3201 Emt
3201 Emt
Stan Zochowski
2011 2
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CONTENTS
Contents
1 Introduction 7
1.1 Mathematical Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Overview of PHAS2201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Macroscopic Fields 13
2.1 Reminder of PHAS2201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Electric Field in Dielectric Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Magnetic Fields Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Magnetic Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Magnetic Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Interfaces and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7 Summary of Linear Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Atomic Mechanisms 29
3.1 Dipoles and Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Magnetic Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Magnetic Dipoles and Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4 Ferromagnetism 47
4.1 Atomic-level Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 B & H: Macroscopic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3 Simple Examples of Electromagnetic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.1 Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.2 Bar Magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3.3 Toroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.4 Fluxmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4 Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5 Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CONTENTS
9 Emission of Radiation 93
9.1 Retarded Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.1.1 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.1.2 Lorentz Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.1.3 Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.1.4 Retarded Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.2 Hertzian Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.2.2 Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CONTENTS
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CONTENTS
2011 6
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
Introduction
Office hours: anytime you can find me, or email me ([email protected]) to set a time. Attendance sheets must be
filled in. They’ll be given out at the start of a lecture and collated over the weeks.
Problem sheets will be given out through the term, roughly every two weeks. As detailed in the Preliminaries, the best
three problem sheets will count for 10% of the final course mark. N.B. There will be four sheets during term.
Full sets of lecture notes will be made available a few days after the lecture. A complete PDF file will be available at
the end of the course.
• These are also given in the Preliminaries handout for other coordinate systems;
• They should be reasonably familiar.
These should be reasonably familiar from the courses in the first and second years. Hopefully we won’t have to spend
much time on them, but they are important.
• Divergence Theorem: Z I
∇ · Fdv = F · nda (1.7)
V S
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
• Stokes’ Theorem: Z I
∇ × F · nda = F · dl (1.8)
S C
H
• Notice the importance of !
It’s useful to understand how a line integral works by considering the basic definition in terms of small steps:
Z b N
X
F · dl = lim Fi · dli , (1.9)
a C N →∞
i=1
where C is the curve we’re integrating along. In other words, at each point along the curve we take the dot product
between the function we’re integrating and the tangent to the curve, and then sum over all these points. It should be easy
to see that, in general, the value of the line integral will depend on the curve chosen.
There are two standard ways of working out a line integral. If you are given F (x, y) along some line g(x, y), then
we can replace every occurrence of y and dy in the integral below with some functions of x (found from g(x, y)) and
integrate:
Z Z
F · dl = Fx (x, y)dx + Fy (x, y)dy (1.10)
C C
Z
dy
= Fx (x, y(x))dx + Fy (x, y(x)) dx. (1.11)
C dx
The second way is using a parametric form. This is possible if the curve being used for the integral is given in terms
of a parameter (e.g. angle around a circle). Then we have a curve l(t) which depends on a single parameter t. So we
write:
Z Z b
dl
F · dl = F(l(t)) · dt (1.12)
C a dt
Z b
dx dy
= Fx (x(t), y(t)) dt + Fy (x(t), y(t)) dt (1.13)
a dt dt
n̂ · (r − r0 ) = 0 (1.16)
⇒ (a, b, c) · (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = 0. (1.17)
It’s clear that a plane whose equation is ax + by + cz = d has a normal vector given by (a, b, c).
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
• We have the the fields D and H, with D = 0 E + P and B = µ0 (H + M) where M is the magnetization;
The electric and magnetic fields have SI units of newtons per coulomb (or volts per metre) and tesla (equivalent to
kilograms per coulomb second!). Be careful with units: Gaussian units are quite different. Note that B is often called the
magnetic induction field, or simply the magnetic induction.
Matter responds to fields: the atoms of molecules polarize in an electric field, and respond in varied ways to a magnetic
field (both diminishing and amplifying it). The fields D and H reflect this.
1.2.2 Electrostatics
• For two charges, q1 and q2 at rest at points r1 and r2
Force Field
q1 q2 q1
F(r2 ) = r̂
4π0 |r2 −r1 |2 12
E(r2 ) = r̂
4π0 |r2 −r1 |2 12
(1.18)
Energy Potential
q1 q2 q1
U (r2 ) = 4π0 |r2 −r1 | ϕ(r2 ) = 4π0 |r2 −r1 |
The force and field are directed along a line joining the two charges; the values would have equal magnitude but the
opposite direction. 0 is the permittivity of free space (absolute permittivity), and is 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1 where the units
are C2 N−1 m−2 . This value has been chosen, not measured.
ρ(r)
∇ · E(r) = (1.19)
0
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
• The integral and differential forms are linked by the divergence theorem
P R
Note that i qi = V ρdv
1.2.3 Magnetostatics
• For an element of a current loop, dl, carrying current I at r0 :
µ0 I dl × (r − r0 )
dB(r) = (1.21)
4π |r − r0 |3
• Because ∇ · ∇ × F = 0, we can show that there is a magnetic vector potential A such that B = ∇ × A, so
∇·B=0 (1.23)
Remember that the Biot-Savart law is empirical: there is no underlying theory stating that there are no magnetic monopoles
in the universe. But we haven’t found any yet! The result derived from the Biot-Savart law is the second Maxwell equa-
tion.
µ0 is the permeability of free space, and is 4π×10−7 T m A−1 (which is equivalent to kilograms metres per coulomb2 ).
1.2.4 Electromagnetism
• For a surface S bounded by loop C, I
B · dl = µ0 I, (1.24)
c
∇ × B = µ0 J (1.26)
• This is incomplete.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
We will consider the detailed form of why Ampère’s law is incomplete later in the lectures, though you should already
have seen this and understood it at some level. This will form our third Maxwell equation when complete.
and derive:
dB
∇×E=− (1.30)
dt
As you can see, the derivation is almost trivial: substitute Eq. (1.27) into Eq. (1.28), and then apply Stokes’ theorem
to the loop integral of E. This is the final Maxwell equation.
• Ampère’s law as described above is incomplete: it needs to account for time-varying electric fields
• When we do this, we can write (in a vacuum):
Maxwell’s Equations:
ρ
∇·E = (1.31)
0
∇·B = 0 (1.32)
dE
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0 (1.33)
dt
dB
∇×E = − (1.34)
dt
Lorentz Force
F = q (E + v × B) (1.35)
Once Maxwell’s equations and the Lorentz force law have been specified, classical electromagnetism is essentially
complete: the basic physics has not changed, though the details of the interaction of the fields with matter are still being
understood.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
Chapter 2
Macroscopic Fields
Maxwell’s equations have two major variants: the microscopic set of Maxwell’s equations uses total charge and total cur-
rent including the difficult-to-calculate atomic level charges and currents in materials. The macroscopic set of Maxwell’s
equations defines two new auxiliary fields that can sidestep having to know these ’atomic’ sized charges and currents.
Unlike the ’microscopic’ equations, "Maxwell’s macroscopic equations", also known as Maxwell’s equations in matter,
factor out the bound charge and current to obtain equations that depend only on the free charges and currents. These
equations are more similar to those that Maxwell himself introduced. The cost of this factorization is that additional fields
need to be defined: the displacement field D which is defined in terms of the electric field E and the polarization P of
the material, and the magnetic-H field, which is defined in terms of the magnetic-B field and the magnetization M of the
material. In this chapter, we will look at these macroscopic fields, D and H.
2.1.1 Electrostatics
• We start with a single charge, q, at r0 :
• Increasing the number of charges, and using the principle of superposition, we get:
I Z
E.nda = ρdv/0 (2.2)
S
We will now go through a few worked examples on the use of Gauss’ Law.
Ex. 1 — Find the electric field inside a sphere which carries a charge density proportional to the distance from the origin,
ρ = kr, for some constant k.
Ex. 2 — A long coaxial cable carries a uniform volume charge density ρ on the inner cylinder (radius a), and a uniform
surface charge density on the outer cylindrical shell (radius b). This surface charge is negative and of just the right
magnitude so that the cable as a whole is electrically neutral. Find the electric field in each of the three regions: (i) inside
the inner cylinder (r < a), (ii) between the cylinders (a < r < b), (iii) outside the cable (r > b). Plot |E| as a function of
r.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
2.1.2 Dielectrics
A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an
electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material, as in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average
equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced
toward the field and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field which reduces
the overall field within the dielectric itself.
• Recall that capacitance is defined by Q = C∆V
• Capacitance changes when a dielectric is added:
Figure 2.1: Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the centre of the negatively charged electron cloud
relative to the positive nucleus of an atom by the electric field.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
Figure 2.2: Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the centre of the negatively charged electron cloud
relative to the positive nucleus of an atom by the electric field.
We start by finding the potential at a point r due to a small volume of polarized material at a point r0 . We will then
integrate this over the entire piece of dielectric material. First, note that the potential at r due to a dipole at r0 is:
1 p · (r − r0 )
φ(r) = (2.4)
4π0 | r − r0 |3
Recall that p = qd and that P = p/δv.
Then we use the fact that the polarization is the dipole moment per unit volume to write:
∆v 0 P (r0 ) · (r − r0 )
∆φ (r) = 3 (2.5)
4π0 |r − r0 |
When we take the limit ∆v → 0 and sum over the elements, we get an expression for the total potential:
dv 0 P (r0 ) · (r − r0 )
Z
φ (r) = 3 (2.6)
V 4π0 |r − r0 |
We use the gradient of 1/ |r − r0 |, derived as (worth remembering!):
(r − r0 )
0 1
∇ = 3 (2.7)
|r − r0 | |r − r0 |
to transform this: Z
1 0 0 1
φ (r) = P (r ) · ∇ dv 0 (2.8)
4π0 V |r − r0 |
Using the formula for ∇ · (φF) from the Mathematical Identities,
and rearranging (we want F · ∇φ) we can write, with F = P (r0 ) and ϕ = 1
|r−r0 | ,
P (r0 )
Z
1 1 0
φ (r) = ∇· − ∇ · P (r ) dv 0 (2.10)
4π0 V |r − r0 | |r − r0 |
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
R H
Finally, we use the divergence theorem on the first term V ∇ · Fdv = S F · nda , to give the potential outside a
polarized dielectric object:
P (r0 ) · n 0 −∇ · P (r0 ) 0
I Z
1 1
φ (r) = da + dv (2.11)
4π0 S |r − r0 | 4π0 V |r − r0 |
• The surface polarization charge density is defined:
σP = P · n (2.12)
ρP = −∇ · P (2.13)
For uniform polarization,∇ · P = 0, so there is no bound charge within the material, but there will be bound charge
on the surface.
Bound charge: The charge within a material that is unable to move freely through the material. Small displacements
of bound charge are responsible for polarization of a material by an electric field.
Free charge: The charge in a conducting material associated with the conduction electrons that are free to move
throughout the material. These electrons can carry electric current.
We have considered the field due to a polarized dielectric, but only outside the dielectric. What is the field inside a
polarized dielectric?
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
It is important to realize that the arbitrary bounding surface S does not enter into this integral
R because there
H is no po-
larization charge density on it (it is not a real surface). We use the divergence theorem V ∇ · Fdv = S F · nda to
transform the second integral into a surface integral. But we must take care: this time, we must include the surface S
because it bounds the volume V. It is also important to understand the directions of the surface normals. Explicitly, this
gives:
Z I Z
QP = P · nda − P · nda − P · nda (2.18)
S1 +S2 +S3 S S1 +S2 +S3
I
= − P · nda (2.19)
S
Now we can use this is in Gauss’ law inside the dielectric, which was given as Eq. (2.16):
I I
1 1
E · nda = Q − P · nda. (2.20)
S 0 0 S
After a little manipulation, we can rewrite this in terms of the free or external charge, Q.
R H
• Using the divergence theorem yet again, V ∇ · Fdv = S F · nda, we find that:
I
Q = (0 E + P) · nda (2.21)
S
D = 0 E + P (2.22)
becomes Z Z
ρ(v)dv = ∇ · Ddv (2.23)
V
• The electric displacement D is the field whose divergence is the free (or external) charge density
• So, if we consider a charge density, and use the divergence theorem, we get:
Divergence of D
∇ · D = ρ (r) (2.24)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
External Charge
• We have talked about free or external charge (as opposed to the bound charge)
• It is important to be aware of the difference between charge added and charge already present
• In general, the polarization P is a function of the material and the external field E
D = 0 E + 0 χe E = E (2.25)
• We call = 0 (1 + χe ) the permittivity, and /0 the relative permittivity or dielectric constant
[Non-examinable material] [It is important to realize that a sufficiently strong electric field can break apart the charges
in a material which form the microscopic dipoles. At this point, called dielectric breakdown, all approximations discussed
to this point are invalid. For air, whose dielectric constant is 1.0006, the maximum field sustainable without breakdown is
around 3 × 106 V/m.
The reason that we refer to an isotropic dielectric for the relation P = 0 χe (E) E is that it implies that the polarization
has the same direction as the external field. This is a good approximation for most media, but it is necessary in some media
to replace this with a tensor relationship, where the two vectors are not in the same direction. This type of behaviour is
more common in magnetic materials, which we will come to.]
Energy Density
1
U= D·E (2.26)
2
Considering a capacitor first, we assume that it is in the process of being charged. If we start with the expression for
power (which is rate of change of energy with time) for a current I(t) flowing at a voltage V (t) at time t, P (t) = V (t)I(t).
Then the energy is:
1 Q2
Z Z Z
Q(t) dQ
W = P (t)dt = V (t)I(t)dt = dt = (2.27)
C dt 2 C
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
For a parallel plate capacitor with plates of area A separated by a distance d, we know that the capacitance is given by
C = Ad . Using V = Q/C, we find that the electric field can be written:
V Q Qd Q
E= = = = . (2.28)
d Cd Ad A
Q
Of course, as D = E, we find that D = A. So the energy density is given by:
W 1 Q2
U = =
Ad 2 CAd
1 Q2
=
2 A2
1
= D·E (2.29)
2
Another (more general) way to reach the same formula is to consider the work done bringing a charge from infinity to
the point where the energy density is required. We know that the energy of a point charge, q, in a potential φ is W = qφ.
This can be generalized for a charge distribution given by the charge density ρ(r):
Z
W = ρφdv. (2.30)
V
Now, what would be change in electrostatic energy when adding a small amount of charge, δρ? We use our recent
result for Gauss’ theorem, ∇ · D = ρ:
Z
δW = δρφdv (2.31)
V
δρ = ∇ · δD (2.32)
φ (∇ · D) = ∇ · (φD) − D · (∇φ) (2.33)
Z
δW = ∇ · (φδD) − δD · ∇φdv (2.34)
V
Z Z
δW = φδD · nda − δD · ∇φdv, (2.35)
S V
where we have used the divergence theorem on the first part of the integral in the final line. But we know that E = −∇φ,
and we can notice that the first term will fall off rapidly with distance (D with 1/r2 and φ with 1/r). This means that we
can write overall, as the volume being integrated tends to infinity:
Z
δW = δD · Edv (2.36)
V
Now, if we assume a linear, dielectric medium, we know that D = E, and we can integrate over the field going from 0
to D: Z D
Z Z D
W = δW = δD · Edv (2.37)
0 0 V
We can write: Z E Z Z
1 1
δ E 2 dv = E 2 dv
W = (2.38)
2 0 V 2 V
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
dl1 × r12
I
µ0
B (r2 ) = I1 3 (2.39)
4π 1 |r12 |
µ0 dl1 × r12
dB (r2 ) = I1 3 (2.40)
4π |r12 |
where the current is that flowing through the area enclosed by the path.
R
• The differential form comes from writing I = S J · nda
∇ × B = µ0 J (2.45)
Ampère-Maxwell Law
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0 (2.46)
∂t
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
We can understand why this is incomplete by considering a capacitor being charged with a constant current, I. Using
Ampère’s law (in original form) we see: I Z
B · dl = µ0 J · nda (2.47)
S
Now consider a loop, C, around the wire leading to one plate of the capacitor, and two different surfaces, as shown in
Fig. 2.4:
1. A surface cutting the wire
2. A surface passing between the plates of the capacitor, and not cutting the wire
It is clear that these will give two different answers for the integral over the current density: in the first, the answer will be
I, and in the second it will be zero. This is clearly wrong, as Ampère’s law insists that the choice of surface be arbitrary.
The resolution to the problem, using the continuity equation, will be considered later, in Chapter 5, on Maxwell’s
Equations.
Faraday’s Law
• Electromotive force (emf) is equivalent to a potential difference
• Often encountered in terms of circuits, with inductance
• Around a circuit, the emf, E, is defined by: I
E= E · dl (2.48)
C
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
∂B
∇×E=− (2.53)
∂t
•
• When the magnetic field is static, this reduces to the conservative field E, ∇ × E = 0.
• Notice the minus sign: Lenz’s law states that any induced magnetic field opposes the change in flux that induced it
B = ∇ × A, (2.54)
When we consider the form of the vector potential, it should be immediately apparent (by analogy with the electric
field as gradient of the potential) that there is a freedom in choosing it:
A0 → A + ∇f (2.55)
for any scalar function f results in the same B field since ∇ × (∇f ) = 0. This invariance under a transformation is
called gauge invariance. It should not be surprising: the electrostatic potential, φ, is not defined up to an arbitrary additive
constant (and all potentials are actually potential differences.
[Non-examinable] [This vector potential is not just something we’ve dreamt up: for instance, when considering the
Schrödinger equation for a quantum particle in the presence of a magnetic field (even if it never passes through the region
where B > 0, the momentum operator needs to be altered: p → p − ec A).]
There are different ways of choosing the vector potential which help with different situations. Consider a situation
where the electric field does not change with time. Then we write Ampère’s Law as:
∇×B=∇×∇×A = µ0 J (2.56)
2
∇ (∇ · A) − ∇ A = µ0 J. (2.57)
∇2 A = −µ0 J (2.59)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
• There are other choices of gauge, for instance, the Lorentz gauge is ∇ · A = −µo 0 (∂V /∂t).
• Solving for vector potential is (generally) harder than solving for the electrostatic potential
• The electric field can no longer be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential if there is a time-varying B field:
∂A
E(t) = −∇φ − (2.61)
∂t
This last change can be seen rather easily. Consider the Maxwell equation for the curl of the electric field:
∂B
∇×E=− (2.62)
∂t
and substitute in the form of B = ∇ × A:
∂
∇×E+ ∇×A=0 (2.63)
∂t
The vector E + ∂A/∂t has zero curl. We know from identities that it can be written as a gradient of a scalar:
∂A
E+ = −∇φ (2.64)
∂t
So, rearranging, we find that E = −∇φ − ∂A/∂t
• Magnetization
• Electrons can be modelled as moving in loops around atoms: we can use the magnetic dipole to model the response
Let us consider the vector potential at a point r1 due to a small volume of magnetised material at a point r2 (we will
see later that this is given by the expression below). This small volume will have magnetic moment ∆m = M (r2 ) δV2 .
Then we can write:
∆m × r12
Z
µ0
A (r1 ) = 3 (2.65)
4π V |r12 |
M (r2 ) × r12
Z
µ0
= 3 dV2 (2.66)
4π V |r12 |
Z
µ0 1
= M (r2 ) × ∇2 dV2 , (2.67)
4π V r12
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
where we’ve used a standard result to get from Eq. (2.66) to Eq. (2.67). Now we use the expansion of ∇ × (φF), with
F = M and φ = r112 to write:
F × ∇φ
= φ∇ × F − ∇ × (φF) (2.68)
Z
µ0 ∇2 × M (r2 ) M (r2 )
A (r1 ) = − ∇2 × dV2 (2.69)
4π V r12 r12
R R
Now we use the theorem V ∇ × FdV = S n × Fda to write:
∇2 × M (r2 ) n × M (r2 )
Z Z
µ0 µ0
A (r1 ) = dV2 − da2 (2.70)
4π V r12 4π S r12
∇2 × M (r2 ) M × n (r2 )
Z Z
µ0 µ0
= dV2 + da2 (2.71)
4π V r12 4π S r12
JM = ∇×M (2.72)
jM = M×n (2.73)
It is clear that there will be no bound current density where the magnetization is uniform. So within the bulk of the rod
there is a bound current density given by JM = ∇ × M, and at the surface there is a bound surface current per unit length
given by jM = M × n is a unit vector in the direction of the outward normal to the surface. JM is a current per unit
area, where the area is perpendicular to the direction of flow, and jM is a current per unit length, where the length is in the
plane of the surface and perpendicular to the direction of the surface current. These bound currents are the net effect of
the microscopic currents associated with magnetic dipoles.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
Magnetic Intensity
B
H= −M (2.74)
µ0
• This yields ∇ × H = Jf
The magnetic intensity serves a similar purpose to the electric displacement, in accounting for the response of the
medium as well as the magnetic induction. We can rewrite this, using Stokes’ theorem:
Z Z
∇ × H · nda = Jf · nda (2.75)
S S
I Z
H · dl = Jf · nda (= If ) (2.76)
C S
This tells us that the integral of the intensity along a closed loop is equal to the current flowing across the surface defined
by that loop. It also gives the units as amperes per metre (the same units as the magnetization).
It is important to note that the three quantities that we have defined so far (the magnetic induction, B, the magneti-
zation, M and the magnetic intensity, H) are not necessarily parallel; this will be important when considering ferromag-
netism in particular.
Magnetic Susceptibility
M = χm H (2.77)
Normal components
• First notice that we can write similar equations for
D and B:
∇ · D = ρf
∇·B=0
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
• Consider the small cylinder of Fig. 2.6, height dh, area da.
What is the flux of D through the box? Take the limit dh → 0, and for an interface with no free charge we find:
I
D · nda = D2 · nda − D1 · nda = 0 (2.81)
S
⇒ D2 · n = D1 · n (2.82)
D1⊥ = D2⊥ (2.83)
B1⊥ = B2⊥ (2.84)
where the opposite signs on the displacement vectors come from their opposing directions (compared to the surface
normals). This implies that the normal components of D are continuous across an interface with no free charges, while
the normal components of B are always continuous. This means that lines of D and B are conserved at an interface with
no free charges.
Note that, in fact
D2⊥ − D1⊥ = σf (2.85)
Tangential components
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
• Consider the small loop of Fig. 2.7, height dh, length dl.
−−→ −−→
But this can be written as E1 · AB + E2 · CD. As the vectors from A to B and from C to D have opposite directions,
we write:
E1 · dl = E2 · dl (2.89)
E1k = E2k (2.90)
And for an interface with no free surface current (surface magnetization currents are irrelevant) we have a similar
result for H:
H1 · dl = H2 · dl (2.91)
H1k = H2k (2.92)
• D = 0 E + P
• P = 0 χe E so D = E, with = 0 (1 + χe )
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
• ∇ · D = ρf
• H = B/µ0 − M
• M = χm H so B = µ0 µr H with µr = 1 + χm
• ∇ × H = Jf
• continuous across an interface:
– B⊥
– D⊥ when no free charges
– Ek
– Hk when no free currents
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Chapter 3
Atomic Mechanisms
• The microscopic effect of an electric field on a dielectric can be modelled with dipoles
• We can expand the field or potential of an arbitrary charge distribution in terms of multipoles
Notice that if we have a pair of equal but opposite charges separated by a vector l, then the dipole moment is p = ql.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Dipole Geometry
q r̂+ r̂−
E (r) =
4π0 r+2 − r2 (3.1)
−
q 1 1
V (r) = − (3.2)
4π0 r+ r−
r+ = r − l/2 (3.3)
r− = r + l/2 (3.4)
• V (r) is easier to work with than E(r)
What is the electric field at a point r due to a dipole (length l) at the origin, oriented along the z axis? (Note that
we have decided to put the dipole at the origin, and chosen an easy orientation; these can be generalized without much
difficulty). Define the vectors involved:
l
r+ = r− (3.5)
2
l
r− = r + (3.6)
2
We need to know the magnitude of r+ and r− , so using Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6), we find
√
|r+ | = r+ · r+ (3.7)
2
l
r+ · r+ = r2 − rl cos θ + (3.8)
4
l2
2 l
= r 1 − cos θ + 2 (3.9)
r 4r
r
l l2
|r+ | = r 1 − cos θ + 2 (3.10)
r 4r
r
l l2
|r− | = r 1 + cos θ + 2 (3.11)
r 4r
(3.12)
We can now write down 1/ |r+ | and 1/ |r− | and expand them to first order in l/r:
− 21
l2
1 1 l
= 1 − cos θ + 2 (3.13)
|r+ | r r 4r
1 l
' 1+ cos θ (3.14)
r 2r
1 1 l
' 1− cos θ , (3.15)
|r− | r 2r
where we have used (1 + δ)n ' 1 + nδ to first order in δ. Note that this is only valid when r l. Now,
1 1 l
− = 2 cos θ, (3.16)
|r+ | |r− | r
so the potential is given by:
Dipole Potential:
ql cos θ p · r̂
V (r) = = , (3.17)
4π0 r2 4π0 r2
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
where the second form is for the dipole moment of a charge density in a small volume V . Now that we have the potential,
we can calculate the field. Notice that we have naturally ended up working in spherical polar coordinates (with θ defined
as the angle from the z-axis), and that there is no dependence on φ.
[The following brief discussion of multipole expansion follows Griffiths pp.149-150, and is not directly exam-
inable; however, it is extremely useful to understand, and is well within the capability of students.]
In outline, we start by considering the potential at a point r due to an arbitrary charge distribution, ρ(r0 ). This can be
written as:
ρ(r0 ) 0
Z
1
V (r) = dr , (3.20)
4π0 |R|
where R = r − r0 . In order to make this simpler, we need to rewrite |R| in terms of r and r0 . The magnitude of R can be
found from a dot product:
R·R = (r − r0 ) · (r − r0 ) (3.21)
2 0 2 0
= r + (r ) − 2rr cos θ, (3.22)
where θ is the angle between r and r0 . By taking a factor of r2 outside, we see that we can write:
0 2 0 !
2 2 r r
R = r 1+ −2 cos θ (3.23)
r r
√
⇒R = r 1+ (3.24)
0 0
r r
= − 2 cos θ (3.25)
r r
So we can expand 1/R using the binomial expansion; it is important to note that we will not make any approximation,
and inherently carry the full expansion with us (though it will not be shown).
1 1 −1/2 1 1 3 2 5 3
= (1 + ) = 1 − + − + ... (3.26)
R r r 2 8 16
" 0 0 2 0 2 #
3 r0
1 1 r r r
= 1− − 2 cos θ + − 2 cos θ + . . . (3.27)
r 2 r r 8 r r
0
r
Now gathering terms in r , this can be written:
" 0 0 2 0 3 #
1 1 r r 3 cos2 θ − 1 r 5 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ
= 1+ cos θ + + + ... (3.28)
R r r r 2 r 2
∞ n
1 X r0
= Pn (cos θ), (3.29)
r 0 r
where Pn (cos θ) are the Legendre polynomials. Substituting this expression into Eq. (3.20) for the potential, we find:
Z Z Z
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 1 0 0
V (r) = ρ(r )dv + 2 r cos θρ(r )dv + 3 (r ) ( cos θ − )ρ(r )dv + . . . (3.30)
4π0 r r r 2 2
∞ Z
1 X 1
= (r0 )n Pn (cos θ)ρ(r0 )dv 0 (3.31)
4π0 0 rn+1
This shows that for large distances, an arbitrary charge distribution behaves approximately like the total charge (the
first term, which falls off with 1/r, is known as the monopole term). Other terms can be brought in to improve the
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
approximation (and will be important at shorter distances): the dipole term scales with 1/r2 , the quadrupole term scales
with 1/r3 , the octopole term with 1/r4 etc.
[End of multipole discussion]
Starting from the potential we just derived, and working in spherical polar coordinates, we can write:
∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
E (r) = −∇V = −r̂ − θ̂ − φ̂ (3.32)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
∂V ql cos θ
= −2 (3.33)
∂r 4π0 r3
∂V ql sin θ
= − (3.34)
∂θ 4π0 r2
∂V
= 0 (3.35)
∂φ
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Microscopic Dipoles
Polarized Dielectric
2011 33
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
There are two approaches: one simple (as found in Grant & Phillips), and one more rigorous. We consider the simple
one first, then expand to the rigorous one.
In both cases, we must be very careful about using the expression for potential outside a dielectric inside the dielectric;
the problem is that we must average over some volume which is large enough that the effects of individual electrons and
ions are not considered but which is still smaller than the object considered. This then gives the macroscopic field; note
that the potential and field outside a polarized dielectric (which we derived earlier) also rely on this averaging, but we
are far enough away that the details of the microscopic dipoles don’t need to be considered. It turns out that this same
potential can be used, and we will sketch a justification (see Griffiths pp.173–175 for a detailed discussion).
First, we need some results (I will quote them - they can be shown relatively easily); in both cases we need the average
potential over a sphere or radius R.
1. The potential, averaged over a sphere, due to a polarized dielectric outside the sphere is equal to the potential to the
field produced at the centre of the sphere (the same is true for the field). Thus we can use the formula for potential
from before:
r12 · P(r2 )
Z
1
Vout (r1 ) = dr2 (3.39)
4π0 out |r12 |3
2. The field due to a collection of charges inside a sphere averaged over that sphere is:
1 p
Ein = − , (3.40)
4π0 R3
where p is the dipole moment of the charges relative to the centre of the sphere.
The potential inside a polarized dielectric due to the dielectric itself can then be constructed as follows. We consider
a sphere of radius R within the dielectric (which will be large enough to contain a few hundred or thousand atoms), and
average the potential (or field) over that sphere. The potential due to the charges outside is given above in Eq. (3.39), and
is the formula we’d expect. The charges inside the sphere are a little harder: we need the total dipole moment, which is
simply p = 34 πR3 P. Then substituting into Eq. (3.40) we find:
1 43 πR3 P 1
Ein = − =− P (3.41)
4π0 R3 30
which is just the field for a uniformly polarized sphere (again, this result is easily proved). This means that, regardless
of the microscopic distribution of charges, the average field or potential is that of a uniformly polarized sphere. When we
add the two contributions, it’s clear that the macroscopic potential (and field) inside a polarized dielectric have the same
form as the potential (and field) outside a polarized dielectric.
Now onto a simple demonstration. Consider a small block of material of size δxδyδz, located at (x, y, z). Since the
polarization, P, is defined as the dipole moment per unit volume, the amount of charge which has crossed the plane at x
must be −Px (x)δyδz, and at x + δx it is Px (x + δx)δyδz. The net charge entering the small cube in the x-direction is
then:
∂Px
− (Px (x + δx)δyδz − Px (x)δyδz) = − δxδyδz. (3.42)
∂x
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
We can write similar equations for the y and z directions, and find that the total charge is given by:
∂Px ∂Py ∂Pz
− − − δxδyδz (3.43)
∂x ∂y ∂z
If we divide this charge by the volume element δxδyδz then we find an effective polarization charge density:
ρP = −∇ · P. (3.44)
In uniform, bulk dielectrics this will tend to zero as the number of charges entering and leaving will be the same; near
surfaces or areas where the density varies rapidly then charges accumulate. These two effects are seen more clearly next.
[NOTE This derivation has already appeared in Section II on Macroscopic Fields, but it’s repeated here for complete-
ness; it may well not be repeated in the lectures.]
For the more rigorous demonstration, we start by finding the potential at a point r due to a small volume of polarized
material at a point r0 . We will then integrate this over the entire piece of dielectric material. We write, using Eq. (3.17):
∆p (r0 ) · (r − r0 )
∆φ (r) = 3 (3.45)
4π0 |r − r0 |
∆v 0 P (r0 ) · (r − r0 )
= 3 (3.46)
4π0 |r − r0 |
When we take the limit ∆v → 0 and sum over the elements, we get an expression for the total potential:
dv 0 P (r0 ) · (r − r0 )
Z
φ (r) = 3 (3.47)
V 4π0 |r − r0 |
Using the formula for ∇ · (φF) from the Mathematical Identities, and rearranging (we want F · ∇φ) we can write:
P (r0 )
Z
1 1
φ (r) = ∇· − ∇ · P (r ) dv 0
0
(3.49)
4π0 V |r − r0 | |r − r0 |
Finally, we use the divergence theorem on the first term to give the potential outside a polarized dielectric object:
P (r0 ) · n 0 −∇ · P (r0 ) 0
I Z
1 1
φ (r) = da + dv (3.50)
4π0 S |r − r0 | 4π0 V |r − r0 |
σP = P · n (3.51)
ρP = −∇ · P (3.52)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Does this mean that the dielectric is now charged? To understand this, consider a polarized dielectric, with volume V0 .
We must consider the outside surface S0 , and its associated polarization charge density. Using the divergence theorem we
can write:
Z I
QP = ρP dv + σP da (3.55)
ZV0 S0
I
= −∇ · Pdv + P · nda (3.56)
V0
I I S0
= − P · nda + P · nda = 0. (3.57)
S0 S0
So the overall dielectric is electrically neutral (which we assumed at the start). However, the field can be non-zero: in
particular, if there is an applied external field inducing the polarization, then the dielectric itself will affect that field. For
completeness, note that we can write:
!
σP (r − r0 ) 0 ρP (r − r0 ) 0
I Z
1
E (r) = da + 3 dv (3.58)
4π0 0 3 |r − r0 |
S |r − r | V
Geometry
• Current loop, radius a, current I at origin
• We consider the magnetic induction at a point P
• Using cylindrical polar coordinates, P = (R, φ, z)
• Small element of loop dl at P0 = (a, φ0 , 0)
• Vector from dl to P is r
There are two ways to do this derivation: first, using a multipole expansion and approximating the loop by its dipole
moment (which will be given briefly now); second, more fully and slowly, leading to a full expression for the vector
potential in terms of elliptic integrals. The approximation for the elliptical integral leads to the same result as the dipole
moment.
2011 36
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
J(r0 )
Z
µ0
A(r) = dv 0 (3.59)
4π |r − r0 |
For a constant current I in an arbitrary loop, with Jdv ⇒ Idl, we can rewrite the volume integral as a line integral.
Re-introducing the vector R = r − r0 , we write:
dl0
Z
µ0 I
A(r) = (3.60)
4π |R|
As with the potential of a charge distribution, we now need to write |R| in terms of r and r0 . Using Legendre polynomials
again, and recalling that the angle between r and r0 is θ, we find by substituting into Eq. (3.60) that:
∞ I
µ0 I X 1
A(r) = (r0 )n Pn (cos θ)dl0 (3.61)
4π 0 rn+1
I I I
µ0 I 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 3 2 1
= dl + 2 r cos θdl + 3 (r ) cos θ − + ... (3.62)
4π r r r 2 2
Now notice that the first term (the monopole term) is multiplied by a closed loop integral with integrand 1, which
is identically zero (it is not surprising that the monopole term disappears as we started from the assumption H 0 that there
are no monopoles). So the first non-zero term in the expansion is a dipole term; we will use the identity r cos θdl0 =
0 0
H R 0
(r̂ · r )dl = −r̂ × da to simplify this. Then the dipole term only is:
I
µ0 I
Adip (r) = r0 cos θdl0 (3.63)
4πr2
µ0 I da0 × r̂
R
µ0 m × r̂
= = , (3.64)
4π r2 4π r2
where m = I da0 = Ia is the magnetic dipole moment. This derivation allows a full expansion to be made for an
R
arbitrary current loop; far from this loop it behaves like a dipole. This vector potential will be seen again below.
[End of multipole expansion for arbitrary current loop]
We now return to the derivation of the vector potential for a circular current loop. Let us consider first how to write
the vector for the small element of loop, dl:
Here we’ve used the standard two-dimensional formula for arc length, and projected it onto Cartesian vectors. Note that
we want the direction of dl to be tangential to the current loop; so at φ0 = 0 it lies along y-axis, at φ0 = π/2 it lies along
the x-axis but in the opposite direction etc. We’ve basically taken the gradient of the position on the unit circle.
We now consider the magnetic induction due to the current loop. One approach would be to use the Biot-Savart law,
and integrate around the current loop, but this quickly becomes very complicated. Instead, we will use the vector potential;
this isn’t trivial, but it’s easier, and allows us to get further.
First we notice that we can change Jdv ⇒ Idl for a constant current through the loop.
Vector Potential
• We can write for the vector potential at P (a point, not polarization!):
J (P0 )
Z
µ0
A (P) = dv (3.66)
4π V |P − P0 |
I
µ0 I dl
= (3.67)
4π |r|
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
2011 38
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Form of A
• Far from the dipole (or near the axis), we can write:
µ0 I a2 R
Aφ = (3.87)
4 (R2 + a2 + z 2 ) 23
µ0 Ia2 R
Aφ = (3.88)
4 (R2 + z 2 ) 32
µ0 Ia2 sin θ
= (3.89)
4 r2
• Valid if R2 + z 2 > a2
Now that we have the vector potential, we can recover the magnetic induction, B. We write:
ir riθ r sin θiφ
1 ∂
∂ ∂
B=∇×A= 2 (3.90)
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ
Ar rAθ r sin θAφ
But we know that A only has a component in the φ direction, which simplifies things considerably! We can write the
different components of B as follows:
1 ∂
Br = (r sin θAφ ) (3.91)
r2 sin θ ∂θ
1 ∂Aφ 1
= + r cos θAφ (3.92)
r ∂θ r2 sin θ
2
µ0 Ia cos θ cos θ sin θ
= + (3.93)
4 r3 sin θ r3
Bφ = 0 (3.94)
r ∂
Bθ = − (r sin θAφ ) (3.95)
r2 sin θ ∂r
1 ∂Aφ
= − sin θAφ − r sin θ (3.96)
r sin θ ∂r
−µ0 Ia2 sin θ
sin θ
= − 2 (3.97)
4 r3 r3
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Form of B
Components of B:
µ0 Ia2 cos θ
Br = (3.98)
2 r3
Bφ = 0 (3.99)
µ0 Ia2 sin θ
Bθ = (3.100)
4 r3
• These are identical to the electric dipole far from the dipole
The electric dipole consists of two charge aligned along the dipole axis, while the magnetic dipole consists of a current
loop lying in the plane perpendicular to the dipole axis. Field lines for the electric dipole start and end on the charges,
while the field lines for the magnetic dipole form closed loops (see Fig. 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Illustration of field lines for an electric dipole (left) and for a magnetic current loop (right). The plane of the
current loop is perpendicular to the page, so that it would be coming out and going into the page.
2011 40
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Magnetization
• Electrons move in loops around atoms: we can use the magnetic dipole to model the response
Microscopic Origin
1 X
M = lim mi (3.101)
∆V →0 ∆V
i
• This is analogous to the polarization (electric dipole moment per unit volume)
Approach
If there is a net magnetization of M, then given that the volume of the sample is St, the magnetic field (at large
distances) is the same as would come from a dipole of size StM . The magnetization is perpendicular to the surface of the
slab.
Now consider a small strip of current loops, ABCD, shown in the bottom of Fig. 3.7. For each loop with a component
to the right, there is an equal and opposite loop with a component to the left; for the strip PQRS, for each current going
up there is an equal and opposite current going down. From a distance which is large compared to the current loops, these
will cancel out (this can be shown with the Biot-Savart law).
However, at the boundary of the material there are no loops to cancel out the edge loops. This will give us a surface
magnetization current density jM , analogous to surface polarization charge density in a dielectric.
We know that the dipole moment is StM. The surface magnetization current density is equivalent to a current of
magnitude jM t. But a current loop has dipole moment of magnitude IS, so we know that StM = IS, and jM = I/t = M .
As jM is perpendicular to the magnetization, we can write:
jM = M × n (3.102)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
• The net downward current is larger than the net upward current
Let us make a more rigorous derivation of the dependence of the magnetization on the volume magnetization current
density.
Figure 3.9 shows two small volumes in a piece of non-uniformly magnetised material. They have dimension dx, dy, dz,
and are located at (x, y, z) and (x, y + dy, z). The magnetization in the first element will be taken as M(x, y, z), and we
assume that the materials behave linearly. Then the magnetization in the second material can be written:
∂M
M(x, y + dy, z) = M(x, y, z) + dy + . . . (3.103)
∂y
As indicated in Fig. 3.9, we will concentrate on the x-component of magnetization, Mx , which arises from small circu-
lating currents Ic and IRc0 . Now, the magnetic moment of the first small element is Mdxdydz,
H which can be written as
Ic dydz (since m = 21 I r × dl, we need the current multiplied by the surface area and 2a = r × dl). So we can write
for both elements:
Now the net current flowing in the z-direction on the boundary between the small elements is Ic − Ic0 . Using
Eqs. (3.104) & (3.105) we can write:
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
∂Mx
Ic − Ic0 = Mx dx − Mx + dy dx
∂y
∂Mx
= − dydx (3.106)
∂y
There is another contribution to the current flowing in the z-direction in the first element (i.e. the one at (x, y, z)) that
comes from a similar consideration involving another small volume element, this time at (x + dx, y, z); this would be in
front of the first element in Fig. 3.9. Here we write:
My dxdydz = Ic00 dxdz (3.107)
∂My
My + dx dxdydz = Ic000 dxdz (3.108)
∂x
This time we’re considering the current flowing around the face perpendicular to the y-direction. The net current in the
z-direction this time is given by Ic000 − Ic00 , which gives:
∂My
Ic000 − Ic00 = dydx (3.109)
∂x
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From these two contributions to the current, and the knowledge of the surface area of the small element, we can write the
net current density:
∂My ∂Mx
JM z = − (3.110)
∂x ∂y
Now this is easily recognised as part of the formula for a curl. We can perform similar calculations for the other two
directions.
Full Result
• The final result we obtain is, as before:
∂Mz ∂My ∂Mx ∂Mz
JM = − i+ − j
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
∂My ∂Mx
+ − k (3.111)
∂x ∂y
JM = ∇×M (3.112)
JM = ∇×M (3.120)
jM = M×n (3.121)
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M = χm H (3.122)
• We can write B = µ0 (1 + χm ) H = µ0 µr H
• Note that χm can depend on temperature, but is generally small for these materials (less than 10−5 )
Diamagnetism
• As |H| increases, |B| increases, so there is more flux through each loop
• From Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws, we can show that a voltage develops to oppose the change in flux
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Paramagnetism
• Some free intrinsic moments (e.g. unpaired electrons)
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Chapter 4
Ferromagnetism
A wonder of such nature I experienced as a child of 4 or 5 years, when my father showed me a compass. That
this needle behaved in such a determined way did not at all fit into the nature of events which could find a
place in the unconscious world of concepts (effects connected with direct touch). I can still remember - or at
least believe I can remember - that this experience made a deep and lasting impression upon me. Something
deeply hidden had to be behind things.
- A. Einstein
Ferromagnetism represents the earliest discovery of a phenomenon which results from quantum phenomena: lode-
stones were used in navigation by the Phoenicians several thousand years ago, while the detailed understanding of ferro-
magnetism was not worked out until 1928 (by Heisenberg). We will cover the details at a qualitative level only.
Intrinsic Moments
In ferromagnetic materials, the configuration which has the lowest potential energy is with the spins aligned parallel
to each other. This is not what would be expected from a simple picture of bar magnets, for instance. A full understanding
of the phenomenon requires a careful quantum mechanical treatment of the problem, which turns out to arise from an
exchange integral and the Pauli exclusion principle. An approximate, classical understanding was first put forward by
Weiss who postulated the existence of an unspecified field (now known as the Weiss, or mean, molecular field) such that:
Hm = γM. (4.1)
In other words, there is some field due to the magnetic moments at the atomic level. For a ferromagnetic material, the
value of M must arise to a large extent from the individual moments, N m0 (where m0 is the individual moment). This
requires a value of γ to be around 1,000; a simple derivation similar to that used for dielectrics and polarization would
predict 31 . Nevertheless, if this theory is followed through, it predicts a change of magnetization with temperature which
is in approximate agreement with experimental measurements, including a prediction that there is a temperature at which
the spontaneous magnetization vanishes (the Curie temperature).
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FM Orientations
• Ferromagnetic ordering can take different forms
• The defining characteristic is a local, parallel ordering
• Ordering depends on temperature
• Ordering may only be local
Other Orientations
• Anti-ferromagnetic ordering has anti-parallel local ordering
• Ferrimagnetic ordering shows both spin components but a net moment
• Also known as ferrite materials
• Important materials (more later)
It is important to note that the ordering only applies when the energy gained from aligning the spins in certain ways is
more than the random thermal energy available to the atoms; once this condition fails to hold, all these effects are washed
out and the materials behave as ordinary paramagnetic materials. The temperatures are known as the Curie temperature
(ferromagnetic) and the Néel temperature (anti-ferromagnetic).
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What will happen as a ferromagnetic material is cooled through this transition temperature without an external field?
The system starts in a non-ordered state, where the random thermal motion has a large enough amplitude to overcome
the short-range forces between spins. There is a symmetry to the individual spins, in that there is no preferred direction
(hence a spherical symmetry). As the temperature passes through the Curie temperature for the material, local atomic
ordering in some arbitrary direction (there is no external field, remember) will appear. This is an example of a rather
general phenomenon called spontaneous symmetry breaking (suddenly there is a preferred direction for the alignment of
the moment, and the spherical symmetry is broken).
Domains Locally, there will be a tendency for atoms to align, due to the short-ranged interaction between them. This
will lead to the formation of small groups (called “domains”) of aligned atoms. On a larger scale, these domains will not
have any relationship to each other initially. However, the circulation of the electrons (whose unpaired spins on the atoms
give rise to the local moments) also lead to a magnetic field. Locally, this is much smaller than the moments, and have
no effect. However, at long ranges, the total magnetic field of a domain can lead to a significant field. At this level, it is
better for domains to align in an opposed manner (by analogy to a bar magnet). In a ferromagnetic material, domains can
extend across tens of microns.
• Domains are a consequence of the conflict between the short-range exchange interaction and the long-range mag-
netic force
• The magnetic sample breaks up into small regions, or domains, typically 0.001 - 0.01 mm across
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• The long-range magnetic energy is minimised and the exchange energy is sacrificed only in the region of the walls
between the domains. In this region the loss of exchange energy is minimised by the dipoles twisting gently over
so that each dipole is very nearly parallel to its neighbour. This structure is called a Bloch wall
Figure 4.5: The structure of the Bloch wall separating domains. In Fe, the thickness of the transition region is about 300
lattice constants.
• The magnetic properties of a ferromagnet are not determined by the intrinsic interactions between the atoms, but
by the ease or difficulty with which the domain walls can move through the solid: very easy in a perfect crystal, but
pinned by crystalline defects
• B = µ0 (H + M) gives B H
Hysteresis First, we note that the response of a paramagnetic material would be almost invisible in Fig. 4.6; the response
of B essentially parallels the H axis.
The normal magnetization curve (dotted line in Fig. 4.6) traces out the value of B reached for a given value of H
starting from an unmagnetised sample. So initially, we would measure a value of B which followed the normal magne-
tization curve. Now, when point 1 (H1 , B1 ) is reached, imagine that the field H is reversed. Initially, the magnetization
is not affected, and the normal curve is not traced; the B field remains nearly constant, and cuts the H = 0 axis at point
2. If we continue to reverse H (with negative values) then the magnetization responds, and drops, so that at point 3 the
B field is zero (with a finite H field). As the H field is decreased further, the magnetization continues to respond, and at
point 4 we reach (−H1 , −B1 ). If H is again reversed (and brought back to zero) then as before, the magnetization does
not respond until the H field is opposed to it (to a good approximation). As the H field is increased back towards the
value H1 , the B field drops to zero (at point 5) and then increases until we return to point 1. This entire process is called
a “minor hysteresis loop”.
If we now increase the H field beyond point 1, we will follow the normal magnetization curve until the material
cannot be magnetised any further (all domains are aligned). At this point (point 6) the magnitude of the magnetization
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|M| → Ms , the saturation magnetization. To the right of this point (i.e. for larger values of the H field) the B field
increases slowly, due only to the term µ0 H.
If we reverse H from any point to the right of point 6 (whose coordinates are (Bs , Hs ), the saturation values of B and
H) then we trace out the “major hysteresis loop”. The value of B when it crosses the H = 0 axis on this loop is called
the remanence, Br . The (negative) value of H required to reduce B to zero on the major loop is called the coercivity,
Hc . When point 7 is reached, then the reverse saturation has been reached, and the loop continues back through point 8
to point 6.
Definitions
Be careful with µr−eff : it is (sometimes) loosely defined as “the point where a straight line from the origin is tangent
to the B/H curve”. There is also the maximum differential permeability, taken as the maximum slope of the B-H curve.
µr−eff can also be referred to as Kmax , with K = µ/µ0 .
Properties
Mumetal is 5% Cu, 2% Cr, 77% Ni, 16% Fe. Alnico varies but is majority Fe, with Al, Ni and Co alloyed. Note that we
have two different types of magnetic materials: soft ones (always have a low coercivity, and sometimes a low remanence
but high µr−eff ) which are easy to magnetise and demagnetise (WHY?) and so are used in transformers (frequent changes
in magnetization) of in shielding; and hard ones (large coercivity and remanence) which are hard to demagnetise once
magnetised and are used as permanent magnets.
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Figure 4.7: Measured B-H curve for a thin steel sample, with µ/µ0 (= B/H) and dB/dH calculated from the data
At this point, I’ll describe three magnetization curves: one which is almost linear (very soft, low remanence and
coercivity for conventional transformers); a narrow, almost rectangular one (soft, low coercivity but high remanence for
magnetic memory, switching transformers); and a wide, standard one (for hard, permanent magnets).
The best steels used for electromagnets saturate with Bs around 2T; looking at Table 4.1 and Figure 4.7, we can see
that this is several thousand times the induction that would be found for the same value of H without the ferromagnetic
materials (e.g. with a coil).
Ferrimagnets are dielectrics (in other words, while they still have some of the intrinsic moments that give strong mag-
netic amplification, they do not conduct well) and so will not dissipate energy through eddy currents, and are particularly
useful at high frequencies.
Figure 4.8: The hysteresis curves of (a) a hard and (b) a soft magnetic material.
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More Properties
Table 4.2: Table of critical temperatures and saturation magnetization for ferro-, antiferro- and ferrimagnetic materials
4.3.1 Solenoid
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µ0 Ia2 R
Aφ = (4.2)
4 (a2 + z 2 ) 23
Side note: recall that the full expression is:
2π
cos φ0 dφ0
Z
µ0 Ia
Aφ = 1 (4.3)
4π 0 {R2 + a2 + z 2 − 2aR cos φ0 } 2
We note that for the very long solenoid this expression will result in an axial magnetic field without the assumptions used
about being close to the axis. This could be understood by considering the radial component of B off axis, which is an odd
3
function ( dzz/ z 2 + b2 2 ) and will integrate to zero exactly for an infinite solenoid. So we continue with the simpler
R
expression!
Using the expression for B = ∇ × A in cylindrical polar coordinates, we find that, with
i Riφ iz
1 ∂R ∂ ∂
∇ × A = ∂R ∂φ ∂z , (4.4)
R
AR RAφ Az
then
µ0 Ia2 −3zR
dBR = (4.5)
4 (a2 + z 2 ) 52
µ0 Ia2 2
dBz = (4.6)
4 (a2 + z 2 ) 32
dBφ = 0 (4.7)
But this is just due to a current ring. For the full solenoid, integrating z over the length of the solenoid to find a field at ζ,
we need the expression:
Z L
N
B(ζ) = dB(z − ζ)dz (4.8)
0 L
There are various important points to note about these equations above:
• On the axis, the B field is always axial (R = 0)
• At the centre of any solenoid, the B field is always axial (the integral of an odd function is zero)
• For an infinite solenoid, the B field is always axial (as above, the integral of an odd function gives zero)
• We don’t expect the field to remain axial near the ends of a solenoid: from far away it takes on the classic curved
field of a bar magnet
The expression for BR shows that the field remains nearly axial as we move away from the centre and the axis:
µ0 Ia2 N L −3 (z − ζ) R
Z
BR (ζ) = 5 dz (4.9)
4L 0
2 2 2
a + (z − ζ)
and with b = z − ζ,
" #b=L/2−δ
µ0 Ia2 RN 1
= 3 ⇒ 0, (4.10)
4L (a2 + b2 ) 2 b=−L/2−δ
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where we’ve assumed in the last line that the position ζ = L/2+δ, in other words a little way away from the centre. Under
these circumstances (and remembering that the expression we’re using for the vector potential relies on the approximation
R a) we can see that the B field remains axial. What then is the value of the axial field?
L
µ0 Ia2 N
Z
2
Bz (ζ) = 32 dz (4.11)
4L 0
2
a2 + (z − ζ)
µ0 Ia2 N θ2
Z
= (2/a2 ) cos θdθ (4.12)
4L θ1
µ0 IN θ
= [sin θ]θ21 (4.13)
2L
µ0 IN
= as L → ∞ (4.14)
L
We have used the substitution z − ζ = a tan θ to evaluate the integral, and noted that the limits θ1 and θ2 will tend to − π2
and π2 respectively in the limit used.
Note, if we apply Ampère’s Law to a rectangular loop outside the solenoid, loop 1 of Fig. 4.10, since Ienc = 0, and
since B goes to zero for large R, it can be deduced that the field is zero everywhere:
I
B · d(l) = [B(a) − B(b)] L = µ0 Ienc = 0 (4.15)
And, using Ampère’s Law with a loop that straddles the solenoid wall, loop 2 of Fig. 4.10, we get
I
B · d(l) = BL = µ0 Ienc = µ0 N I (4.17)
as previously deduced.
Key Results
• Far from the ends, field is axial.
• Remember that ∇ × B = µ0 J
– But J = 0 inside the solenoid
– We can show that this gives x̂ ∂B ∂Bz
∂y − ŷ ∂x = 0
z
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But if we are considering a very long solenoid, then we know that outside the system, near the centre (far from the ends)
the field lines will spread out in space in a dipole pattern, on a scale equivalent to the length. This means that as the length
moves to infinity, Bout will tend to zero. [Because the field lines are tending to be parallel to the solenoid axis so we can
extend the sides BC and DA without affecting the loop integral. The contribution from side AB is therefore a constant;
but it goes to zero at infinity, hence BAB = 0 everywhere.]
Magnetic Field
• We find:
Bz dl = µ0 jdl (4.19)
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4.3.3 Toroid
• A toroidal, closed FM loop
• Closed lines of B
• Assume radius of ring R r, x-section radius
• N turns total, current I
We assume that the curvature is small, so that locally B, H and M are parallel to each other, uniform across the
cross-section and tangential. A circular loop integral of radius R will have the same value of H at every point, so:
I
H · dl = H.2πR = N I, (4.20)
so that H = N I/2πR. In other words, we can impose any value of H that we like by varying N , I or R. However, note
that the magnetization, M, and the induction, B, will depend on the history, with M H and B = µ0 (H + M) µ0 H
for a ferromagnetic core.
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4.3.4 Fluxmeter
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• So we have:
Vout (t) = C∆B(t) (4.28)
• with C a measurable constant
• We impose H via current, toroidal loop
• We measure B via fluxmeter output
• This provides direct evidence of B and H, and so M as well
• Plot hysteresis loops etc
Energy in circuit
• Work done moving dq = Idt is:
V dq = V Idt = −EIdt + I 2 Rdt (4.29)
2
• If we ignore Ohmic losses (I R), dWb = IdΦ
• This is the energy required to maintain the current I
We can generalise to many circuits, as illustrated in Fig. 4.15:
n
X
dWb = Ii dΦi (4.30)
i=1
We can assume (for rigid circuits in a linear magnetic medium) that we can start from a zero current state, and increase
all currents linearly with a parameter α which will go from zero to one. Then:
Ii0 = αIi (4.31)
dΦi = Φi dα (4.32)
Z Z 1 n
X
dWb = dα Ii αΦi (4.33)
0 i=1
Z 1
X 1X
Wb = I i Φi αdα = Ii Φi (4.34)
i 0 2 i
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• More generally, U = 21 H · B
We can write: Z I
Φi = B · nda = A · dli (4.36)
Si Ci
But we’re interested in the magnetic energy density in a general medium, not a collection of circuits. So we will replace
Ii dli with Jdv
P H(the sameRquantity as our circuits give as we go to a large number of closed loops through a medium) and
we replace i Ci with V to get:
Z
1
U= J · Adv (4.38)
2 V
But we want to convert this into an expression involving B and H. We can use ∇ × H = J and ∇ · (A × H) =
H · ∇ × A − A · ∇ × H to write:
Z Z
1 1
U = H · ∇ × Adv − ∇ · (A × H) dv (4.39)
2 V 2 V
Z Z
1
= H · Bdv − (A × H) · nda (4.40)
2 V S
But as we take the volume we consider towards infinity, the surface integral will tend to zero (H falls off like 1/r2 , A like
1/r at least, but da ∝ r2 ). So the energy density is U = 21 H · B
4.5 Summaries
Summary of Linear Media
• D = 0 E + P
• P = 0 χe E so D = E, with = 0 (1 + χe )
• ∇ · D = ρf
• H = B/µ0 − M
• M = χm H so B = µ0 µr H with µr = 1 + χm
• ∇ × H = Jf
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Chapter 5
Correcting Ampère
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Where does the problem come from? Let us consider a closed surface integral over the current density by joining
together the two surfaces mentioned above. In this case, we note that there is a net inflow of charge (which sits on the
plate of the capacitor inside the surface). We turn to the continuity equation to correct this problem, but where does it
come from? As with many parts of electromagnetism, it is an empirically derived observation. We can define the current
density in a general volume of space as:
X
J= Ni qi vi , (5.2)
i
where we sum over the different types of charge carrier, and Ni gives the number of charge carriers of type i per unit
volume. The current passing through an element of area, da, is dI = J · nda. Then the current through an arbitrary
surface S can be written: I Z
I=− J · nda = − ∇ · Jdv, (5.3)
S
where we have used the divergence theorem, and have a minus sign because charge is flowing into the volume.
Here we have defined current in terms of the rate of flow of charge. But we could also define something with the
dimensions of current as the rate of accumulation of charge in some region. Now the current is defined as I = dQ
dt which
we can write as:
Z
dQ d
I = = ρdv
dt dt V
Z
∂ρ
= dv, (5.4)
V ∂t
since the volume is fixed in time. The law of conservation of charge says that these two currents are in fact the same thing,
so equating them we find:
Z Z
∂ρ
dv = − ∇ · Jdv
V ∂t
Z
∂ρ
⇒ + ∇ · J dv = 0. (5.5)
v ∂t
There is only one way that this can be fulfilled for an arbitrary volume, V . We require:
∂ρ
∇·J+ = 0. (5.6)
∂t
This is the continuity equation (which assumes that charge is conserved).
Let us return to Ampère’s law, and remind ourselves of the differential form:
∇ × H = Jf . (5.7)
∇ · (∇ × H) (= 0) = ∇ · Jf , (5.8)
where we have used the identity that the divergence of a curl is zero. (Note that we’ll use this idea again in little while.)
So we have to change eq. (5.7) to account for the change of charge density and its associated fields with time. Since
∇ · D = ρf , we can rewrite the continuity equation as follows:
∂∇ · D
∇ · Jf + = 0 (5.9)
∂t
∂D
∇ · Jf + = 0 (5.10)
∂t
(5.11)
∂D
It was Maxwell’s insight to suggest that if we replace the term J in Ampère’s law with Jf + ∂t then taking the
divergence of Ampère’s Law would make sense. This gives use the Ampère-Maxwell equation:
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Ampère-Maxwell Equation
∂D
Jf + =∇×H (5.12)
∂t
Notice that we’ve now gone back to the more general form using D and H, which applies in a vacuum and in a
dielectric or magnetic medium; this is why we use Jf throughout for the current density.
Returning briefly to the capacitor illustration, we can now show that the two surfaces give the same result. The surface
integral in the first case (cutting the wire) gives I, the total current flowing through the wire. The surface passing between
the plates requires us to integrate ∂D/∂t. The E field will be given by σ/0 if we ignore edge effects, with σ = It/A for
plates of area A. Integrating over surface area, scaling by 0 (to get D) and differentiating with respect to time we get the
result that the integral is I, as for the first surface. This is a little qualitative, but serves to illustrate the effect of the extra
term which Maxwell added. No problem!
∂D
∇×H = Jf + (Ampère-Maxwell) (5.13)
∂t
∂B
∇×E = − (Faraday) (5.14)
∂t
∇·D = ρf (Coulomb-Gauss) (5.15)
∇·B = 0 (Biot-Savart+) (5.16)
I Z
∂D
H · dl = Jf + · nda (5.17)
∂t
IC S
Z
∂B dΦ
E · dl = − · nda = − (5.18)
∂t dt
I C Z S
D · nda = ρf dv (5.19)
S v
I
B · nda = 0 (5.20)
S
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Equation for H
• We find that:
∂H ∂2H
∇2 H − gµ − µ 2 = 0 (5.23)
∂t ∂t
• This is a wave equation for H, with damping proportional to gµ
• A finite resistance dissipates energy (e.g. metal, plasma)
• As g → 0 (a non-conducting medium), we recover:
∂2H
∇2 H = µ (5.24)
∂t2
• Repeat the procedure for Faraday’s law
Taking the curl of Faraday’s law, we find:
∂
∇×∇×E = − ∇×B (5.25)
∂t
∂Jf ∂2D
∇ (∇ · E) − ∇2 E = −µ −µ 2 (5.26)
∂t ∂t
(5.27)
Again, we assume that Jf = gE and further that there are no free charges (so ∇ · E = 0).
Equation for E
• We find that:
∂E ∂2E
∇2 E − gµ − µ 2 = 0 (5.28)
∂t ∂t
• This is a wave equation for E; as before, if g → 0 we find:
∂2E
∇2 E = µ (5.29)
∂t2
√
• Notice that the speed of the wave is c = 1/ µ.
• We can get equations for D and B from linearity: D = E and B = µH
• The solutions will be plane waves:
H(r, t) = H0 ei(kH ·r−ωH t) (5.30)
i(kE ·r−ωE t)
E(r, t) = E0 e (5.31)
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We can then find the link by applying Faraday’s law, ∇ × E = −∂B/∂t. First, some useful vector calculus results for
C = C0 ei(k·r−ωt+φ) :
∂C
= −iωC (5.34)
∂t
∇ · C = ik · C (5.35)
∇ × C = ik × C (5.36)
These are fairly obvious, and easily checked for Cartesian coordinates, e.g. :
Now, applying these results to Faraday’s law [∇ × E = −∂B/∂t] and Eq. (5.32) and (5.33), we find:
Since r and t are independent variables, and this equation must apply throughout space and time (i.e. for any values of r
and t) then we must have:
kE = kB (5.39)
ωE = ωB (5.40)
φE = φB (5.41)
Electromagnetic Waves
• To fulfil Faraday’s law, we have kB = kE = k
• Also ωB = ωE = ω and φB = φE = φ
• Then the link between electric and magnetic fields is:
k × E0 = ωB0 (5.42)
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Illustration
• B is perpendicular to k, E
• Since ∇ · E = ik · E = 0, k & E are perpendicular
• A transverse electric & magnetic wave (TEM)
We can also relate the magnitudes of the fields:
E0
B0 = , (5.44)
vp
and in a vacuum vp = c, the speed of light. We will see later that a refractive index, n = c/vp which is used in optics.
Notice that so far we have considered only monochromatic light: a single value of ω. However, this is not a restriction
as we can write: X
E= E(ka , ωa )ei(ka ·r−ωa t) (5.45)
a
This superposition of electromagnetic waves of different frequency is, of course, just a Fourier series, and can represent
any propagating wave which is a periodic function. If we take the limit of the sum to get an integral we will recover the
Fourier transform E(k, ω) and any function can be represented.
5.4 Polarization
The Vector E0
• We have discussed a special case: plane or linearly polarized light
• In general, E0 is complex and has freedom
• We assume propagation along z-axis, k = (0, 0, k)
• Ex & Ey have independent amplitude and phase
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
Now, physically we want to know what the real part of E is (though this must be done carefully: if you do this too early
you can throw away important solutions, like evanescent waves). We write:
Re [E(r, t)] = cos (kz + φx ) (E0x cos (−ωt) i + E0y cos (φy − φx − ωt) j)
+ sin (kz + φx ) (E0x sin (ωt) i − E0y sin (φy − φx − ωt) j) (5.49)
Phase Relation
• The real part of E is:
ERe = cos (kz + φx ) (E0x cos (ωt) i + E0y cos (ωt − φ) j)
+ sin (kz + φx ) (E0x sin (ωt) i + E0y sin (ωt − φ) j) (5.50)
Figure 5.3: The path traced by the tip of electric field vector of an elliptically polarized electromagnetic plane wave
Types of Polarization
Figure 5.4: The path traced by the tip of the electric field vector at a given plane in space over time for elliptical polariza-
tion; the propagation is out of the page.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
Types
• If E0x 6= E0y for plane polarization, then the plane is at an angle θ = tan−1 (Ey0 /Ex0 )
• Unpolarised light has the polarization varying randomly with time (only possible for spectral continuum)
• “Ordinary” light sources (e.g. light bulb, sun) give this
• Partially polarized light is a mix of specific kinds, or light which has had a plane imposed (e.g. using Polaroid filter)
• Basic property is the relation of the x and y vectors in the field
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Chapter 6
Let’s start with Ampère’s law, in a linear conducting medium of conductivity g (we can always set this to zero later
to recover a dielectric):
∂D
∇×H = J+ (6.1)
∂t
J = gE (6.2)
Let’s also assume that we can write the electric displacement and the magnetic intensity as plane waves, with a phase
between them:
When these are substituted into Ampère’s law, using standard manipulations first, and then asserting linear, isotropic
media (B = µ0 H, µ ≈ 1 for most linear media, and D = r 0 E) we can write:
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
with µ0 0 = 1/c2 . Looking back to our solution for plane waves in vacuum, we would have seen k × B0 = − cω2 r E0
with r = 1. We can write:
g
ˆ = r + i (6.10)
0 ω
ω
k × B0 = − ˆE0 (6.11)
c2
We will assume that k · E = 0 (i.e., that ∇ · E = 0) and Eis transverse. This is true for a dielectric with no free charge
or a low frequency wave in a conductor where free charges disperse rapidly. There can be significant local accumulation
of free charges, for example in a conductor with high frequency waves or certain modes of oscillation in a plasma.
k × E0 = ωB0 (6.12)
k × (k × E0 ) = ωk × B0 (6.13)
ω2
(k · E0 ) k − k 2 E0 = − 2 ˆE0 (6.14)
c
• We see, finally, that:
ω2
k 2 = ˆ (6.15)
c2
• But the phase velocity,
ω c c
vp = =√ =
k ˆ n
.
• Note that this means k = nω/c
• What about the two cases?
√
- A dielectric simply has n = r
- A conducting system has a complex dielectric constant and refractive index
• So the refractive index comes directly from the dielectric constant
Consider the boundary region: what will happen to E(r, t), E0 (r, t) and E00 (r, t) if we move from r to r + d? We can
write:
In other words, there is only a change of phase. Now, we know that there are boundary conditions of some kind at the
interface, by definition. We can get quite a long way just with this assumption. The whole of electromagnetism is assumed
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Figure 6.1: Wave with wavevector k incident at point P travelling from medium with refractive index n to medium with
refractive index n0 .
to be linear, so we assume that whatever the detailed form of the boundary conditions (which we will come to soon), some
specific linear combinations of components of the three fields will be equal. This can only be fulfilled if:
k · d = k0 · d = k00 · d, (6.19)
for any vector d in the interface. Now write this vector as:
d = d⊥ + dk , (6.20)
where dk lies in the plane of the diagram and d⊥ perpendicular to it. By definition, k · d⊥ = 0, as the incident wave is in
the plane of the diagram. Unless we are dealing with an anisotropic material (which we assume that we’re not for now)
this implies that k0 and k00 are coplanar with k. Considering the angles, we can write:
π
k · dk = k cos − α = k sin α (6.21)
2
k0 · dk = k 0 sin α0 (6.22)
k00 · dk = k 00 sin α00 (6.23)
But k = k 00 (as they’re in the same medium).
α = α00 (6.24)
Snell’s Law
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
• By using boundary conditions on the fields, we will follow the amplitudes, since Energy ∝ A2
|E00 |
r = (6.26)
|E|
|E0 |
t = (6.27)
|E|
We start with an incident electromagnetic plane wave, whose electric field vector can be written as follows:
We assume that we can write D = E, which implies that the two vectors are parallel. We can also write (using results
from Section 6):
ωB0 = k × E0 , (6.29)
so the vector B is perpendicular to E. For the magnetic induction and intensity, we write, using k = k k̂ and k = ω/c0 =
√
ω µ:
√
B = µk̂ × E (6.30)
p
H = B/µ = /µk̂ × E. (6.31)
We must be careful about definitions now; the answers that we can derive for the electric field will be different if the
electric field vector lies in the plane of the wave vectors k, k0 and k00 and if it lies perpendicular to that plane (generally,
of course, we can resolve any field into these two components). We will treat the components parallel (Xk , where X
represents any vector) and perpendicular (X⊥ ) to the plane of incidence, the plane holding k, k0 and k00 , separately.
Some books talk about "s-polarization" and "p-polarization". The s-components are perpendicular to the plane of
incidence (s for senkrecht, the German word for "perpendicular"), i.e., X⊥ ≡ Xs . With p for "parallel", the p-components
are parallel to the plane of incidence, Xk ≡ Xp .
From Section 4, we know that components of B and D perpendicular to the interface are conserved, as are components
of E and H parallel to the surface (though these should not be confused with the previous parallel and perpendicular
terms!).
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Consider first the case of Ek . The components parallel to the surface are:
(It’s important to notice that E0 is perpendicular to k.) As H is perpendicular to E, it must lie entirely in the plane of the
interface, so:
We assume that µr = µ0r = 1 (pretty good unless we’re dealing with ferromagnetic materials). With µ = µ0 µr and
= 0 r , we then get:
√ √
r E0 + r E000 = 0r E00
p
(6.35)
√
But we know that r = n, so:
n (E0 + E000 ) = n0 E00 . (6.36)
What about transmission for Ek ? From Eq. (6.36) and (6.32) we can write:
n0 E00 − nE0
E000 = (6.41)
n
n0 E00 − nE0
E0 cos α − cos α = E00 cos α0 (6.42)
n
0 0
n cos α − n tk cos α + n cos α = tk n cos α (6.43)
0 0
tk [n cos α + n cos α] = 2n cos α (6.44)
2n cos α
tk = (6.45)
n cos α0 + n0 cos α
Now we turn to an electric field whose vector is oscillating perpendicular to the plane of the wave vectors k, k0 and
00
k which we write as E⊥ . This time, by contrast to Eqs. (6.32) and (6.33), we find:
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Fresnel Relations
n0 cos α − n cos α0
rk = (6.57)
n0 cos α + n cos α0
n cos α − n0 cos α0
r⊥ = (6.58)
n cos α + n0 cos α0
2n cos α
tk = (6.59)
n0 cos α + n cos α0
2n cos α
t⊥ = (6.60)
n cos α + n0 cos α0
pthat the energy transmitted in an electromagnetic wave is proportional to E × H, which (here) will be
We will see later
proportional to /µE02 . So the reflection and transmission coefficients are proportional to the square root of the power.
It will be useful to rewrite rk and r⊥ in a rather different form. We will not derive this form: it’s basic manipulation,
though quite long.
tan (α − α0 )
rk = (6.62)
tan (α + α0 )
sin (α − α0 )
r⊥ = (6.63)
sin (α + α0 )
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
• Thus, the reflected light will be polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence
where αB is the Brewster angle. But Snell’s law also tells us that n0 sin α0 = n sin αB .
Now, using our other expression for rk , tan(α−α0 )/ tan(α+α0 ), we can see that if α+α0 = π
2 then tan(α+α0 ) → ∞
so rk = 0. Then α0 = π2 − αB . Substituting into Snell’s law we see:
π
n0 sin − αB = n sin αB (6.65)
2
n0 cos αB = n sin αB (6.66)
(6.67)
Brewster Angle
n0
αB = tan−1 (6.68)
n
• Many shiny dielectrics (paint, wet roads etc) have n0 /nair ∼ 1.5, so αB ≈ 50 to 60◦
• The trivial solution is α = π/2, which explains glancing reflection from still lakes and glass
• There will be some angle α above which sin α0 > 1, which is unphysical
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Figure 6.4: Reflection coefficients of reflected EM waves from air/glass interface (in both directions) as a function of
angle, for components parallel (Rp ) and perpendicular (Rs ) to plane of incidence.
Critical Angle
n0
αC = sin−1 . (6.70)
n
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
6.3.4 Intensities
p
But what is wrong with asserting that sin θ > 1? It would imply that cos θ = 1 − sin2 θ would be imaginary. Let’s
assume that this is reasonable, and write:
cos α0 = iS, (6.72)
with S a real, positive number. What will this do to the reflection coefficients? They will have the form:
a − ib ρ exp (−iφ)
r= = = exp (−2iφ) (6.73)
a + ib ρ exp (+iφ)
The magnitude of this will always be one (as expected from before), meaning that all the power will be reflected, but it
will insert a phase shift (as E000 /E0 will be complex).
Now, the phase for a plane wave below the interface, when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, with
sin α0 = nn0 sin α - Snell’s Law, and using Eq. 6.72, is given by:
Evanescent Waves
• Using Eq. 6.75, we write for the electric field below the interface:
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
Chapter 7
7.1 Conductors
7.1.1 Origins
• All effects stem from the wave equation:
∂E ∂2E
∇2 E − gµ − µ 2 = 0 (7.1)
∂t ∂t
∇2 E = −k 2 E (7.3)
∂E
= −iωE (7.4)
∂t
∂2E
= −ω 2 E (7.5)
∂t2
Combining these, we can form the following equation:
−k 2 + iωgµ + ω 2 µ = 0 (7.6)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
√
• What is i?
• We can write:
√ π 12 1
i = exp i = exp iπ/4 = √ (1 + i) (7.9)
2 2
• So we write k = kr + iki
Naturally, we find: r
µgω
kr = ki = + (7.10)
2
Notice that both components of k are parallel to k itself. We can put this expression back into the expression for E.
• We define an attenuation:
E0 (d) = E0 (0) exp (−d/δ) (7.13)
Skin Depth
r
1 2
δ= = (7.14)
ki µωg
Figure 7.1: A pulse traveling along a good conductor is attenuated going into the conductor.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
Neither the electric field (E) nor the magnetic field (H) penetrate far into a "good" conductor. The point where these
fields are reduced by a factor of 1/e ≈ 1/2.71 is called the skin depth. Fig. 7.1 shows a good conductor and how a pulse
traveling along this conductor is attenuated going into the conductor.
Skin depth is dependent on the type of metal in the conductor and the frequency fields applied to the conductor. At
high frequencies the skin depth is very shallow, and the field are often considered to be 0 in a few millimeters. A general
rule is that at five times the skin depth the fields can be considered to be 0 (the actual value is (1/e)5 = 0.00674, which
is indeed quite small).
Skin depth is important in many pulsed power applications because it changes the effective resistance in a conductor,
and that only the surface of the conductor matters.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
7.3 Plasmas
A plasma is a condition of matter containing an appreciable fraction of freely moving charged particles. There are a
sufficient number of these charged particles to cause the electromagnetic properties of the medium to be significantly
different from those of solids, liquids or gases. For this reason, plasmas are sometimes referred to as the fourth state of
matter.
It is believed that most of the matter in the Universe is in the form of plasma, rather than gas or liquid or solid. This
may come as a surprise to you, but our immediate environment is not typical of the Universe. The freely moving charged
particles in a plasma (especially electrons) readily interact with electromagnetic fields, so plasmas in their various guises
throughout the Universe exhibit interesting and important phenomena.
A neutral plasma can be thought of as a group of massive, slowly moving positive ions with a cloud of free electrons
surrounding it (of density Ne electrons per unit volume) so that the whole system is neutral. The system is homogeneous
on macroscopic length scales, so that there are no large areas of positive or negative charge. If there is a local fluctuation,
so that the electrons are displaced by x, there is a resulting polarization, P = −Ne ex, leading to a restoring force on the
electrons.
In taking this approach we are expressing the local build up of charge density due to an electromagnetic wave in
the same way as we did for a dielectric: as an induced polarization charge density. It’s presence will later be expressed
through an effective permittivity, so we will be justified in setting ∇ · D = 0 and also ∇ · E = 0 for a linear medium.
The wave equation for E that we have used before will therefore remain valid.
Figure 7.2: A slab of plasma in which the electrons have been displaced by a small amount x.
The dipole moment per unit volume is P = Qs/As = Q/A = −Ne ex (and note that in the diagram above it will
lie in the negative x direction). The electric displacement, D = Q/A for a capacitor. If we assume that r ' 1, then we
write:
Q Ne exA P Ne ex
E= = =− = (7.24)
0 A 0 A 0 0
[Using the "no free charge" argument, as we did, does not really work since we can not say that D = 0, really, only that
∇ · D = 0.]
So there is an induced field, which we assume will exert a force equally on all the electrons in the slab. We write:
Ne e 2
F = −eE = − x (7.25)
0
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If the electrons are free to move under the action of this force, we should recognize it as giving the equation for simple
harmonic motion. Applying Newton’s Second Law:
d2 Ne e 2
2
x=− x (7.26)
dt me 0
This allows us to identify the plasma frequency, ωP :
Plasma Frequency
s
Ne e 2
ωP = , (7.27)
me 0
If we consider a charge density Ne = 1018 electrons per cubic metre, then the frequency is ωP ' 5.7 × 1010 s−1 .
7.3.2 Dispersion
• For an EM wave in a plasma, how does k depend on ω?
• Collisions between electrons and ions are assumed infrequent
• For a high frequency wave, consider free electrons
• (only for a few cycles)
• Compare to a metal where ohmic collisions dissipate energy
• We will find: !
ω2 ωp2
k2 = 2 1− 2 (7.28)
c ω
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
The factor of i will introduce a phase shift between J and E of π/2 (check that you understand why!).
If we return to the slab considered above (and illustrated in Fig. 7.2) we know that D = 0 E + P = r 0 E. But the
polarization P = −Ne ex so:
∂x ∂P
J = −Ne ev = −Ne e = (7.36)
∂t ∂t
There is a contribution to the electric displacement, D, in the plasma from a time-dependent polarization, which in turn
arises from the movement of the electrons. There is also a contribution from the electric field (which will also change
with time) so that we can write:
∂D ∂E ∂E
= 0 + J = r 0 (7.37)
∂t ∂t ∂t
where we have defined an effective relative permittivity. Hence
∂E
0 (r − 1) =J (7.38)
∂t
If we substitute in the plane wave expression, and Eq. (7.35), we then get:
Ne e 2
−0 iωE + i E = −r 0 iωE (7.39)
mω
Rearranging:
1 Ne e2
r E = 1− 2 E (7.40)
ω 0 m
1 Ne e2 ωp2
r = 1 − = 1 − (7.41)
ω 2 0 m ω2
This permittivity is frequency dependent and potentially less than one or even negative. Notice that something rather
interesting will happen if ω ∼ ωp . If we consider a field with finite electric displacement magnitude, D0 , then the electric
field will have magnitude:
E0 ∝ D0 /r (7.42)
for the plasma. But as ω → ωp , r → 0, and the amplitude of the oscillations in polarization tends to infinity. This
is just like an undamped harmonic oscillator driven near its resonant frequency, where the amplitude of the oscillations
grows until something happens to the system. A mechanical system might break in some way, and in general systems will
become non-linear, and dissipate energy in some way not considered by the simple treatment for small amplitudes.
In a plasma, the electrons will eventually gain enough energy to further ionize or excite the atoms, dissipating the
incoming energy. The result is that the wave is absorbed rather strongly, and not transmitted for a range of frequencies
around ωp . All of the assumption that we made in this derivation break down when ω → ωp .
If we assume that µ = µ0 in the plasma, we can write for the phase velocity:
ω 1 1
vp = =√ =√ . (7.43)
k µ µ0 0 r
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Phase/Group Velocities
• Consider a wave with ω > ωp : then k 2 > 0, so k is real and there is no attenuation
• If ω < ωp , k 2 < 0 and we have absorption of energy and damping over some attenuation length, L.
• Let us consider the phase and group velocities, which are defined as:
ω
vp = (7.45)
k
dω
vg = (7.46)
dk
Now using the expression for the dispersion relation, Eq. (7.28), and differentiating, we find:
dω
2ω = 2kc2 (7.47)
dk
k 2
⇒ vg = c = c2 /vp (7.48)
ω
We find:
vp vg = c2 (7.49)
So either both velocities are equal to c, or vp > c. But this is all right: information and energy are transmitted at the group
velocity. We can see why the phase velocity is greater than c by considering the refractive index, n:
n = c/vp (7.50)
2 2
c k ωp2
n2 = =1− (7.51)
ω2 ω2
So n < 1 and vp > c.
An application: radio waves in the ionosphere.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 8. ENERGY FLOW AND THE POYNTING VECTOR
Chapter 8
1
Ue = E·D (8.1)
2
1
Um = B·H (8.2)
2
(If the medium is one that obeys the law J = gE then we have PV = V gE 2 dv.) Now we use Maxwell’s equations (in
R
particular Ampère’s law and Faraday’s law) to transform the rate of transfer of energy:
∂D
∇×H = J+ (8.5)
∂t
∂D
⇒J = ∇×H− (8.6)
∂t
So in a situation with electric and magnetic fields, we have:
Z
∂D
PV = dv E · ∇ × H − E · (8.7)
V ∂t
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 8. ENERGY FLOW AND THE POYNTING VECTOR
But we can use a theorem from vector calculus to rework this expression:
∇ · (E × H) = H · ∇ × E − E · ∇ × H (8.8)
Now we can substitute for E · ∇ × H, and use Faraday’s law (∇ × E = −∂B/∂t) to replace ∇ × E. This gives:
Z
∂D
PV = dv −∇ · (E × H) + H · ∇ × E − E · (8.9)
V ∂t
Z
∂B ∂D
= − dv ∇ · (E × H) + H · +E· (8.10)
V ∂t ∂t
Assuming that we’re in a linear, isotropic medium, we can write B = µH and D = E. This also means that:
∂B 1 ∂
H· = (H · B) (8.11)
∂t 2 ∂t
∂D 1 ∂
E· = (D · E) (8.12)
∂t 2 ∂t
Remember that the energy densities in magnetic and electric fields were written as 12 H · B and 12 D · E respectively. Using
Eq. (8.4) for PV we can now write:
Z Z
1 ∂
dvJ · E = − dv ∇ · (E × H) + (H · B + E · D) (8.13)
V V 2 ∂t
• The first term on RHS is rate of change with time of stored energy in fields
• The second term on RHS is rate of dissipation of energy
• Define:
Poynting vector
N=E×H (8.15)
The Poynting vector can be thought of as representing the directional energy flux density (the rate of energy transfer
per unit area, in Wm−2 ) of an electromagnetic field.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 8. ENERGY FLOW AND THE POYNTING VECTOR
• This cannot be generally proven, but the derivation given above is a good reason for accepting and using N
As an example, let’s consider the energy flow in a plane wave of the usual form E = E0 exp i (k · r − ωt). Then we
have:
k×E
H = (8.18)
µω
k 1 √
= = µ (8.19)
ω vp
r
1 2
hNi = E k̂ (8.21)
2 µ 0
1
= < (E × H? ) (8.22)
2
• where the second form is for complex vectors (are the results the same?)
8.2.1 Photons
• We know that they have invariant mass m0 = 0 and energy E = h̄ω = hν
• In special relativity, E 2 = p2 c2 + m20 c4 (more on this later)
• So the momentum of one photon is:
E hν
pi = = (8.24)
c c
The momentum in the wave will be the sum over the photons crossing a unit area in unit time:
X 1X
p = pi = hνi (8.25)
i
c i
E hNi
p = = , (8.26)
c c
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 8. ENERGY FLOW AND THE POYNTING VECTOR
where, in the second equation, we’ve used the expression for energy flow from earlier.
If we assume that there is total reflection (e.g. from a metal surface—as will be discussed in the next section of the
lectures) then the change of momentum per unit area per unit time will be, using Eq. 8.21:
hN i
∆p = 2 = 0 E02 , (8.27)
c
which is equal to the pressure on the surface (CHECK DIMENSIONS!). Notice that we’re assuming µr = 1 = r . If the
photons are absorbed rather than reflected we lose the factor of two.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 9. EMISSION OF RADIATION
Chapter 9
Emission of Radiation
9.1.1 Fields
• How are fields determined by potentials?
∂B ∂
∇×E+ =0=∇×E+ ∇×A
∂t ∂t
∂A
⇒∇× E+ =0
∂t
The last equality only holds if the fields are continuous. We know that the curl of a gradient is always zero, so we
write (as we’ve seen before):
∂A
E+ = −∇φ (9.3)
∂t
∂A
E = −∇φ − (9.4)
∂t
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 9. EMISSION OF RADIATION
If we assume a linear, isotropic medium, then we can write the Ampère-Maxwell equation (∇ × H = J + ∂D/∂t), with
B = µH and D = E as:
1 ∂E
∇×B = J+ (9.5)
µ ∂t
1 ∂ ∂A
⇒ ∇×∇×A+ ∇φ + = J (9.6)
µ ∂t ∂t
∂2A ∂φ
⇒ −∇2 A + µ 2 + ∇ (∇ · A) + µ∇ = µJ (9.7)
∂t ∂t
where we have used ∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A.
But this is rather messy! As we noted in Section III, there is considerable freedom in choosing A, since ∇ × ∇f = 0.
Before, we chose the Coulomb gauge: ∇ · A = 0.
Summary
• We wish to solve for fields E(r, t) and B(r, t)
• It is easier to work in terms of potentials:
B = ∇×A (9.8)
∂A
E = −∇φ − (9.9)
∂t
∂2φ ρ
−∇2 φ + µ = (9.15)
∂t2
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 9. EMISSION OF RADIATION
We will consider the solution of the particular integral (which is the hard part!) for the scalar potential first. If the
potential was time independent, then we know that:
ρ (r0 )
Z
1
φ(r) = dv 0 (9.16)
4π0 V |r − r0 |
1 ∂2φ
Z
1
dv ∇2 φ − 2 2 = q(t) (9.18)
∆v c ∂t 0
For this system, we can immediately see that there must be spherical symmetry, so φ(r) = φ (|r|). We can rewrite
Eq. (9.17) as:
1 ∂2φ
1 ∂ 2 ∂φ
r − =0 (9.19)
r2 ∂r ∂r c2 ∂t2
If we wrote φ(r, t) = χ(r, t)/r then this would become:
∂2χ 1 ∂2χ
2
− 2 2 = 0, (9.20)
∂r c ∂t
which is of course just a one-dimensional wave equation. In general, we write:
However, we will ignore the second solution as we want a wave which propagates outward with time. Now we will write:
f (r − ct)
φ(r, t) = , (9.22)
r
and choose a form for f (r − ct) which satisfies Eq. (9.18). We know that φ = q/4π0 r in the static case.
• We choose:
q(t − r/c)
f (r − ct) = (9.23)
4π0
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Form
• We have t0 = t − |r − r0 |/c
J (r0 , t0 ) 0
Z
µ0
A(r, t) = dv (9.26)
4π V |r − r0 |
Note that potentials at r, t are affected by charge at r0 , t0 , with spherical propagation outwards. In particular, we see
that the potentials at a given point r and a given time t are determined by the charge and current that existed at other points
in space r0 at earlier times t0 . In particular, the time appropriate for each point source is earlier than t by the time required
to travel over the intervening distance at a speed c.
Figure 9.1:
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Now we can use the results from the previous section to write the vector potential:
Z l/2 I z 0 , t − r − z 0 k̂ /c dz 0
µ0
Az (r, t) = (9.28)
4π −l/2 r − z 0 k̂
where the second set of equations follow from symmetry, and z 0 lies on the wire. We can write:
q
2 2
r − z 0 k̂ = (r − z 0 cos θ) + (z 0 sin θ) (9.30)
1
= r2 − 2rz 0 cos θ + z 0 2 2 (9.31)
1
z0 z0 2 2
= r 1 − 2 cos θ + 2 (9.32)
r r
0 0
' r − z cos θ, r >> z (9.33)
If we’re far away, then r − z 0 k̂ ≈ r. That takes care of the denominator; what about z 0 cos θ/c ?
l
z 0 cos θ ≤ , (9.34)
2
by geometry. Now, if 2l << T c for some period T , then 2l << λ; this is the same as saying that we have a small dipole
(in this case, relative to the wavelength). This enables us to write:
l/2
I (z 0 , t − r/c) 0
Z
µ0
Az (r, t) ' dz (9.35)
4π −l/2 r
Z l/2
µ0 I(t − r/c)
= dz 0 (9.36)
4π r −l/2
µ0 l I(t − r/c)
= , (9.37)
4π r
as I is independent of z 0 . We can use the Lorentz condition, Eq. (9.12), to get the time variation of the scalar potential:
∂φ
∇ · A + 0 µ0 = 0 (9.38)
∂t
∂φ l ∂ 1 r
⇒ = − I t− (9.39)
∂t 4π0 ∂z r c
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9.2.2 Potentials
• The vector potential:
µ0 l I(t − r/c)
Az (r, t) = (9.45)
4π r
• Choose:
q(t − r/c) = q0 cos ω(t − r/c) (9.47)
Then we can write for the vector potential in spherical polar coordinates (just reworking Eq. (9.45) again, taking the
components in the r and θ directions):
µ0 I0 l
Ar = cos θ sin ω(t − r/c) (9.50)
4π r
µ0 I0 l
Aθ = sin θ sin ω(t − r/c) (9.51)
4π r
Aφ = 0 (9.52)
If we use the standard formula for curl in spherical polar coordinates, we can calculate the magnetic field:
Br = 0 (9.53)
Bθ = 0 (9.54)
1 ∂ 1 ∂Ar
Bφ = (rAθ ) − (9.55)
r ∂r r ∂θ
µ0 I0 l ω 1
= sin θ cos ω(t − r/c) + sin ω(t − r/c) (9.56)
4π r c r
µ0 I0 l ω c
≈ sin θ cos ω(t − r/c) in the radiation zone, where r , or r λ. (9.57)
4π r c ω
We get the electric field using:
∂A
E = −∇ϕ − (9.58)
∂t
∂φ ∂Ar
Er = − − =0 (9.59)
∂r ∂t
1 ∂φ ∂Aθ lI0 sin θ ω cos ω(t − r/c)
Eθ = − − = (9.60)
r ∂θ ∂t 4π0 rc2
1 ∂ϕ ∂Aφ
Eφ = − − = 0, (9.61)
r sin θ ∂φ ∂t
Important Points
• These do not depend on φ
• E and B are perpendicular
• The power is radially outwards, as E × B ⇒ θ̂ × φ̂ = r̂
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When we average the cos2 term we recover the formula for average power above.
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Chapter 10
Relativistic Transformations
We finish the course with a look at how the electric and magnetic fields are affected by transformations between different
inertial reference frames. This takes us into the realm of special relativity, and allows us both to see how the fields are
intimately connected, and to derive Maxwell’s equations in a new and elegant way.
Classical electrodynamics is already consistent with special relativity. Maxwell’s equations and the Lorentz force law
can be applied in any inertial system, although what one observer interprets as electrical another may regard as magnetic
with the actual particle motions identical. This section will hopefully give you a deeper appreciation of the structure of
electrodynamics – laws that had seemed arbitrary and unrelated before take on a certain coherence and inevitability when
looked at from the point of view of relativity.
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Basic Principles
• Laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames;
Start with sound: if we measure its speed relative to stationary air, then we get something around 330 metres per
second (note that this will depend on temperature and pressure). If we measure it in a moving inertial reference frame we
can get a different answer if the air is no longer stationary.
Any wave (or wave-like disturbance) which does not require a medium to propagate must travel at the same speed in
all reference frames (otherwise we could do an experiment to differentiate between them). This was the basis of Einstein’s
principle of relativity.
What about coordinate systems? We must specify a set of axes associated with an inertial reference frame (notice that
if we were being exact, we’d refer to a rigid inertial reference frame). We’ll call our frame S, and associate the distances
along axes x, y and z with the axes. In order to specify events, we must also specify a time, t. We will use the notation
S(x, y, z, t) to specify a reference frame and the coordinates in that frame.
• At t = t0 = 0, x = x0 = 0
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Now suppose that there is some event (e.g. a flash of light or collision between two particles) at (x, y, z, t) in S and
(x0 , y 0 , z 0 , t0 ) in S0 . In Galilean physics, the transformation between these two events is given by the Galiliean transform:
x0 = x − vt (10.1)
0
y = y (10.2)
0
z = z (10.3)
t0 = t. (10.4)
But if we differentiate Eq. (10.1) with respect to time, we find that, if we’re considering a light flash, the apparent
speed in S0 is c − v, in contradiction to the principle of relativity (and experiment, as it turns out).
10.1.3 Interval
• Consider flash of light from origin of S at t = t0 = 0
Let’s look at these by imagining that the event is specifically a flash of light emitted from a point source located at the
origin of S at time t = 0 (so it will also be at the origin of S0 at t0 = 0). Then the location of the wavefront in S at a later
time dt will be defined by the following equation:
simply by rearranging the equation of motion. If this quantity was greater than zero, then we would be at a point ahead
of the wave, and if less than zero, we’d be at a point behind the wave.
However, since the flash of light occurred at t0 in S0 , then we can also write the following equation for the wavefront
in S0 at a later time dt0 :
2 2 2 2
(dx0 ) + (dy 0 ) + (dz 0 ) − c2 (dt0 ) = 0. (10.8)
If we define an arbitrary space-time interval as:
then we see that for an interval defined by two events separated by a light ray, ds2 = 0 in any reference frame. The
principle of special relativity can be formulated by asserting the for any pair of events, the interval between them is the
same in any coordinate system. In other words, basically, special relativity can be stated in terms of the invariance of
space-time interval (between any two events) as seen from any inertial reference frame.
In physics and mathematics, Minkowski space or Minkowski spacetime (named after the mathematician Hermann
Minkowski) is the mathematical setting in which Einstein’s theory of special relativity is most conveniently formulated.
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In this setting the three ordinary dimensions of space are combined with a single dimension of time to form a four-
dimensional representation of spacetime.
Note that although we use the notation ds2 for the interval, in general it can be either positive or negative. To find ds
the modulus is taken before taking the square root; the spacetime interval is defined as time like (ds2 < 0) or space like
(ds2 > 0) or light like (ds2 = 0).
• The intervals are equal:
2 2 2 2
dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 − c2 dt2 = (dx0 ) + (dy 0 ) + (dz 0 ) − c2 (dt0 ) (10.10)
Important: Notice that these forms assume that the components we’re dealing with are x, y, z, t. We will define other
components below which are slightly different.
Recall, too, that we have time dilation, r
0 v2
∆t = 1 − 2 ∆t,
c
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10.2 Four-vectors
10.2.1 Position-Time 4-vector
• Define a space-time 4-vector: (r, ct):
• We require: X
xµ xµ = xµ xµ = x2 + y 2 + z 2 − c2 t2 , (10.16)
µ
Another Form
Lorentz transformation
Even though the four-dimensional nature may look unfamiliar, this ought to remind you of a matrix-vector multipli-
cation. We define:
γ 0 0 iβγ
0 1 0 0
R =
0
(10.23)
0 1 0
−iβγ 0 0 γ
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[Non-examinable: it is worth mentioning briefly here the properties of tensors, which are a way to generalise scalar and
vector quantities to objects having more components. Tensors serve to isolate intrinsic geometric or physical properties
from those that depend on a choice of coordinates. They have different ranks (r): in an n-dimensional space (e.g. 4-
dimensional space-time), they have nr components. A rank 0 tensor has 1 component, and is called a scalar. A rank 1
tensor has n components and is called a vector (in 4-dimensional space-time, we get a 4-vector). A rank 2 tensor has n2
components and can be written as a matrix (and it transforms like the “outer product” of two vectors).]
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Since the differential operator ∂µ transforms as a 4-vector and the RHS is a scalar and this equation should be true
in any inertial frame, we must have that jµ also transforms as a 4-vector. The 4-vector nature of jµ can also be shown
by considering a distribution of moving point charges and finding how the current and charge densities vary in different
frames.
10.3.2 Potentials
We can now consider the electromagnetic potentials, which are related to the different components of the current density
4-vector:
1 ∂2A
∇2 A − = −µ0 J (10.33)
c2 ∂t2
1 ∂2φ 1
∇2 φ − 2 2 = − ρ (10.34)
c ∂t 0
To put these in Lorentz invariant form, we define the 4-dimensional Laplacian operator (or d’Alembertian) as the dot
product between the ∂µ 4-vector and itself.
∂µ ∂µ = 2 (10.35)
As 2 is a scalar, and the right-hand side of Eq. (10.36) transforms as a 4-vector then aµ must also transform as a
4-vector if the equation is to apply in all references frames.
This scalar product in Eq. (10.38) is manifestly invariant under Lorentz transforms, so that if we fulfil the Lorentz
condition in one reference frame, we will fulfil it in all frames. It can also be shown (though we don’t have time) that the
solutions for the retarded potentials derived in Section 10 are parts of a 4-vector which transforms in the usual way.
10.3.3 Fields
Equations (10.36) and (10.38) correspond to Maxwell’s equations written in covariant form in terms of potentials. Now
we move on to the electric and magnetic fields, which we will find that we can write in terms of a single tensor. How will
we arrive at this point?
Consider the definitions of the fields in terms of the potentials:
B = ∇×A (10.39)
∂A
E = −∇φ − (10.40)
∂t
• Write the components of fields in terms of potentials
∂a3 ∂a2
B1 = − (10.41)
∂x2 ∂x3
i ∂a4 ∂a1
− E1 = − (10.42)
c ∂x1 ∂x4
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Important Points
• The electric and magnetic fields can be written as a single tensor
• Maxwell’s equations can be written rather simply in terms of this tensor
• They are manifestly invariant under Lorentz co-ordinate transforms
• Transform F between frames using R:
F0 = RFRT (10.58)
Then, for instance, we can find transformations of the E and B fields, such as:
4 X
X 4
B30 = F12
0
= R1α Fαβ R2β .
α=1 β=1
10.3.5 Transformations
It is also possible to get the transformation by considering the fields in terms of the potentials and differentials, and
transforming them separately. This requires a little algebra.
• In any case. we find the transformations of E and B between frames:
Field transformations
Ek0 = Ek (10.60)
0
E⊥ = γE⊥ + γv × B (10.61)
Bk0 = Bk (10.62)
0 1
B⊥ = γB⊥ − 2 γv × E, (10.63)
c
A0 = 0 (10.64)
0 e
φ = (10.65)
4π0 r0
Now we transform to the frame S:
u iφ0
γue
A1 = γ A01 − i · = (10.66)
c c 4π0 c2 r0
0
A2 = A2 = 0 (10.67)
A3 = A03
=0 (10.68)
iφ0
iφ u i γe
= γ + A01 = (10.69)
c c c c 4π0 r0
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Notice how the movement of the charge due to the change in reference frame now gives a non-zero vector potential.
The final form of the transformation is not quite as simple as it looks because the radial component r0 needs to be
transformed as well.
[Non-examinable: The rigorous way to demonstrate the Lorentz invariance of electromagnetic theory is to begin with
the definition of the field quantity Fµν and write the Lorentz force law for a moving charged particle in terms of this.
Then the requirement that the motion of this particle should transform according to the rules of Lorentzian mechanics for
a particle with constant rest mass leads to the assertion that Fµν indeed transforms like a tensor. It can be shown that
the fact that it is antisymmetric means that it can be written as the 4-curl of a 4-vector which then turns out to be the
4-potential aµ . By this route the law of conservation of charge can be shown to be a consequence of Lorentz invariance.]
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