Unit - I

1.1Introduction

A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages, commands,

directs or regulates the behavior of other device(s) or system(s) to achieve desire results. In other
words the definition of control systemcan be rewritten as a control system is a system, which
controls other system. As the human civilization is being modernized day by day the demand of
automation is increasing accordingly. Automation highly requires control of devices. In recent
years, control systems plays main role in the development and advancement of modern
technology and civilization. Practically every aspects of our day-to-day life is affected less or
more by some control system. A refrigerator, an air conditioner, a geezer, an automatic iron, an
automobile all are control system. These systems are also used in industrial process for more
output. We find control system in quality control of products, weapons system, transportation
systems, power system, space technology, robotics and many more. The principles of control
theory is applicable to engineering and non-engineering field both.

Requirement of Good Control System

Accuracy: Accuracy is the measurement tolerance of the instrument and defines the limits of the
errors made when the instrument is used in normal operating conditions. Accuracy can be
improved by using feedback elements. To increase accuracy of any control system error detector
should be present in control system.

Sensitivity: The parameters of control system are always changing with change in surrounding
conditions, internal disturbance or any other parameters. This change can be expressed in terms
of sensitivity. Any control system should be insensitive to such parameters but sensitive to input
signals only.

Noise: An undesired input signal is known as noise. A good control system should be able to
reduce the noise effect for better performance.
Stability: It is an important characteristic of control system. For the bounded input signal, the
output must be bounded and if input is zero then output must be zero then such a control system
is said to be stable system.

Bandwidth: An operating frequency range decides the bandwidth of control system. Bandwidth
should be large as possible for frequency response of good control system.

Speed: It is the time taken by control system to achieve its stable output. A good control system
possesses high speed. The transient period for such system is very small.

Oscillation: A small numbers of oscillation or constant oscillation of output tend to system to be

stable.

1.2 Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

Open Loop Control Systems:
A system in which the output has no effect on the control action is known as an open loop
control system. For a given input the system produces a certain output. If there are any
disturbances, the out put changes and there is no adjustment of the input to bring back the output
to the original value. A perfect calibration is required to get good accuracy and the system should
be free from any external disturbances. No measurements are made at the output. A traffic
control system is a good example of an open loop system. The signals change according
to a preset time and are not affected by the density of traffic on any road. A washing machine is
another example of an open loop control system. The quality of wash is not measured; every
cycle like wash, rinse and dry' cycle goes according to a preset timing.

Fig.1. Open Loop control system

Closed Loop Control Systems:
These are also known as feedback control systems. A system which maintains a
prescribed relationship between the controlled variable and the reference input, and uses the
difference between them as a signal to activate the control, is known as a feedback control
system. The output or the controlled variable is measured and compared with the reference input
and an error signal is generated. This is the activating signal to the controller which, by its action,
tries to reduce the error. Thus, the controlled variable is continuously fedback and compared with
the input signal. If the error is reduced to zero, the output is the desired output and is equal to the
reference input signal.

Fig.2. Closed Loop control system

1.2.1 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop Control Systems

The open loop systems are simple and easier to build. Open loop systems are cheaper and
they should be preferred whenever there is a fixed relationship between the input and the output
and there are no disturbances. Accuracy is not critical in such systems. Closed loop systems are
more complex, use more number of elements to build and are costly. The stability is a major
concern for closed loop systems. We have to ensure that the system is stable and will not cause
undesirable oscillations in the output. The major advantage of closed loop system is that it is
insensitive to external disturbances and variations in parameters. Comparatively cheaper
components can be used to build these systems, as accuracy and tolerance do not affect the
performance. Maintenance of closed loop systems is more difficult than open loop systems.
Overall gain of the system is also reduced.
Open Loop Systems
Advantages
1. They are simple and easy to build.
2. They are cheaper, as they use less number of components to build.
3. They are usually stable.
4. Maintenance is easy.
Disadvantages
1. They are less accurate.
2. If external disturbances are present, output differs significantly from the desired value.
3. If there are variations in the parameters of the system, the output changes.
Closed Loop Systems
Advantages
1. They are more accurate.
2. The effect of external disturbance signals can be made very small.
3. The variations in parameters of the system do not affect the output of the system i.e. the output
may be made less sensitive to variation is parameters. Hence forward path components can be of
less precision. This reduces the cost of the system.
4. Speed of the response can be greatly increased.
Disadvantages
1. They are more complex and expensive
2. They require higher forward path gains.
3. The systems are prone to instability. Oscillations in the output many occur.
4. Cost of maintenance is high.

Comparison of Closed Loop And Open Loop Control System:

S. No. Open loop control system Closed loop control system

1 The feedback element is absent. The feedback element is always present.

2 An error detector is not present. An error detector is always present.

3 It is stable one. It may become unstable.

4 Easy to construct. Complicated construction.

5 It is an economical. It is costly.
6 Having small bandwidth. Having large bandwidth.

7 It is inaccurate. It is accurate.

8 Less maintenance. More maintenance.

9 It is unreliable. It is reliable.

Examples: Hand drier, tea Examples: Servo voltage stabilizer,

10
maker perspiration

Transfer Function

The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ration of the Laplace transform of the
output variable to Laplace transform of the input variable assuming all initial conditions to be
zero.

Procedure for determining the transfer function of a control system are as follows

1. We form the equations for the system

2. Now we take Laplace transform of the system equations, assuming initial conditions as
zero.

3. Specify system output and input

4. At the last we take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and the Laplace
transform of the input which is the required transfer function

Methods of obtaining a Transfer function: There are major two ways of obtaining a transfer
function for the control system. The ways are –
  Block diagram method: It is not convenient to derive a complete transfer function for a
complex control system. Therefore the transfer function of each element of a control
system is represented by a block diagram. Block diagram reduction techniques are
applied to obtain the desired transfer function.

 Signal Flow graphs: The modified form of a block diagram is a signal flow graph. Block
diagram gives a pictorial representation of a control system. Signal flow graph further
shortens the representation of a control system.

Modeling of Electric systems, Translational and rotational mechanical systems:

Electrical Systems:
Most of the electrical systems can be modelled by three basic elements : Resistor,
inductor, and capacitor. Circuits consisting of these three elements are analysed by using
Kirchhoff's Voltage law and Current law.
(a) Resistor: The circuit model of resistor is shown in Fig.

The mathematical model is given by the Ohm's law relationship,

V(t) = i(t) R
i(t) = V(t)/R
(b) Inductor:The circuit representation is shown in Fig.

The input output relations are given by Faraday's law,

V(t) = L di(t)/dt

where Integral of v dt is known as the flux linkages. Thus

(c) Capacitor:The circuit symbol of a capacitor is given in Fig.

In eqn. idt is known as the charge on the capacitor and is denoted by 'q'. Thus

Modeling of RL circuit:

The transfer function is generally expressed in Laplace Transform and it is nothing but the
relation between input and output of a system. Let us consider a system consists of a series
connected resistance (R) and inductance (L) across a voltage source (V).

In this circuit, the current 'i' is the response due to applied voltage (V) as cause. Hence the
voltage and current of the circuit can be considered as input and output of the system
respectively. From the circuit, we get,

Now applying Laplace Transform, we get,

Modeling of RC circuit:

AIn the above network it is obvious that

Let us assume,

Taking the Laplace transform of above equations with considering the initial condition as zero,
we get,
Mechanical Systems:
Mechanical systems can be divided into two basic systems.
(a) Translational systems and (b) Rotational systems
We will consider these two systems separately and describe these systems in terms of
three
fundamental linear elements.
(a) Translational systems:
1. Mass:This represents an element which resists the motion due to inertia. According to
Newton's second law of motion, the inertia force is equal to mass times acceleration.
fM= M a = M (dv/dt) = M (dx2/ dt2 )
Where a, v and x denote acceleration, velocity and displacement of the body respectively.
Symbolically, this element is represented by a block as shown in fig . (a)

Fig.3. Passive linear elements of translational motion (a) Mass (b) Dash pot (c) Spring.
2. Dash pot:This is an element which opposes motion due to friction. If the friction is viscous
friction, the frictional force is proportional to velocity. This force is also known as damp ling
force.
Thus we can write fB = Bv = B (dx/dt)
 Where B is the damping coefficient. This element is called as dash pot and is
symbolically
represented as in Fig.(b)
3. Spring:The third element which opposes motion is the spring. The restoring force of a spring
is proportional to the displacement.
Thus fK = K x
Where K is known as the stiffness of the spring or simply spring constant. The symbol
used
for this element is shown in Fig.(c)

(b) Rotational systems:Corresponding to the three basic elements of translation systems, there
are three basic elements representing rotational systems.
1. Moment of Inertia:This element opposes the rotational motion due to Moment oflnertia.
Theopposing inertia torque is given by,

Where a, ω and ϴ are the angular acceleration, angular velocity and angular displacement
respectively. J is known as the moment of inertia of the body.
2. Friction:The damping or frictional torque which opposes the rotational motion is given by,

Where B is the rotational frictional coefficient.

3. Spring:The restoring torque of a spring is proportional to the angular displacement () and is
given by,

Where K is the torsimal stiffness of the spring. The three elements defined above are
shown
in Fig.
 Fig.4. Rotational elements
Since the three elements ofrotational systems are similar in nature to those of
translational systems
no separate symbols are necessary to represent these elements. Having defined the basic
elements of mechanical systems, we must now be able to write differential equations for the
system when these mechanical systems are subjected to external forces. This is done by using the
D' Alembert's principle which is similar to the Kirchhoff's laws in Electrical Networks. Also, this
principle is a modified version of Newton's second law of motion.
The D' Alembert's principle states that, "For any body, the algebraic sum of externally
applied forces and the forces opposing the motion in any given direction is zero".To apply this
principle to any body, a reference direction of motion is first chosen. All forces acting in this
direction are taken positive and those against this direction are taken as negative. Let us apply
this principle to a mechanical translation system shown in Fig.
A mass M is fixed to a wall with a spring K and the mass moves on the floor with a
viscous friction. An external force f is applied to the mass. Let us obtain the differential equation
governing the motion of the body.

Fig.5. A mechanical translational system

Let us take a reference direction of motion of the body from left to right. Let the displacement of
the mass be x. We assume that the mass is a rigid body, ie, every particle in the body has the
same displacement, x. Let us enumerate the forces acting on the body.
 ( a) external force = f
(b) resisting forces :
(i) Inertia force, fM = - M (d2x/dt2)(ii) Damping force, fB = - B dt
(iii) Spring force, fK = - Kx
Resisting forces are taken to be negative because they act in a direction opposite to the
chosen reference direction. Thus, using D' Alemberts principle we have,

This is the differential equation governing the motion of the mechanical translation
system. The transfer function can be easily obtained by taking Laplace transform of above

If velocity is chosen as the output variable,

Similarly, the differential equation governing the motion of rotational system can also be
obtained. For the system in the following Fig., we have

The transfer function of this system is given by

Fig. 6. Mechanical rotatinal system

Block Diagrams ofControl System

The block diagram is to represent a control system in diagram form. In other words
practical representation of a control system is its block diagram. It is not always convenient to
derive the entire transfer function of a complex control system in a single function. It is easier
and better to derive transfer function of control element connected to the system, separately. The
transfer function of each element is then represented by a block and they are then connected
together with the path of signal flow. For simplifying a complex control system, block diagrams
are used. Each element of the control system is represented with a block and the block is the
symbolic representation of transfer function of that element. A complete control system can be
represented with a required number of interconnected such blocks. In the figure below, there are
two elements with transfer function Gone(s) and Gtwo(s). Where Gone(s) is the transfer function of
first element and Gtwo(s) is the transfer function of second element of the system.

In addition to that, the diagram also shows there is a feedback path through which output signal
C(s) is fed back and compared with the input R(s) and the difference between input and output
E(s) = R(s) – C(s) is acting as actuating signal or error signal.

In each block of diagram, the output and input are related together by transfer function. Where,

transfer function

where, C(s) is the output and R(s) is the input of that particular block.

A complex control system consists of several blocks. Each of them has its own transfer function.
But overall transfer function of the system is the ratio of transfer function of final output to
transfer function of initial input of the system. This overall transfer function of the system can be
obtained by simplifying the control system by combining this individual blocks, one by one.
Technique of combining of these blocks is referred as block diagram reduction technique. For
successful implementation of this technique, some rules for block diagram reduction to be
followed. Let us discuss these rules, one by one for reduction of block diagram of control
system.

If the transfer function of input of control system is R(s) and corresponding output is C(s), and
the overall transfer function of the control system is G(s), then the control system can be
represented as

Take off Point of Block Diagram

when we need to apply one or same input to more than one blocks, we use take off point. A
point is where the input gets more than one paths to propagate. This to be noted that the input
does not get divided at a point, hence input propagates through all the paths connected to that
point without affecting its value. Hence, by takeoff point same input signals can be applied to
more than one systems or blocks. Representation of a common input signal to more than one
blocks of control system is done by a common point as shown in the figure below with point X.

Cascade Blocks
When several systems or control blocks are connected in cascaded manner, the transfer
function of the entire system will be the product of transfer function of all individual blocks.
Here it also to be remembered that the output of any block will not be affected by the presence of
other blocks in the cascaded system.

Now,
from the diagram it is seen that, Where, G(s) is the overall transfer function of cascaded control
system.

Summing Point of Block Diagram

Instead of applying single input signal to different blocks as in the previous case, there may be
such situation where different input signals are applied to same block. Here, resultant input
signal is the summation of all input signals applied. Summation of input signals is represented by
a point called summing point which is shown in the figure below by crossed circle. Here R(s),
X(s) and Y(s) are the input signals. It is necessary to indicate the fine specifying the input signal
entering a summing point in the block diagram of control system.
Consecutive Summing Point

A summing point with more than two inputs can be divided into two or more consecutive
summing points, where alteration of the position of consecutive summing points does not effect
the output of the signal. In other words - if there are more than one summing points directly inter
associated, then they can be easily interchanged from their position without affecting the final
output of the summing system

Parallel Blocks
When same input signal is applied different blocks and the output from each of them are added
in a summing point for taking final output of the system then over all transfer function of the
system will be the algebraic sum of transfer function of all individual blocks.
If Cone, Ctwo and Cthree are the outputs of the blocks with transfer function G one, Gtwo and Gthree,
then

Shifting of Take off Point

If same signal is applied to more than one system, then the signal is represented in the system by
a point called take off point. Principle of shifting of take off point is that, it may be shifted
either side of a block but final output of the branches connected to the take off point must be un-
changed. The take off point can be shifted either sides of the block.
In the figure above the take off point is shifted from position A to B. The signal R(s) at take off
point A will become G(s)R(s) at point B. Hence another block of inverse of transfer function
G(s) is to be put on that path to get R(s) again.

Now let us examine the situation when take off point is shifted before the block which was
previously after the block.

Here the output is C(s) and input is R(s) and hence

Here, we have to put one block of transfer function G(s) on the path so that output again comes
as C(s).
Shifting of Summing Point

Let us examine the shifting of summing point from a position before a block to a position after a
block. There are two input signals R(s) and ±X(s) entering in a summing point at position A. The
output of the summing point is R(s) ± X(s). The resultant signal is the input of a control system
block of transfer function G(s) and the final output of the system is

Hence, a summing point can be redrawn with input signals R(s)G(s) and ± X(s)G(s)
 In the above block diagrams of control system output can be rewritten as

The above equation can be represented by a block of transfer function G(s) and input
R(s)±X(s)/G(s) again R(s)±X(s)/G(s) can be represented with a summing point of input signal
R(s) and ±X(s)/G(s) and finally it can be drawn as below.

Block Diagram of Closed Loop Control System

In a closed loop control system, a fraction of output is fed-back and added to input of the
system. If H (s) is the transfer function of feedback path, then the transfer function of feedback
signal will be B(s) = C(s)H(s). At summing point, the input signal R(s) will be added to B(s) and
produces actual input signal or error signal of the system and it is denoted by E(s).
Signal Flow Graph of Control System

Signal flow graph of control system is further simplification of block diagram of control
system. Here, the blocks of transfer function, summing symbols and take off points are
eliminated by branches and nodes.The transfer function is referred as transmittance in signal
flow graph. Let us take an example of equation y = Kx. This equation can be represented with
block diagram as below
The same equation can be represented by signal flow graph, where x is input variable node, y is
output variable node and a is the transmittance of the branch connecting directly these two nodes.

Rules for Drawing Signal Flow Graph

1. The signal always travels along the branch towards the direction of indicated arrow in the
branch.
2. The output signal of the branch is the product of transmittance and input signal of that
branch.
3. Input signal at a node is summation of all the signals entering at that node.
4. Signals propagate through all the branches, leaving a node.
Simple Process of Calculating Expression of Transfer Function for Signal Flow Graph

 First, the input signal to be calculated at each node of the graph. The input signal to a
node is summation of product of transmittance and the other end node variable of each of
the branches arrowed towards the former node.

 Now by calculating input signal at all nodes will get numbers of equations which relating
node variables and transmittance. More precisely, there will be one unique equation for
each of the input variable node.

 By solving these equations we get, ultimate input and output of the entire signal flow
graph of control system.

 Lastly by dividing inspiration of ultimate output to the expression of initial input we

calculate the expiration of transfer function of that signal flow graph.
If P is the forward path transmittance between extreme input and output of a signal flow graph.
L1, L 2…………………. loop transmittance of first, second,……..loop of the graph. Then for
first signal flow graph of control system, the overall transmittance between extreme input and
output is
Then for second signal flow graph of control system, the overall transmittance between extreme
input and output is
Here in the figure above, there are two parallel forward paths. Hence, overall transmittance of
that signal flow graph of control system will be simple arithmetic sum of forward transmittance
of these two parallel paths.

As the each of the parallel paths having one loop associated with it, the forward transmittances of
these parallel paths are

Therefore overall transmittance of the signal flow graph is

Mason's Gain Formula

The overall transmittance or gain of signal flow graph of control system is given by
Mason’s Gain Formula and as per the formula the overall transmittance is

Where, Pk is the forward path transmittance of kth in path from a specified input is known to an
output node. In arresting P k no node should be encountered more than once. Δ is the graph
determinant which involves closed loop transmittance and mutual interactions between non-
touching loops. Δ = 1 - (sum of all individual loop transmittances) + (sum of loop transmittance
products of all possible pair of non-touching loops) - (sum of loop transmittance products of all
possible triplets of non-touching loops) + (……) - (……) Δ k is the factor associated with the
concerned path and involves all closed loop in the graph which are isolated from the forward
path under consideration. The path factor Δ k for the k th path is equal to the value of grab
determinant of its signal flow graph which exist after erasing the K thpath from the graph.

By using this formula one can easily determine the overall transfer function of control system by
converting a block diagram of control system (if given in that form) to its equivalent signal flow
graph. Let us illustrate the below given block diagram
 UNIT-2

Controller Components:

Servomechanism : Theory and Working Principle of Servo Motor

Servomechanism
A servo system mainly consists of three basic components - a controlled device, a output sensor,
a feedback system.This is an automatic closed loop control system. Here, instead of controlling a
device by applying the variable input signal, the device is controlled by a feedback signal
generated by comparing output signal and reference input signal.
When reference input signal or command signal is applied to the system, it is compared with
output reference signal of the system produced by output sensor, and a third signal produced by a
feedback system. This third signal acts as an input signal of controlled device.
This input signal to the device presents as long as there is a logical difference between reference
input signal and the output signal of the system. After the device achieves its desired output,
there will be no longer the logical difference between reference input signal and reference output
signal of the system. Then, the third signal produced by comparing theses above said signals will
not remain enough to operate the device further and to produce a further output of the system
until the next reference input signal or command signal is applied to the system. Hence, the
primary task of a servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at the desired value in
the presence of disturbances.
Working Principle of Servo Motor:
A servo motor is basically a DC motor (in some special cases it is AC motor) along with some
other special purpose components that make a DC motor a servo. In a servo unit, you will find a
small DC motor, a potentiometer, gear arrangement and an intelligent circuitry. The intelligent
circuitry along with the potentiometer makes the servo to rotate accordingly. As we know, a
small DC motor will rotate with high speed but the torque generated by its rotation will not be
enough to move even a light load. This is where the gear system inside a servomechanism comes
into the picture. The gear mechanism will take high input speed of the motor (fast) and at the
output, we will get an output speed which is slower than original input speed but more practical
and widely applicable.
Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is such that
there is no electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer. This output port of
the potentiometer is connected with one of the input terminals of the error detector amplifier.
Now an electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now
difference between these two signals, one comes from potentiometer and another comes from
external source, will be amplified in the error detector amplifier and feeds the DC motor. This
amplified error signal acts as the input power of the DC motor and the motor starts rotating in
desired direction. As the motor shaft progresses the potentiometer knob also rotates as it is
coupled with motor shaft with help of gear arrangement. As the position of the potentiometer
knob changes there will be an electrical signal produced at the potentiometer port. As the angular
position of the potentiometer knob progresses the output or feedback signal increases. After
desired angular position of motor shaft the potentiometer knob reaches at such position the
electrical signal generated in the potentiometer becomes same as of external electrical signal
given to amplifier. At this condition, there will be no output signal from the amplifier to the
motor input as there is no difference between external applied signal and the signal generated at
potentiometer. As the input signal to the motor is nil at that position, the motor stops rotating.
This is how a simple conceptual servo motor works.

Servo Motor Control

For understanding servo motor control let us consider an example of servomotor that we have
given a signal to rotate by an angle of 45o and then stop and wait for further instruction. The
shaft of the DC motor is coupled with another shaft called output shaft, with the help of gear
assembly. This gear assembly is used to step down the high rpm of the motor's shaft to low rpm
at the output shaft of the servo system.

The voltage adjusting knob of a potentiometer is so arranged with the output shaft by means of
another gear assembly, that during rotation of the shaft, the knob also rotates and creates an
varying electrical potential according to the potentiometer.
This signal i.e. electrical potential is increased with angular movement of potentiometer knob
along with the system shaft from 0o to 45o. This electrical potential or voltage is taken to the
error detector feedback amplifier along with the input reference commends i.e. input signal
voltage.
As the angle of rotation of the shaft increases from 0o to 45o the voltage from potentiometer
increases. At 45o this voltage reaches to a value which is equal to the given input command
voltage to the system. As at this position of the shaft, there is no difference between the signal
voltage coming from the potentiometer and reference input voltage (command signal) to the
system, the output voltage of the amplifier becomes zero.

As per the picture given above the output electrical voltage signal of the amplifier, acts as input
voltage of the DC motor. Hence, the motor will stop rotating after the shaft rotates by 45o. The
motor will be at this rest position until another command is given to the system for further
movement of the shaft in the desired direction. From this example we can understand the most
basic servo motor theory and how servo motor control is achieved.
From this basic working principle of servo motor it can be concluded that the shaft of
the servo is connected to a potentiometer. The circuitry inside the servo, to which the
potentiometer is connected, knows the position of the servo. The current position will be
compared with the desired position continuously with the help of an Error Detection Amplifier. If
a mismatch is found, then an error signal is provided at the output of the error amplifier and the
shaft will rotate to go the exact location required. Once the desired location is reached, it stops
and waits.

DC Servo Motors | Theory of DC Servo Motor

Any electrical motor can be utilized as servo motor if it is controlled by servomechanism.
Likewise, if we control a DC motor by means of servomechanism, it would be referred as DC
servo motor. There are different types of DC motor, such shunt wound DC motor, series DC
motor, Separately excited DC motor,permanent magnet DC motor, Brushless DC motor etc.
Among all mainly separately excited DC motor, permanent magnet DC motor and brush less DC
motor are used as servo.

Separately
Excited DC Servo Motor
DC Servo Motor Theory
The motors which are utilized as DC servo motors, generally have separate DC source for field
winding and armature winding. The control can be achieved either by controlling the field
current or armature current. Field control has some specific advantages over armature control
and on the other hand armature control has also some specific advantages over field control.
Which type of control should be applied to the DC servo motor, is being decided depending upon
its specific applications.
Let's discus DC servo motor working principle for field control and armature control one by
one.
Field Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory

The figure illustrates the schematic diagram for a field controlled DC servo motor. In this
arrangement the field of DC motor is excited be the amplified error signal and armature winding
is energized by a constant current source . The field is controlled below the knee point of
magnetizing saturation curve. At that portion of the curve the mmf linearly varies with excitation
current. That means torque developed in the DC motor is directly proportional to the field current
below the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve.

From general torque equation of DC motor it is found that, torque T ∝φIa. Where, φ is field flux
and Ia is armature current. But in field controlled DC servo motor, the armature is excited by
constant current source, hence Ia is constant here. Hence, T ∝ φ
As field of this DC servo motor is excited by amplified error signal, the torque of the motor i.e.
rotation of the motor can be controlled by amplified error signal. If the constant armature current
is large enough then, every little change in field current causes corresponding change in torque
on the motor shaft. The direction of rotation can be changed by changing polarity of the field.
The direction of rotation can also be altered by using split field DC motor, where the field
winding is divided into two parts, one half of the winding is wound in clockwise direction and
other half in wound in anticlockwise direction. The amplified error signal is fed to the junction
point of these two halves of the field as shown in the figure. The magnetic field of both halves of
the field winding opposes each other. During operation of the motor, magnetic field strength of
one half dominates other depending upon the value of amplified error signal fed between these
halves. Due to this, the DC servo motor rotates in a particular direction according to the
amplified error signal voltage.
The main disadvantage of field control DC servo motors, is that the dynamic response to the
error is slower because of longer time constant of inductive field circuit. The field is an
electromagnet so it is basically a highly inductive circuit hence due to sudden change in error
signal voltage, the current through the field will reach to its steady state value after certain period
depending upon the time constant of the field circuit. That is why field control DC servo motor
arrangement is mainly used in small servo motor applications. The main advantage of using field
control scheme is that, as the motor is controlled by field - the controlling power requirement is
much lower than rated power of the motor.
Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory
The figure below shows the schematic diagram for an armature controlled DC servo motor. Here
the armature is energized by amplified error signal and field is excited by a constant current
source.

The field is operated at well beyond the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve. In this
portion of the curve, for huge change in magnetizing current, there is very small change in mmf
in the motor field. This makes the servo motor is less sensitive to change in field current.
Actually for armature controlled DC servo motor, we do not want that, the motor should
response to any change of field current.
Again, at saturation the field flux is maximum. As we said earlier, the general torque equation of
DC motoris, torque T ∝φIa. Now if φ is large enough, for every little change in armature current
Ia there will be a prominent changer in motor torque. That means servo motor becomes much
sensitive to the armature current.
As the armature of DC motor is less inductive and more resistive, time constant of armature
winding is small enough. This causes quick change of armature current due to sudden change in
armature voltage. That is why dynamic response of armature controlled DC servo motor is much
faster than that of field controlled DC servo motor.
The direction of rotation of the motor can easily be changed by reversing the polarity of the error
signal.

Permanent Magnet DC Servo Motor

Field control is not possible in the case of permanent magnet DC motor as the field is a
permanent magnet here. DC servo motor working principle in that case is similar to that of
armature controlled motor.
Introduction
The servomotors used in industry today are used in a closed-loop servo system. To understand
how the servomotor is used in the system, it is first necessary to review the entire system. the
figure indicates a block diagram of a typical servo system.

A reference input (typically called a velocity input) is sent to the servo amplifier, which controls
the speed of the servomotor. Directly mounted to the machine (or to the servomotor) is a
feedback device (either an encoder or resolver). This device changes mechanical motion into
electrical signals and is used as a feedback loop. This feedback loop is then sent to the error
detector, which compares the actual operation with that of the reference input. If there is an error,
that error is fed directly to the amplifier, which makes the necessary corrections.
In many servo systems, both velocity and position are monitored. (Note: In servo systems, the
word "velocity" is often used to describe speed control. Velocity indicates a rate of change of
position, with respect to time. It also indicates a rate of motion in a particular direction, with
respect to time.) The velocity loop control may take its command from the velocity loop
feedback device-a resolver or tachometer mounted directly to the motor. The position loop
control may take its command from the position feedback device-an encoder. Depending on the
system, both devices may be mounted to the actual machine or controlled device.
The stability of the entire system is dependent upon the tuning of the components in the system
and how well those components are matched. Tuning the system involves working with a PID
(proportional integral derivative) control. This type of closed loop control is standard on all
highaccuracy systems. The main factors in this closed loop system are the gain, integration time,
and derivative time of the loop.
The amplifier gain must be set satisfactorily. The gain sets how responsive the amplifier will be
during changes in error signal. A high gain will cause the motor to overshoot the intended speed
target. Too low of a gain may mean that the target is reached late in the cycle, or possibly not at
all.
The integration time allows the amplifier to respond to changes in the error signal, mostly at zero
speed. The zero speed error signal is multiplied by the gain setting, and results in increased
motor responsiveness (stiffness) and accuracy.
The derivative function is the most difficult to accurately adjust. This controls the dampening or
oscillations of the system. This function basically dictates the amount of correction given per unit
of error. The error signal can be corrected immediately (in milliseconds), or throughout a longer
period of time (seconds).
If there is a difficult part to the tuning task, it would be during the derivative setup. The gain and
integration time is interactive. One setting affects the other. Proper setup of the derivative
function involves multiplying the position error by the position error rate (how much correction
should take place per unit of time). If the system components are not matched, oscillations,
overshoot, or undershoot of velocity can result, which means unstable operation.
Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that operate in precise degrees of rotation.
This type of motor quickly responds to positive or negative signals from a servo amplifier. Fast
and accurate speed, torque, and direction control are the mark of a servomotor's characteristics.
Very high starting torque must be obtained from the servomotor. The standard AC induction
motor's torque is measured in pound-feet. By contrast, the servomotor's torque is measured in
inch-pounds.
In today's servo systems, three basic types of servomotors are used: AC, DC, and AC brushless.
As one might expect, the AC design is based on AC induction motor characteristics. The DC
design is based on the design of a DC motor. The brushless DC design is based on that of a
synchronous motor. The basic principles of the DC and brushless DC servomotor have already
been reviewed. We will therefore review the general characteristics of the AC servomotor. Linear
devices will also be reviewed, since most of the position systems operate on linear technology.

The learning objectives of this technical note are:

1.Draw the equivalent DC servomotor circuit theory model.

2.State the equations of motion used to derive the electromechanical transfer function in the time
domain and the s-domain.
3. Draw the DC servomotor signal block diagram.
4. Derive the DC servomotor electromechanical transfer function.

CIRCUIT THEORY MODEL

The circuit shown in Figure 2 models the DC servomotor. Note that an armature control current
is created when the armature control voltage, Va, energizes the motor. The current flow through a
series – connected armature resistance, an armature inductance, and the rotational component
(the rotor) of the motor. The rotor shaft is typically drawn to the right with the torque (T m ) and
angular displacement (θm) variables shown. The motor transfer function is the ratio of angular
displacement to armature voltage.

Principle of Operating
A DC servomotor is used in a control system where an appreciable amount of shaft power is
required. The DC servomotor are either armature-controlled with fixed field, or field-controlled
with fixed armature current. DC servomotor used in instrument employ a fixed permanent-
magnet field, and the control signal is applied to the armature terminals.

Tm = KmΦfia - (i)

Km = Proportionality constant
Tm = Motor torque Nf = Field flux ia = Armature current
In addition to the torque when conductor moves in magnetic field, voltage is generated across its
terminals which opposes the current flow and hence called as Back e.m.f denoted as eb

eb= KmΦωm- (ii)

This back e.m.f is directly proportional to the shaft velocity Tm. Equations (i) and (ii) form the
basic equation of d.c. servo motor operation.

Basic Classification
Basically d.c. servo motors are classified as:
• Variable magnetic flux motors.
• Constant magnetic flux motors.

In variable magnetic flux motors magnetic field is produced by the field windings which are
connected to the external supply. These are also called as separately excited or field controlled
motors.

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF DC SERVO MOTOR

The constant magnetic flux motors are also known as permanent magnet d.c. motors. These
motors have relatively linear torque-speed characteristics.
Derivation of transfer functions for
• Field controlled d.c. servo motor
• Armature controlled d.c. servo-motors.

ii. Field Controlled DC servo motor

Assumptions
(1) Constant armature current is fed into the motor.
(2) Nf % If. Flux produced is proportional to field current. Nf = Kf If
(3) Torque is proportional to product of flux and armature current.
Tm % N Ia . Tm = K` N Ia = K’ Kf If Ia Tm = Km Kf If
Where
Km = K`
Ia = constant
Apply kirchoff’s law to field circuit.

L fdif / dt + Rf If = ef

Now shaft torque Tm is used for driving load against the inertia and frictional torque.

Finding Laplace Transforms of equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,

Tm (s) = Km Kf If(s) Ef (s) = (SLf + Rf) If (s) Tm (s) = Jms 2m (s) + Bms2m (s)

Eliminate If (s) from equations (4) and (5)Input = Ef(S)

Output = Rotational displacement 2m (S)
Armature Controlled D.C. Servo Motor
Assumptions
(i) Flux is directly proportional to current through field winding.
Nm = Kf If = constant
(ii) Torque produced is proportional to product of flux and armature current.
T = K`m N Ia T = K`mKf If Ia
(iii) Back e.m.f is directly proportional to shaft velocity Tm, as flux N is constant.
asωn = dθ(t) / dt
Eb = kbωm(d) = Kbsθm(s)
Apply Kirchhoff’s law to armature circuit:

Where Jm = Jm/Bm and

Difference Between Servo Motor and DC Motor in the tabulated form is given below.

BASIC SERVO MOTOR DC MOTOR

Wire The Servo motor is three wire system known as DC motor is two wire system
system power, ground and control. known as power and ground
Assembly It has an assembly of four things DC motor, gearing DC motor is an individual
set, control circuit and a position sensor. machine with no assembly.
Rotation Servo motor does not rotate freely and continuously Movement of DC motor is
like DC motor. Its rotation is limited to 180⁰ continuous
Examples They are used in robotic arms, legs or rudder DC motor is used in car wheels,
control. fans etc.

The Servo Motor is basically a DC motor which does not run continuously for a longer period of
time. It has a unique arrangement which allows the motor to rotate at a specific angle with
greater accuracy and precision. This machine is controlled by a feedback system.
Direct Current (DC motor) as already discussed in the article DC machine, is a device which
converts electrical energy into mechanical. It is based on the principle of Fleming’s left-hand rule
that when a conductor is placed in a magnetic field which carries current in it, torque is generated
which moves the motor.
According to Fleming’s left-hand rule index finger, middle finger and thumb when stretched
perpendicular it represented the direction of the magnetic field, the direction of the current and
the direction of the force respectively.

Difference Between Servo Motor and DC Motor are explained below in detail.
• The Servo motor comprises of three wire system known as Power, Ground and Control
whereas DC motor is two wire system known as Power and Ground.
• Servo motor has an assembly of four things DC motor, gearing set, control circuit and a
position sensor. DC Motor does not comprise of any assembly.
• Servo motor does not rotate freely and continuously like DC motor. Its rotation is limited
to 180⁰ whereas DC motor rotates continuously.
• Servo motors are used in robotic arms, legs or rudder control system and toy cars. DC
motors are used in fans, car wheels, etc

AC Servomotors
This type of motor is basically a two-phase induction motor, capable of reverse operation. To
achieve the dynamic requirements of a servo system, the servomotor must have a small diameter,
low inertia, and high-resistance rotors. The low inertia allows for fast starts, stops, and reverse of
direction. The high-resistance rotor provides for almost linear speed/ torque characteristics and
accurate control.
An AC servomotor is designed with two phases set at right angles to each other. A fixed or
reference winding is excited by a fixed voltage source. The control winding is excited by a
variable voltage source, usually the servo amplifier. Both sets of windings are usually designed
with the same voltage per turns ratio (meaning that with equal voltage applied to each winding,
the same magnetic flux will be produced). This allows for maximum control of speed, with very
little speed drift. In many cases, the design of the AC servomotor offers only reasonable
efficiency, at the sacrifice of high starting torque and smooth speed response. The figure
indicates a typical AC servomotor design.
The stator of the Two Phase AC Servo Motor has the two distributed windings which are
displaced from each other by 90 degrees electrical. One winding is known as a Reference or
Fixed Phase, which is supplied from a constant voltage source. The other one is known as
Control Phase, and it is provided with a variable voltage

The connection diagram of the two Phase AC Servo motor is shown below.

The control phase is usually supplied from a servo amplifier. The speed and torque of the rotor
are controlled by the phase difference between the control voltage and the reference phase
voltage. By reversing the phase difference from leading to lagging or vice versa, the direction of
the rotation of the rotor can be reversed.

Two Phase AC Servo Motor

As we have already seen What is a Servo Motor?In the previous article. Here I am going to
discuss the Two Phase and Three Phase AC Servo motor. The stator of the Two Phase AC Servo
Motor has the two distributed windings which are displaced from each other by 90 degrees
electrical. One winding is known as a Reference or Fixed Phase, which is supplied from a
constant voltage source. The other one is known as Control Phase, and it is provided with a
variable voltage
The connection diagram of the two Phase AC Servo motor is shown below.
The control phase is usually supplied from a servo amplifier. The speed and torque of the rotor
are controlled by the phase difference between the control voltage and the reference phase
voltage. By reversing the phase difference from leading to lagging or vice versa, the direction of
the rotation of the rotor can be reversed.
The torque speed characteristic of the two phase AC servomotor is shown in the figure below.

Features of A.C. Servomotor

The various features of a.c. servomotor are,
1. Light in weight for quick response.
2. Robust in construction.
3. It is reliable and its operation is stable in nature.
4. Smooth and noise free operation.
5. Large torque to weight ratio.
6. Large resistance to reactance ratio.
7. No brushes or slip rings are required. Hence maintenance free.
8. Driving circuits are simple to design.
9. The negative slope of the torque-slip characteristics adds more friction improving the
damping. This improves the stability of the motor. This features is called internal electric
damping of two phase a.c. servomotor.
The response of the motor to a light control signal is improved by reducing the weight and inertia
of the motor in a design known as the Drag Cup Servo motor as shown in the figure below.

The rotor of the Drag cup servo motor is made of a thin cup of the nonmagnetic conducting
material. A stationary iron core is placed in the middle of the conducting cup. This arrangement
completes the magnetic circuit. As the rotor of the motor is made of thin material, its resistance
will be high, which results in the high starting torque.

Applications of A.C. Servomotor

The a.c. servomotor are preferred for low power applications. Consider an a.c. position
control system where load position is to be maintained constant. The driving motor used is two
phase a.c. servomotor. The potentiometer arrangement compares the actual position with the
reference position to generate the error voltage. The error voltage is amplifier which generates
control voltage . This voltage is applied to the control winding of two phase a.c. servomotor. This
control The torque and inturn controls the output position of the load. As driving motor is a.c.
servomotor, the system is called as a.c. position control system.
The other applications of a.c. servomotors are,
1. Instrument servos 2. Process controllers 4. Robotics
4. Self balancing recorders 5. Machine tools

SYNCHROS:
Synchros play a very important role in the operation of Navy equipment. Synchros are found in
just about every weapon system, communication system, underwater detection system, and
navigation system used in the Navy. The importance of synchros is sometimes taken lightly
because of their low failure rate. However, the technician who understands the theory of
operation and the alignment procedures for synchros is well ahead of the problem when a
malfunction does occur. The term "synchro" is an abbreviation of the word "synchronous." It is
the name given to a variety of rotary, electromechanical, position-sensing devices. Figure shows
a phantom view of typical synchro. A synchro resembles a small electrical motor in size and
appearance and operates like a variable transformer. The synchro, like the transformer, uses the
principle of electromagnetic induction.

INTRODUCTION

The term synchro is a generic name for a family of inductive devices which works on the
principle of a rotating transformer (Induction motor). The trade names for synchronous are
Selsyn, Autosyn and Telesyn. Basically they are electro mechanical devices or electromagnetic
transducer which produces an output voltage depending upon angular position of the rotor.

A Synchro system is formed by interconnection of the devices called the Synchro Transmitter
and the synchro control transformer. They are also called as synchro pair. The synchro pair
measures and compares two angular displacements and its output voltage is approximately linear
with angular difference of the axis of both the shafts. They can be used in the following two
ways.
i. To control the angular position of load from a remote place / long distance.
ii. For automatic correction of changes due to disturbance in the angular position of the load.

Synchro Transmitter:

The constructional features, electrical circuit and a schematic symbol of Synchro Transmitter
are shown in figure-2. The two major parts of Synchro Transmitters are stator and rotor.The
stators identical to the stator of three phase alternator. It is made of laminated silicon steel and
slotted on the inner periphery to accommodate a balance three phase winding. The stator winding
is concentric type with the axis of the three coil 120° apart. The stator winding is star
connected(Y - connection).
The rotor is of dumb bell construction with a single winding. The ends of the rotor winding are
terminated on two slip rings. A single phase AC excitation voltage is applied to the rotor through
the slip rings.

Working Principles:
When the rotor is excited by AC voltage, the rotor current flows, and a magnetic field is
produced. The rotor magnetic field induces an emf in the stator coil by transformer action. The
effective voltage induced in any stator coil depends upon the angular position of the coils axis
with respect to rotor axis.

Figure - Constructional Features of Synchro Transmitter

Figure-
Figure - c Electrical Circuit (Synchro Transmitter)
Where,
Let er = Instantaneous value of AC voltage applied to rotor.
e ,e ,es1s2 s3 = Instantaneous value of emf induced in stator coils S ,S , S with respect to12 3
neutral respectively.
Er = Maximum value of rotor excitation voltage.
T = Angular frequency of rotor excitation voltage.
Kt = Turns ratio of stator and rotor winding.
Kc = Coupling coefficient.
2 = Angular displacement of rotor with respect to reference.
The instantaneous value of excitation voltage, e = ErsinrTt ---- (1)
Let the rotor rotates in antic lock wise direction. When the rotor rotates by an angle, 2 emfs are
induced in stator coils. The frequency of induced emfs is same as that of rotor frequency. The
magnitude of induced emfs is proportional to the turn’s ratio and coupling coefficient. The turns
ratio , K is a constant, but a coupling coefficient, K is a function of rotor angular position.tc
Induced emf in stator coil = K K E since rTt------ (2 )

Synchro Transmitter / Receiver:

Let e be reference vector. With reference to figure 2, when 2 = 0, the flux linkage of coil s i Zero.
Hence the flux linkage of coil S is function of cos22 (K = K ) Cos c1 2 for coil S ). The flux2
linkage of coil S will be maximum after a rotation of 120°in anti-clock wise direction and that3
of S after a rotation of 240°.
Coupling coefficient, K for coil – S1
Coupling coefficient, K for coil – S2
Coupling coefficient, K for coil – S3
 Figure - Induced emf in stator coils

When 2 = 0, from equation 3 we can say that maximum emf is induced in coil S. But from2
equation 8, it is observed that the coil - to coil voltage ES3S1 is zero. This position of the rotor is
defined as the electrical zero of the transmitter
Synchro Transmitter / Receiver

The angular position of its rotor shaft and the output is a set of three stator coil-to-coil voltages.
By measuring and identifying the set of voltages at the stator terminals, it is possible to identify
the angular position of the rotor. [A device called synchro / digital converter is available to
measure the stator voltages and to calculate the angular measure and then display the direction
and angle of rotation of the rotor].
Synchro Control Transformer:
 Figure - a Constructional Features
The constructional features of synchro control transformer are similar to that of Synchro
Transmitter, except the shape of rotor. The rotor of the control transformer is made cylindrical
so that the air gap is practically uniform. This feature of the control transformer minimizes the
changes in the rotor impedance with the rotation of the shaft. The constructional features,
electrical circuit and a schematic symbol of control transformer are shown in figure below.

Figure - b Schematic Symbol of synchro control transformer

Figure - c Electrical Circuit of synchro control transformer

Working:
The generated emf of the Synchro Transmitter is applied as input to the stator coils of control
transformer. The rotor shaft is connected to the load whose position has to be maintained at the
desired value. Depending on the current position of the rotor and the applied emf on the stator, an
emf is induced on the rotor winding. This emf can be measured and used to drive a motor so that
the position of the load is corrected.
Time Response Analysis:

In a control system, there may be some energy storing elements attached to it. Energy
storing elements are generally inductors and capacitors in case of electrical system. Due to
presence of these energy storing elements, if the energy state of the system is disturbed, it will
take certain time to change from one energy state to another. The exact time taken by the system
for changing one energy state to another, is known as transient time and the value and pattern
voltages and currents during this period is known as transient response. A transient response is
normally associated with an oscillation, which may be sustained or decaying in nature. The exact
nature of the system depends upon the parameters of the system. Any system can be represented
with a linear differential equation. The solution of this linear differential equation gives the
response of the system. The representation of a control system by linear differential equation of
functions of time and its solution is collectively called time domain analysis of control system.

Standard Test Signals:

1. Step Function:

Let us take an independent voltage source or a battery which is connected across a

voltmeter via a switch, s. whenever the switch s is open, the voltage appears between the
voltmeter terminals is zero. If the voltage between the voltmeter terminals is represented as v (t),
the situation can be mathematically represented as

Now let us consider at t = 0, the switch is closed and instantly the battery voltage V volt appears
across the voltmeter and that situation can be represented as,

Combining the above two equations we get

In the above equations if we put 1 in place of V, we will get a unit step function which can be
defined as

Now let us examine the Laplace transform of unit step function. Laplace transform of any
function can be obtained by multiplying this function by e-st and integrating multiplied from 0 to

infinity.
If input is R(s), then

2. Ramp Function
The function which is represented by an inclined straight line intersecting the origin is
known as ramp function. That means this function starts from zero and increases or decreases
linearly with time. A ramp function can be represented as,

Here in this above equation, k is the slope of the line.

Now let us examine the Laplace transform of ramp function. As we told earlier Laplace
transform of any function can be obtained by multiplying this function by e-st and integrating
multiplied from 0 to infinity.

3. Parabolic Function
Here, the value of function is zero when time t<0 and is quadratic when time t>0. A parabolic
function can be defined as,

Now let us examine the Laplace transform of parabolic function. As we told earlier Laplace
transform of any function can be obtained by multiplying this function by e-st and integrating
multiplied from 0 to infinity.
 4. Impulse Function
Impulse signal is produced when input is suddenly applied to the system for infinitesimal
duration of time. The waveform of such signal is represented as impulse function. If the
magnitude of such function is unity, then the function is called unit impulse function. The first
time derivative of step function is impulse function. Hence Laplace transform of unit impulse
function is nothing but Laplace transform of first-time derivative of unit step function.

Time Response of First Order Control Systems:

Consider a feedback system with G(s) = 1 / Tsas show in Fig

When the maximum power of s in the denominator of a transfer function is one, the
transfer function represents a first order control system. Commonly, the first order control
system can be represented as

Time Response for Step Function

Now a unit step input is given to the system, then let us analyze the expression of
 It is seen from the error equation that if the time approaching to infinity, the output

signal reaches exponentially to the steady-state value of one unit. As the output is approaching

towards input exponentially, the steady-state error is zero, when time approaches to infinity.

Let us put t = T in the output equation and then we get,

This T is defined as the time constant of the response and the time constant of a response

signal is that time for which the signal reaches to its 63.2 % of its final value. Now if we put t =

4T in the above output response equation, then we get,

 When actual value of response, reaches to the 98% of the desired value, then the signal is

said to be reached to its steady-state condition. This required time for reaching the signal to 98 %

of its desired value is known as setting time and naturally setting time is four times of the time

constant of the response. The condition of response before setting time is known as transient

condition and condition of the response after setting time is known as steady-state condition.

From this explanation it is clear that if the time constant of the system is smaller, the response of

the system reaches to its steady-state condition faster.

Time Response for Ramp Function

In this case during steady-state condition, the output signal lags behind input signal by a
time equal to the time constant of the system. If the time constant of the system is smaller, the
positional error of the response becomes lesser.
 Time Response for Impulse Function

In the above explanation of time response of control system, we have seen that the step
function is the first derivative of ramp function and the impulse function is the first derivative of
step function. It is also found that the time response of step function is first derivative of time
response of ramp function and time response of impulse function is first derivative of time
response of step function.

Definition of Final Value Theorem of Laplace Transform:

If f(t) and f'(t)both are Laplace Transformable and sF(s)has no pole in jw axis and in the R.H.P.
(Right half Plane) then,
Time Response of Second-Order Control System
The order of a control system is determined by the power of s in the denominator of its
transfer function. If the power of s in the denominator of transfer function of a control system is
2, then the system is said to be second-order control system.

The general expression of transfer function of a second order control system is given as

Here, ζ and ωn are damping ratio and natural frequency of the system respectively and we
will learn about these two terms in detail later on. Therefore, the output of the system is given as

If we consider a unit step function as the input of the system, then the output equation of
the system can be rewritten as
Taking inverse Laplace transform of above equation, we get,
 This response is plotted in Fig. The response is oscillatory and as t ~ ∞ , it approaches unity.

Step response of an underdamped second order system.

Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

The performance of a system is usually evaluated in terms of the following qualities.
I. How fast it is able to respond to the input,
2. How fast it is reaching the desired output,
3. What is the error between the desired output and the actual output, once the transients die
down and steady state is achieved,
4. Does it oscillate around the desired value, and
5. Is the output continuously increasing with time or is it bounded.
The last aspect is concerned with the stability of the system and we would require the
system to be stable. This aspect will be considered later. The first four questions will be
answered in terms of time domain specifications of the system based on its response to a unit
step input. These are the specifications to be given for the design of a controller for a given
system. The step response of a typical underdamped second order system is plotted in Fig.
It is observed that, for an underdamped system, there are two complex conjugate poles.
Usually, even if a system is of higher order, the two complex conjugate poles nearest to the j OJ
- axis (called dominant poles) are considered and the system is approximated by a second order
system. Thus, in designing any system, certain design specifications are given based on the
typical underdamped step response shown as Fig.

Time domain specifications of a second order system

1. Delay time td: It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the steady state value
for the first time
2. Rise time tr:It is the time required for the response to reach 100% of the steady state value
for under damped systems. However, for over damped systems, it is taken as the time required
for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of the steadystate value.
3. Peak time tp: It is the time required for the response to reach the maximum or Peak value of
the response.
4. Peak overshoot Mp: It is defined as the difference between the peak value of the response and
the steady state value. It is usually expressed in percent of the steady state value. If the time for
the peak is tp' percent peak overshoot is given by,

For systems of type 1 and higher, the steady state value c (∞) is equal to unity, the same as the
input.
5. Settling time ts: It is the time required for the response to reach and remain within a specified
Tolerance limits (usually ± 2% or ± 5%) around the steady state value.
6. Steady state error ess: It is the error between the desired output and the actual output as t ~ ∞
or under steadystate conditions. The desired output is given by the reference input r (t) and
therefore,

From the above specifications it can be easily seen that the time response of a system for
a unit step input is almost fixed once these specifications are given. But it is to be observed that
all the above specifications are not independent of each other and hence they have to be specified
in such a way that they are consistent with others.
Let us now obtain the expressions for some of the above design specifications in terms of
the damping factor and natural frequency.
Steady State Errors
One of the important design specifications for a control system is the steady state error.
The steady state output of any system should be as close to desired output as possible. If it
deviates from this desired output, the performance of the system is not satisfactory under steady
state conditions. The steady state error reflects the accuracy of the system. Among many reasons
for these errors, the most important ones are the type of input, the type of the system and the
nonlinearities present in the system. Since the actual input in a physical system is often a random
signal, the steady state errors are obtained for the standard test signals, namely, step, ramp and
parabolic signals.
Error Constants
Let us consider a feedback control system shown in Fig.

Feedback Control System.

Above shows that the steady state error is a function of the input R(s) and the open loop
transfer function G(s). Let us consider various standard test signals and obtain the steady state
error for these inputs.
For the special case of unity of feedback system, H (s)=1, and above equations are modified as,

In design specifications, instead of specifying the steady state error, it is a common

practice to specify the error constants which have a direct bearing on the steady state error.
Dependence of Steadystate Error on Type of the System
Let the loop transfer function G (s) H (s) or the open loop transfer function G (s) for a unity
feedback system, be giv·en is time constant form.
The steady state errors for unit step, velocity and acceleration inputs are respectively,
Thus a type zero system has a finite steady state error for a unit step input and is equal to
Where K is the system gain in the time constant from. It is customary to specify the gain of a
type zero system by Kprather than K.
Similarly, a type -1 system has a finite steady state error for a velocity input only and is given by

Thus the gain of type -1 system in normally specified as Kv, A type -2 system has a finite steady
state error only for acceleration input and is given by

As before, the gain of type -2 system is specified as Ka rather than K.

Steady state errors for various inputs and type of systems:

The steady state errors, for various standard inputs for type - 0, type - 1 and type - 2 are
summarized in Table
 UNIT-3

CONCEPTS OF STABILITY AND ALGEBRAIC CRITERIA

Stability:

Concept of Stability
Closed-loop feedback system is either stable or unstable. This type of characterization is referred
to as absolute stability.
Given that the system is stable, the degree of stability of the system is referred to as relative
stability.
A stable system is defined as a system with bounded response to a bounded input.

Theory of Network Synthesis

Network Functions

As the name suggests, in theory of network synthesis we are going to study about the synthesis
of various networks which consists of both the active (resistors) and passive elements (inductors
and capacitors).

In the frequency domain, network functions are defined as the quotient obtained by dividing the
phasor corresponding to the circuit output by the phasor corresponding to the circuit input.

In simple words, network functions are the ratio of output phasor to the input phasor when
phasors exists in frequency domain. The general form of network functions are given below:
Now with the help of the above general network function we are in position to describe the
necessary conditions of the stability of all the network functions. There are three mains necessary
conditions for the stability of these network functions and they are written below:

1. The degree of the numerator of F(s) should not exceed the degree of denominator by
more than unity. In other words (m - n) should be less than or equal to one.

2. F(s) should not have multiple poles on the jω-axis or the y-axis of the pole-zero plot.

3. F(s) should not have poles on the right half of the s-plane.

Hurwitz Polynomial

If above all the stability criteria are fulfilled (i.e. we have stable network function) then the
denominator of the F(s) is called the Hurwitz polynomial.

Where, Q(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial.

Properties of Hurwitz Polynomials:

There are five important properties of Hurwitz polynomials and they are written below:

1. For all real values of s value of the function P(s) should be real.

2. The real part of every root should be either zero or negative.

3. Let us consider the coefficients of denominator of F(s) is bn, b(n-1), b(n-2). . . . b0. Here it
should be noted that bn, b(n-1), b0 must be positive and bn and b(n-1) should not be equal to
zero simultaneously.

4. The continued fraction expansion of even to the odd part of the Hurwitz polynomial
should give all positive quotient terms, if even degree is higher or the continued fraction
expansion of odd to the even part of the Hurwitz polynomial should give all positive
quotient terms, if odd degree is higher.

5. In case of purely even or purely odd polynomial, we must do continued fraction with the
of derivative of the purely even or purely odd polynomial and rest of the procedure is
same as mentioned in the point number (4).
From the above discussion we conclude one very simple result,If all the coefficients of the
quadratic polynomial are real and positive then that quadratic polynomial is always a
Hurwitz polynomial.

Positive Real Functions

Any function which is in the form of F(s) will be called as a positive real function if fulfill
these four important conditions:

1. F(s) should give real values for all real values of s.

2. P(s) should be a Hurwitz polynomial.

3. If we substitute s = jω then on separating the real and imaginary parts, the real part of the
function should be greater than or equal to zero, means it should be non negative. This
most important condition and we will frequently use this condition in order to find out the
whether the function is positive real or not.

4. On substituting s = jω, F(s) should posses simple poles and the residues should be real
and positive.

Properties of Positive Real Function

There are four very important properties of positive real functions and they are written
below:

1. Both the numerator and denominator of F(s) should be Hurwitz polynomials.

2. The degree of the numerator of F(s) should not exceed the degree of denominator by
more than unity. In other words (m-n) should be less than or equal to one.

3. If F(s) is positive real function then reciprocal of F(s) should also be positive real
function.

4. Remember the summation of two or more positive real function is also a positive real
function but in case of the difference it may or may not be positive real function.

Following are the four necessary but not the sufficient conditions for the functions to be a
positive real function and they are written below:

1. The coefficient of the polynomial must be real and positive.

2. The degree of the numerator of F(s) should not exceed the degree of denominator by
more than unity. In other words (m - n) should be less than or equal to one.

3. Poles and zeros on the imaginary axis should be simple.

 4. Let us consider the coefficients of denominator of F(s) is bn, b(n-1), b(n-2). . . . b0.Here it
should be noted that bn, b(n-1), b0 must be positive and bn and b(n-1) should not be equal to
zero simultaneously.

Now there two necessary and sufficient conditions for the functions to be a positive real
function and they are written below:

1. F(s) should have simple poles on the jω axis and the residues of these poles must be real
and positive.

2. Summation of both numerator and denominator of F(s) must be a Hurwitz polynomial.

Routh Hurwitz Stability Criterion

If any pole of the system lies on the right hand side of the origin of the s plane, it makes the
system unstable. On the basis of this condition A. Hurwitz and E.J.Routh started
investigating the necessary and sufficient conditions of stability of a system. We will discuss
two criteria for stability of the system. A first criterion is given by A. Hurwitz and this
criterion is also known as Hurwitz Criterion for stability or Routh Hurwitz Stability
Criterion.

Hurwitz Criterion
With the help of characteristic equation, we will make a number of Hurwitz determinants in
order to find out the stability of the system. We define characteristic equation of the system as

Now there are n determinants for nth order characteristic equation.

Let us see how we can write determinants from the coefficients of the characteristic equation.
The step by step procedure for kth order characteristic equation is written below:

Determinant one : The value of this determinant is given by |a1| where a1 is the coefficient of
sn-1 in the characteristic equation.

Determinant two : The value of this determinant is given by

Here number of elements in each row is equal to determinant number and we have
determinant number here is two. The first row consists of first two odd coefficients and
second row consists of first two even coefficients.
Determinant three : The value of this determinant is given by

Here number of elements in each row is equal to determinant number and we have
determinant number here is three. The first row consists of first three odd coefficients, second
row consists of first three even coefficients and third row consists of first element as zero and
rest of two elements as first two odd coefficients.

Determinant four: The value of this determinant is given by,

Here number of elements in each row is equal to determinant number and we have
determinant number here is four. The first row consists of first three four coefficients, second
row consists of first four even coefficients, third row consists of first element as zero and rest
of three elements as first three odd coefficients the fourth row consists of first element as zero
and rest of three elements as first three even coefficients. By following the same procedure we
can generalize the determinant formation. The general form of determinant is given below:

Now in order to check the stability of the above system, calculate the value of each
determinant. The system will be stable if and only if the value of each determinant is greater
than zero, i.e. the value of each determinant should be positive. In all the other cases the
system will not be stable.
Routh Stability Criterion
This criterion is also known as modified Hurwitz Criterion of stability of the system. We will
study this criterion in two parts. Part one will cover necessary condition for stability of the
system and part two will cover the sufficient condition for the stability of the system.

Let us again consider the characteristic equation of the system as

1)

Part one (necessary condition for stability of the system): In this we have two conditions
which are written below:

1. All the coefficients of the characteristic equation should be positive and real.
2. All the coefficients of the characteristic equation should be non zero.

2)Part two (sufficient condition for stability of the system): Let us first construct routh array.
In order to construct the routh array follow these steps:

 The first row will consist of all the even terms of the characteristic equation. Arrange
them from first (even term) to last (even term). The first row is written below: a0 a2 a4
a6............
 The second row will consist of all the odd terms of the characteristic equation. Arrange
them from first (odd term) to last (odd term). The first row is written below: a1 a3 a5 a7...........
 The elements of third row can be calculated as:
 (1) First element : Multiply a0 with the diagonally opposite element of next column (i.e.
a3) then subtract this from the product of a1 and a2 (where a2 is diagonally opposite element of
next column) and then finally divide the result so obtain with a1. Mathematically we write as
first element

(2) Second element : Multiply a0 with the diagonally opposite element of next to next column
(i.e. a5) then subtract this from the product of a1 and a4 (where a4 is diagonally opposite
element of next to next column) and then finally divide the result so obtain with a1.

Mathematically we write as second element

Similarly, we can calculate all the elements of the third row. (d) The elements of fourth row
can be calculated by using the following procedure:

(1) First element : Multiply b1 with the diagonally opposite element of next column (i.e. a3)
then subtract this from the product of a1 and b2 (where b2 is diagonally opposite element of
next column) and then finally divide the result so obtain with b1. Mathematically we write as
first element

(2) Second element :Multiply b1 with the diagonally opposite element of next to next column
(i.e. a5) then subtract this from the product of a1 and b3 (where b3 is diagonally opposite
element of next to next column) and then finally divide the result so obtain with a1.
Mathematically we write as second element

Similarly, we can calculate all the elements of the fourth row. Similarly, we can calculate all
the elements of all the rows. Stability criteria if all the elements of the first column are
positive then the system will be stable.

However if anyone of them is negative the system will be unstable. Now there are some
special cases related to Routh Stability Criteria which are discussed below:

(1) Case one: If the first term in any row of the array is zero while the rest of the row has at
least one non zero term. In this case we will assume a very small value (ε) which is tending to
zero in place of zero. By replacing zero with (ε) we will calculate all the elements of the
Routh array. After calculating all the elements we will apply the limit at each element
containing (ε). On solving the limit at every element if we will get positive limiting value then
we will say the given system is stable otherwise in all the other condition we will say the
given system is not stable.

(2) Case second : When all the elements of any row of the Routh array are zero. In this case
we can say the system has the symptoms of marginal stability. Let us first understand the
physical meaning of having all the elements zero of any row. The physical meaning is that
there are symmetrically located roots of the characteristic equation in the s plane. Now in
order to find out the stability in this case we will first find out auxiliary equation. Auxiliary
equation can be formed by using the elements of the row just above the row of zeros in the
Routh array. After finding the auxiliary equation we will differentiate the auxiliary equation
to obtain elements of the zero row. If there is no sign change in the new routh array formed by
using auxiliary equation, then in this we say the given system is limited stable. While in all
the other cases we will say the given system is unstable.
THE ROOT LOCUS TECHNIQUE:

Any physical system is represented by a transfer function in the form of

We can find poles and zeros from G(s). The location of poles and zeros are crucial keeping
view stability, relative stability, transient response and error analysis. When the system put to
service stray inductance and capacitance get into the system, thus changes the location of
poles and zeros. In root locus technique in control system we will evaluate the position of
the roots, their locus of movement and associated information. These information will be used
to comment upon the system performance.

Some of the advantages of root locus technique are written below.

Advantages of Root Locus Technique

1. Root locus technique in control system is easy to implement as compared to other

methods.
2. With the help of root locus we can easily predict the performance of the whole system.
3. Root locus provides the better way to indicate the parameters.

Now there are various terms related to root locus technique that we will use frequently in this
article.

1. Characteristic Equation Related to Root Locus Technique :

1 + G(s)H(s) = 0 is known as characteristic equation.

Now on differentiating the characteristic equation and on equating dk/ds equals to zero, we
can get break away points.

2. Break away Points : Suppose two root loci which start from pole and moves in opposite
direction collide with each other such that after collision they start moving in different
directions in the symmetrical way. Or the break away points at which multiple roots of the
characteristic equation 1 + G(s)H(s)= 0 occur.

The value of K is maximum at the points where the branches of root loci break away. Break
away points may be real, imaginary or complex.
3. Break in Point : Condition of break in to be there on the plot is written below : Root locus
must be present between two adjacent zeros on the real axis.

4. Centre of Gravity : It is also known centroid and is defined as the point on the plot from
where all the asymptotes start. Mathematically, it is calculated by the difference of summation
of poles and zeros in the transfer function when divided by the difference of total number of
poles and total number of zeros. Centre of gravity is always real & it is denoted by σ A.

Where, N is number of poles and M is number of zeros.

5. Asymptotes of Root Loci : Asymptote originates from the center of gravity or centroid
and goes to infinity at definite some angle. Asymptotes provide direction to the root locus
when they depart break away points.

6. Angle of Asymptotes : Asymptotes makes some angle with the real axis and this angle
can be calculated from the given formula,

Where, p = 0, 1, 2 ....... (N-M-1) N is the total number of poles M is the total number of zeros.

7. Angle of Arrival or Departure : We calculate angle of departure when there exists

complex poles in the system. Angle of departure can be calculated as 180-{(sum of angles to a
complex pole from the other poles)-(sum of angle to a complex pole from the zeros)}.

8. Intersection of Root Locus with the Imaginary Axis : In order to find out the point of
intersection root locus with imaginary axis, we have to use Routh Hurwitz criterion. First, we
find the auxiliary equation then the corresponding value of K will give the value of the point
of intersection.

9. Gain Margin : We define gain margin as a by which the design value of the gain factor
can be multiplied before the system becomes unstable. Mathematically it is given by the
formula

10. Phase Margin : Phase margin can be calculated from the given formula:

11. Symmetry of Root Locus : Root locus is symmetric about the x axis or the real axis.

How to determine the value of K at any point on the root loci ? Now there are two ways of
determining the value of K, each way is described below.

1. Magnitude Criteria : At any points on the root locus we can apply magnitude criteria as,

2. Using this formula we can calculate the value of K at any desired point.
3. Using Root Locus Plot : The value of K at any s on the root locus is given by

Root Locus Plot

This is also known as root locus technique in control system and is used for determining the
stability of the given system. Now in order to determine the stability of the system using the
root locus technique we find the range of values of K for which the complete performance of
the system will be satisfactory and the operation is stable. Now there are some results that one
should remember in order to plot the root locus. These results are written below:
1. Region where root locus exists : After plotting all the poles and zeros on the plane, we
can easily find out the region of existence of the root locus by using one simple rule which is
written below,

Only that segment will be considered in making root locus if the total number of poles and
zeros at the right hand side of the segment is odd.

2. How to calculate the number of separate root loci ? : A number of separate root loci are
equal to the total number of roots if number of roots are greater than the number of poles
otherwise number of separate root loci is equal to the total number of poles if number of roots
are greater than the number of zeros.

Procedure to Plot Root Locus

Keeping all these points in mind we are able to draw the root locus plot for any kind of
system. Now let us discuss the procedure of making a root locus.

1. Find out all the roots and poles from the open loop transfer function and then plot them
on the complex plane.
2. All the root loci starts from the poles where k = 0 and terminates at the zeros where K
tends to infinity. The number of branches terminating at infinity equals to the difference
between the number of poles & number of zeros of G(s)H(s).
3. Find the region of existence of the root loci from the method described above after
finding the values of M and N.
4. Calculate break away points and break in points if any.
5. Plot the asymptotes and centroid point on the complex plane for the root loci by
calculating the slope of the asymptotes.
6. Now calculate angle of departure and the intersection of root loci with imaginary axis.
7. Now determine the value of K by using any one method that I have described above.

By following above procedure you can easily draw the root locus plot for any open loop
transfer function.

8. Calculate the gain margin.

9. Calculate the phase margin.
10. You can easily comment on the stability of the system by using Routh array.
Sketch the root locus of the following unity feedback system with

G(s) = K / [s(s + 2)(s 2 + 2s + 4)]

(a) Find the value ofK at breakaway points

(b) Find the value of K and the closed loop poles at which the damping factor is 0.6.

Sol:

Step 1: Plot the poles and zeros Zeros: nil

Poles : 0, - 2, - 1 ± j √3

Step 2: There are 4 root locus branches starting from the open loop poles. All these
branches go to zeros at infInity.

Step 3: Angles of asymptotes.

Since n- m = 4,

ø = 45, 135,225, and 315°

Step 4: Centroid = [0-2-1-1] / 4 = -1

Step 5: The root locus branch on real axis lies between 0 and - 2 only.

Step 6: Breakaway points dK/ ds = 0

K = - s (s + 2) (s2 + 2s + 4)

= (s4 + 4s3 + 8s2 + 8s)

dK / ds = 4s3 + 12s2 + 16s + 8 = 0

It is easy to see that (s + 1) is a root of this equation as the sum of the coefficients of odd
powers of s is equal to the sum of the even powers of s. The other two roots can be obtained
easily as.

s=- 1± j 1.
The roots of dK / ds are s = - 1, - 1± j 1.

Centroid = - 1 is a point on the root locus lying on the real axis and hence it is a breakaway
point. We have to test whether the points - 1 ± j 1 lie on the root locus or not.

Step 7:
Step8: