take 1-2 liters of water sample from the surface
extraction and detection of diatoms. Current techniques used for of putative site and then add few drops of formalin. The solution
the detection of diatoms are acid digestion method. Acid digested is then left overnight. Then decant the solution and preserve the
organ tissues commonly bone marrow is removed by using spatula concentrate for microscopic examinations [20].
and placed in a flask. Approximately 50ml of nitric acid is added Internal Organs used for Diatom Test
into the conical flask. The bone marrow acid suspension is boiled
When a person gets drowned in water containing diatoms then
on hot plate in a fuming hood for 48hours. The suspension is then
due to aspiration of water they get enter into the lungs. Due to
cooled and subjected to centrifugation and washing with double
forceful inspiration and expiration microscopic tears got developed
distilled water. The final sediment is placed on microscopic slide
in alveolar wall, they get entered into the blood stream and get
and examined on the phase contrast microscope for the detection
lodged into the internal organs of drowned victims. Several studies
of diatoms. Hurlimann et al. [20] used nitric acid for extraction of
conducted throughout the world showed that different internal
diatoms from bone marrow tissue and Bortolotti et al. [21] used
organs can be used for the detection of diatoms. Aghayev et al.
nitric acid for the extraction of diatoms from lungs and sternum
[31] showed that left ventricular blood can be used for diatom test
bone. Krstic et al. [5] used H2SO4 for extraction of diatoms from
while Pachar and Cameron [32] showed that liver, kidney and brain
internal organs like kidney, liver, lung and brain. Auer and Mottonen
could be used for the detection of diatoms. Matsumoto and Fukui
[22] used a mixture of HNO3 and H2O2 for the digestion of tissue
[33] showed that lungs could be used for the detection of diatoms.
samples of brain, lung, liver and kidney. Scott et al. [23] in their
In a study made by Nadia Fucci [34] Lung, liver, kidney and brain
study showed that H2O2 extraction is the most efficient technique
were used for the detection of diatoms in 10 cases of drowning
for the collection and analyzing of diatoms from clothing samples
deaths. Bone marrow is considered to be the best as it proves the
in order to aid in forensic investigation. Sidari et al. [24] tested the
hypothesis of antemortem drowning as well as it is least affected
soluene-350 method to detect diatoms in three cases of sea water
by contamination during post-mortem submersion [16,35]. Anand
drowning.
and Unmesh [36] utilized bone marrow, nasal sinus aspirate and
There are limitations in the acid digestion methods as the lung bits for the detection of diatoms from 50 dead bodies in
structure of the diatoms may get destruct due to acid treatment. drowning cases and Pathak and Mangal [37] used sternum bone for
But newly developed method Lefort aqua regia (3:1 nitric acid to the detection of diatoms in 86 cases related to drowning deaths.
hydrochloric acid) by Huipin Wang et al. [25] has an improvement
over the conventional acid digestion for recovery of diatoms from Qualitative and quantitative aspects of diatom test
tissue samples. Conventional acid digestion methods of tissues for Qualitative and quantitative analysis of diatoms in organ sample
analyzing diatoms are time consuming, laborious and potentially and water gives strong evidence that death of drowned victim had

Citation: Ajay R, Sakshi M. Significance of Diatoms in Diagnosis of Drowning Deaths: A Review. Peer Re J Foren & Gen Sci 1(5)- 2018. PRJFGS.
MS.ID.000121. DOI: 10.32474/PRJFGS.2018.01.000121 78
Peer Rev J Foren & Gen Sci Copyrights@ Ajay Rana.

occurred due to aspiration of water. Various Studies conducted froth in trachea, elevated lung weights and pleural effusions [51].
throughout the world showed that validity of diatom test is based Diatoms can resist putrefaction, so diatom test is more valuable
on the shape and number of valves recovered from tissue samples. in the cases where decomposition is advanced and post mortem
Hurlimann et al. [20] suggested that 20-40 diatoms per 5 g for bone symptoms of drowning had got diminished. Studies conducted
marrow are required for the diatom test. While Farrugia and Ludes on drowning deaths showed that in skeletonized bodies and the
[38] suggested that identification of more than 5 complete diatom bodies with advanced stage of decomposition, only diatom test can
from 100µl of sediment from the tissue sample of brain, kidney, tell antemortem drowning by detection of diatoms in organ sample
liver and bone marrow is required for the positivity of diatom and its comparison with control water sample [37,52-54]. From
test. Krstic et al. [5] observed 37 diatoms valves in heart tissue, the historical perspective the study of drowning deaths required
Giri et al. [39] observed 20 diatoms valves in the liver tissue and a sensitive, specific and easily applicable test. Diatoms test has
Auer and Mottonen [22] showed that 20 diatoms per microscopic emerged as the most important test used in forensic laboratories
slide from lung tissue is a sufficient concentration to exclude false for the detection of drowning deaths.
positive results due to contamination. Various studies conducted
The main criticism of the validity of diatom test is the potential
throughout the world showed that by comparing the diatom
of ante-mortem and post-mortem penetration of diatoms and
species detected in organ sample with the drowning medium we
detection of diatoms in non-drowned bodies. Presence of diatoms
can confirm the drowning site [40-43]. Systematic sampling of
in high abundance is required in putative site of drowning for the
locations where submerged remains is frequently occurred allows
positive findings. Hurlimann et al. [20] in their study showed that
for the creation of a predictive diatom database and such a database
density of diatoms decreases many folds when the diatoms penetrate
is suitable for comparison of diatoms from recovered tissues [44].
the dependent parts from the drowning medium. Sometimes rapid
There are several factors which are responsible for the qualitative
death in water body due to victim’s heart conditions or weakness
and quantitative distribution of diatoms in the body. According
of pulmonary and circulatory system causes decrease in the length
to Hurlimann et al. [20] diatoms density decreases by a factor
of time taken for drowning and thus reduces the quantity of water
between 10 and 100 when passing from drowning medium to lungs
inhaled [16,55]. Various studies conducted throughout the world
or to stomach. And their density further decreases from the lungs
showed that only small diatoms or valve fragments can penetrate
to blood, kidneys, liver and bone marrow to a factor of 100-1000.
into the tissues of the drowning victims. Lunette et al. [56] in their
The abundance of species composition varies in various sites of study showed that maximum length of diatom that can penetrate
drowning according to their preferred conditions such as salinity, the alveolo-capillary barrier is around 110µm and Pachar and
temperature, pH and impact of inter-species competition. Thus, the Cameron [32] showed that the diatoms detected in internal organs
individual species or the species composition in forensic sample were of size less than 30µm. All reagents and glass containers must
can provide important information about the habitat or location have checked for diatoms presence before use and contamination
at a particular time of year [45]. Williams and Kociolek [46], of exogenous diatoms must be avoided by using diatom free water,
Vanormelingen et al. [47] in their study showed that some species protecting the organs from the clothes and skin during autopsy of
of diatoms have a restricted distribution as they are found only in the victims [38]. In a study made by Anand and Unmesh [36] the
particular area and thus are considered to be endemic. Site specific lung samples of 80% non-drowning cases showed diatoms and 1-2
diatoms can be used as marker for site identification in cases of frustules in the slides prepared from bone marrow. Acid digestion
suspected drowning. The studies made by Krstic [5], Yadav et al. method used for detecting diatoms is not safe. Strong acids when
[48], Anu and Resmi [49] reported site specific diatoms in their heated eliminate harmful gases; such as nitrogen oxide and Sulphur
studies. Comparison in number, nature and distribution of diatoms dioxide which can cause health hazards. Detection of planktons
observed in the tissues samples with the submersion medium will other than diatoms by the acid digestion method is not possible
indicate the death due to drowning. [6]. From these studies we concluded that rapid death in drowning
medium, low abundance of diatoms in drowning medium, inefficient
Importance of Diatom Test and its Limitations in
methods for extraction and detection and inappropriate tissue
Forensic Science sample can cause negative results or lesser number of diatoms in
With the help of diatom test we can ascertain that whether the tissue samples.
cause of death is drowning or not. Sometimes criminals dumped
the bodies into the water after committing the crime to simulate Conclusion and Summary
the cause of death as drowning [50]. The macroscopical findings Qualitative and quantitative analysis of diatoms can be done by
of autopsy in drowning deaths are plume of froth on the mouth detection of diatoms in the samples and by counting the number of
and nostrils, lung emphysema, odema aquosum, Paltaufs spots, species. Results pertaining to such studies should also interpreted

Citation: Ajay R, Sakshi M. Significance of Diatoms in Diagnosis of Drowning Deaths: A Review. Peer Re J Foren & Gen Sci 1(5)- 2018. PRJFGS.
MS.ID.000121. DOI: 10.32474/PRJFGS.2018.01.000121 79
Peer Rev J Foren & Gen Sci Copyrights@ Ajay Rana.

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Citation: Ajay R, Sakshi M. Significance of Diatoms in Diagnosis of Drowning Deaths: A Review. Peer Re J Foren & Gen Sci 1(5)- 2018. PRJFGS.
MS.ID.000121. DOI: 10.32474/PRJFGS.2018.01.000121 81