Circuit Theory TSK V Iyer Adjunct Professor Formerly Deputy Director BITS, Pilani Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited NEW DELHI McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal SanJuan Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoTata McGraw-Hill Copyright © 1985 by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited Nineteenth reprint 2006 RLLYCDDKRALLZ No part of this publication may, be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN 0-07-451681-7 Published by the Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, and printed at Rashtriya Printers P. Ltd., Zulfe Bengal, Dilshad Garden, Delhi 110 092.Contents Preface vit 1_Kirchhoff’s Laws and Circuit Elements 9 CSS 11___v-i Relations for Elements_2 12__Sources 3 1.3__Nodes and Meshes 4 1.4 Kirchhoff’s Current Law_ 5 1.5 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 1.6 Network Equilibrium Equations and Simplifications 9 1.7__ Simplifications Based on KCL, KVL 1d 1.8 Superposition 14 19 vi Relation of a Two-Terminal Network 15 1.10__Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems 18 1.11 Units and Dimensions 24 2_ The Differential Equation Approach 37 2.1 First-Order Differential Equations 37 2.2 Linearity and Linear Differential Equations 43 2.3 Step and Impulse Functions 44 2.4 The Exponential Function e” and cos wt 47 2.5 First-Order Circuits 51 2.6 Natural Frequencies and the Basic Circuits 5¢ 2.7 The Complete Solution 56 2.8 Initial Conditions as Sources 56 2.9 Equivalent Circuits for Charged C and L 58 2.10 Representation of LandC att=0O+ 59 2.11 Representation of LandC att= 60 2.12 Switching Circuits and Step Response by Inspection 60xii Contents 2.13 Second-Order Circuits 64 2.14 Natural Response of RLC Circuit 67 2.15 Step Response for a Parallel RLC Circuit 70 3 Steady State System Functions 81 3.1___ Dominant Forced Response, Res; > Res, 81 3.2___ System Functions and Relation to Natural Frequencies 85 3.3 Elementary System Functions 87 3.4 KCL and KVL for Complex Amplitudes of Currents and Voltages 87 3.5 Simplifications for Determining Steady State Response 88 3.6 Response to Sinusoidal Excitations 92 3.7___ Response of a System Function to a Sinusoidal Excitation 93 3.8 Phasor Diagrams 96 3.9 Poles and Zeroes 99 3.10 Pole-Zero Diagram and Frequency Response 100 3.11 Symmetries of Magnitude and Phase Plots 105 3.12 Impedance Scaling 106 3.13 Frequency Scaling 106 3.14 Power in Sinusoidal Steady State 109 3.15 Resonance and Relations Based on Q_ 113 4 Node Analysis and Mesh Analysis 124 4.1 Elements of Graph Theory 124 4.2 Independent Voltage Variables 127 43 Independent Current Variables 128 44 Incidence Matrix A128 4,5 Incidence Matrix and KCL 130 4.6 Incidence Matrixand KVL 133 4.7 Identification of Trees 137 4.8 Node Analysis 138 4.9 Mesh Analysis 143 5 Laplace Transform and Circuit Analysis 152 5.1 The Laplace Transform 153 5.2 Transforms of Signals 153 5,3 Differentiation Rule 155 Copyrighted materialContents sill 5.4 Integration Rule 155 5.5__ Time Domain and S-Domain Source Equivalent Circuits for L and C with Initial Conditions _157 5.6 Rules for Initial Value and Final Value 159 5.7 ift i 5.8 __Time Invariance 16]. 5.9 Convolution Integral in the Time Domain 163 5.10 Laplace Transform of Convolution Integral 168 5.11 Partial Fraction Expansion 170 5.12__Application of Laplace Transform to Circuits 174 Network Theorems 186 6.1 Tellegan’s Theorem 186 6.2 Applications of Tellegan’s Theorem 189 6.3 Superposition Theorem 191 6.4 Substitution Theorem 193 6.5 Thevenin’s Theorem 197 6.6 Norton Equivalent Circuit 199 6.7 Maximum Power Transfer 20/ 6.8 Analogs and Duals 202 6.9 Duality and Dual of a Planar Graph 208 Properties of Network Functions 216 7.1. Node and Mesh Determinants and Poles of System Functions 216 7.2 Behayiour of Za(s) of an RLC Network at s = 0 ands=co 223 7.3. Symmetries of H(jw) 225 7.4 Bode Plots 227 7.5 Passive Networks and Stability 233 7.6 Some Residue Relations 234 Two-Port Parameters and Ideal Two-Port Devices 240 8.1 | One-Port and Two-Port Elements 240 8.2 Parameters of Two-Ports 242 8.3. Some Two-Port Devices 254 8.4 Interconnection of Two-Ports 257 8.5 Some Active Circuits for Realizing Gyrators and NICs 260xiv Contents 10 L 9 Elements of Passive Network Synthesis 283 9.1 Hurwitz Polynomials and LC Immittances 283 9.2 LC Ladders, Cauer Realization and Test for Hurwitz 290 9.3. LC-RC Transformation and RC Synthesis 294 9.4 Ladder Network and its Transmission Zeroes 303 9.5 Transmission Zeroes of LC and RC Ladders 305 9.6 Dual of Ladder Network and of RC Ladder 313 9.7 Positive Real PR Functions 320 9.8 Synthesis of RLC Networks: Darlington Method 324 9.9 Determination of Driving Point Impedance from its Real Port 328 Image Impedance and Classical Filters 339 10.1 Image Impedances 340 10.2 L-Sections: Relation to Symmetrical T- and w-Networks 344 10.3. Propagation Constant for Iterative Networks 346 10.4 Propagation Constant for Image Terminated Networks 349 10.5 Constant-X Filters and Low-Pass Prototype 350 10.6 m-Derived Filters 353 10.7 Impedance and Frequency Scaling 358 10.8 Frequency Transformations: High-Pass and Band-Pass Filters 361 1 Modern Filter Theory and Active RC Filters 371 MoperNn Fitter THEORY 11.1 Approximation to Ideal LP Filter 371 11.2. Maximally Flat Magnitude Function (MFMF) 372 11.3 Butterworth Functions and Synthesis 373 11.4 Chebyshev’s Filters 376 Active RC Fitters 11.5 Operations by use of Operational Amplifier Configurations 383 11.6 Active RC Networks 387 11.7 Low Pass Active Filters 391 11.8 GC:CG Transformations 295 11.9 Parameter Variations and Sensitivity 398 11.10 Sensitivity Consideration for Active RC Circuits 405Contents xv 12 State-Variable Method of Circuit Analysis 421 12.1 Dynamical Systems and State Variables 421 12.2 State-Variable Analysis of Simple Circuits 422 12.3 Type B Networks 428 12.4 Graph Theory for Systematic State-Variable Analysis 432 12.5 Systematic State Variable Analysis 44] Appendices 487 Al Fourier Series 459 A2 Fourier Integral 475 A3 Multiple-Choice Questions 486 A4 Bibliography 514 Index 5151 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Circuit Elements Electrical ‘networks’ have sources of voltage and current and network ele- ments such as resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C). The behaviour of a network element is expressed in terms of its v-i relations (i.e. the rela- tion between its voltage and current). Two basic laws, known as Kirchhoff’s laws, operate for electrical networks. These laws relate to voltages in a loop and currents at a junction or node. With the help of these laws and the v-i relations, a network can be analysed. This chapter deals with v-i relations of the R, L, C elements and with equations for resistive networks. A network is a connection of elements to obtain a certain performance. In circuit theory, we are interested in electrical networks in which passive elements such as resistors, inductors and capacitors are appropriately inter- connected to voltage and current sources. These elements and sources are idealizations to actual elements and sources. The idealization enables an effective analysis of the network. The problem in network theory is to analyse the given network and to determine the voltages across and currents through various elements. The concepts of electrical potential difference (v) and electrical current (i) are assumed. In general, these are functions of time v(t) and i(t). The current i is equal to the rate of flow of charge (g), i.e. i = dg/dt. The unit of potential is volt (V), of current ampere (A), of charge coulomb (C), and of time second (s). This is a consistent set of units. : i A general circuit element is symbo- __ — lized as shown in Fig. 1.1. It has two o— [rk — end-points a and b cajled the termi- . v nals. With a current i assumed as we (a) entering the node a and leaving the o—{___}—» node b, the conventions of represent- a va b ing the voltage v across terminals a and b are as shown in Fig. 1.1, The (b) higher potential at node a is shown Fig. 1.1 »-i convention2 Cireuit Theory by a + (plus) sign in Fig. 1.1(a) and by the head of the arrowin Fig. 1.1(b). 1.1 v-i RELATIONS FOR ELEMENTS: The v-i relations for a resistor R, an inductor L, and a capacitor C are: ‘ di do vaR valS i=c¥ ap R l c Fig. 1.2 Symbol for R, Zand C ‘Yhe symbols used for these are shown in Fig. 1.2. Ris expressed in ohms (Q), L in henries (H) and C in farads (F). The v-i relation for R, written as a function of time, is v(t) = Ri(t). This relation is instantaneous, i.e. the voltage at time # is directly related to the current at that instant. On the other hand, v-i relations for L and C when written in the integral form are respectively w=} j. (0) dt + i(t0) (1.28) and ot) = é | HO at + (00) (1.2b) Thus, the current in an inductor at time t depends on the past values of », and likewise the voltage across a capacitor at time t depends on the past values of i through the capacitor. The charge stored by the capacitor is Q = Cv so that . 2H) = fey dt + 20) The flux linkage in an inductor is ¢ = Li so that ot) = f v(t) dt + $(0) Hence L and C are storage elements and have a memory of the past. These relations for L and C given by Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2) will be discussed later. In the inductor when di/dt = 0, i.e. whenever the current is constant and not changing with time, the voltage across it is zero; in other words it is a short circuit. When the current through L is constant, it acts as a short circuit, In the case of the capacitor, if dv/dt=0, then i=0. Whenever the voltage vokirchhoff’s Laws and Circuit Elements 3 across the capacitor is constant, the current through it is zero and hence acts as an open circuit with a voltage vp across C. Thus, in a circuit in which the currents and voltages are constant, the inductor can be replaced by a short circuit and the capacitor by an open circuit (Fig. 1.3). In such situ- ations, an RLC circuit reduces to a resistive circuit, k SHORT oo ~—= O—— a b a b c OPEN o—{/—0 = o~0 o—0 a b a b Fig. 1.3. Land C when v and / are constant Example 1.1 In the circuit shown in Fig. E1.1(a), obtain the current through L and vol- tages across C,, C2 and R, assuming they are constant. I £ root } cy + c, ; R c; Ce ; (a) (b) Fig. E11 (a) RLC circuit, (b) equivalent circuit when » and i are constant Solution: Figure E1.1(b) shows that the current through R is / so that the voltage across R is RI. The current through L is J. Voltage across C, = voltage across C, = Ri. 1.2 SOURCES Two types of ideal sources are defined. A voltage source V, is ideal when the voltage is constant or is a given function of time. The current through V, is determined only by the circuit connected to it. Hence, the magnitude and direction of current drawn cannot be determined from the polarity of V,. It depends on what is connected to V,. When the circuit is open, the current drawn from V, is zero; hence, the power drawn, VI, is 0. Thus, an ideal voltage source V, is idle when kept open-circuited. If V, = 0, the4 Circuit Theory source is a short circuit. A short cir- cuit can be considered conversely as an ideal voltage source of zero voltage. An ideal current source J, has a constant current supply or a current value which is a defined function of time. The voltage across it depends on the external circuit. The magni- tude and direction of voltage across I, can be determined only when the external circuit is defined. If the source 1, is shorted, the voltage across it is zero resulting in zero power being drawn from it. Thus, an idle current source should be kept shorted. When the value of V,=0, the voltage source is equivalent toa short cicuit. Similarly when J,=0, the current source is equivalent to an open circuit. Symbols for voltage and current sources are given in Fig. 1.4, as also their special behaviour. 1.3. NODES AND MESHES. Vy=0 short ,=0 open (c) Fig. 1.4 Sources: (a) Voltage, (b) current, (c) V.=0 and f, =0 When R, L and C elements and sources like V, and J, are connected appro- priately, an electrical circuit results. The elements and sources have two end-points each. They are thus ‘two-terminal elements’. The connection points of elements and sources are called nodes. For convenience of description, let the elements be given with their end (b) Fig. 1.5 (a) Path, (b) elements in parallel, (c) elements in seriesKirct-hoff’s Laws and Circuit Elements 5 points in brackets like a(1, 2) where a is the element and | and 2 are its end points. The elements a(1, 2), 5(2, 3) and c(3, 4) as shown in Fig. 1.5(a) form a path since the end point of one element is the beginning of the next. When the element d is d(4, 1), then elements a, b, c, and d form a closed path called a circuit or Joop. In the case of a planar network (a network which can be drawn on a plane, without any crossing of wires) the term mesh is used for the closed path, when it has no more closed paths inside it. Elements a(1, 2) and 4(1, 2) as shown in Fig. 1.5(b) are said to be in parallel, as their end points are same for both elements. Elements a(1, 2), 5(2, 3) as shown in Fig. 1.5(c) are said to be in series, provided no other element has an end point at node 2. Example 1.2 Figure E1.2 shows a circuit in which elements are depicted by lines. Identify (i) elements which are in series, (ii) elements which are in parallel, and (iii) meshes. Solution: (@) Elements a and 6 are in series. (ii) Elements g and A are in parallel. (iii) The meshes are a-b-d-c, f-c-e, Fig. El.2. Identifying series. branches, e-d-g and g-h. parallel branches and meshes 1.4 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW ‘There are two fundamental laws which are satisfied by electrical networks. These are Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). KCL states that the algebraic sum of currents at a node is equal to! zero, Alternate forms of KCL are: Algebraic sum of currents entering a node = 0 Algebraic sum of currents leaving a node = 0 or Sum of currents entering a node = sum of currents leaving the node Thus in Fig. 1.6(a), the currents entering are i,, i, and (—i,) so that igtip—ip= (1.3a) In terms of leaving currents, KCL is stab tic= (1.3b)6 Circ: it Theory Alternatively, by equating the entering and leaving currents iat iy = i. (1.3c) Apart from the difference in formulations, all the three equations are the same, Let ig = 1, ip = 2. Then i, = 14+2= Fig. 1.6 (a) (b) illustrating KCL In Fig. 1.6(b) the same currents are labelled differently. Thus, ic= Using KCL, in tiatic=0 or 4+142-3=0 Example 1.3 Figure E1.3 gives the current directions. Write KCL for the nodes for entering currents. Solution: At node J, sig — ict ip = 0 (14a) At node 2, i, —ip =O (1.4b) At node 3, i, —ia—ig—in =O (14c) At node 4, ititiv=0 (14d) Fig. E13 KCL at the nodes It is interesting to note that the KCL at the remaining node (5) need not be written as it can be obtained by simply summing the KCL relations for all the other nodes. Adding Eqs. (1.4a) through (1.44), ip — ig tie — in =0 which is the KCL for leaving currents at node 5.image not availableimage not availableKirchhoff’s Laws and Circuit Elements 9 the elements of a network by the two notations. The KVL for various meshes are: Mesh a-bed-e: V,—Ve-+Va+Va=0 (1.5) Vet¥s—-Ve=0 (1.6) Vet V_—Vs =0 a.) Mesh g-h: V,—V,=0 (1.8) There are no more meshes and these are all the KVL relations possible. Note that elements g and A are parallel and V, = V; from Eq. (1.8). Hence, by the KVL, parallel elements have the same voltage. A proper combination of meshes results in a loop. In Fig. 1.7, a-f-g-b is a loop and its KVL Vat Vy +h, +¥h=0 is not an independent relation. It can be obtained from the KVL of the meshes enclosed (specifically from Eqs. (1.5), (1.6) and (1.7)) by adding them. 1.6 NETWORK EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS AND SIMPLIFICATIONS Kirchhoff’s voltage and current law and the v-i relations of the elements give all the relations needed to solve for the currents and voltages. Net- works with a small number of nodes and meshes can be analysed as follows: 1. Write KCL for all but one of the nodes 2. Write KVL for all meshes 3. Use v-i relations for the elements. In one approach, the voltages of the elements are assumed as unknown. Elements in parallel can have the same symbol for their voltage. Equations are obtained by steps |, 2 and 3 in terms of the assumed voltages. Example 1.6 For the circuit shown in Fig. E!.5, obtain the equilibrium equations in terms of the element voltages marked in the figure Fig. E18 KCL: (m— 1) nodes are independentimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableKirchhoff's Laws and Circuit Elements 13 The relations R’ = Ry + Rein (d), and Req = qm. often. Resistors in series can be added. Resistors in parallel have an equi- valent resistor value given by Req in (e). in (e) are used Example 1.9 Find the voltage across /, in Fig, El.7(a) and the current through V, in Fig. E1.7(b). (b) Fig. E1.7 Circuit for Ex. 1.9 Solution: (a) Ris in series with J,. Hence voltage across R is RI,. Therefore vol- tage across I, is V, + RI. (b) The current through R is V,/R. The current through V, by KCL is I, —V,/R. Example'1.10 Determine V for the circuit shown in Fig. E1.8. R323 @ 10V Fig. E1.8 Circuit for Ex. 1.10 Solution: Writing KCL for node 1, lo—-V_V+3 Rs 2l~ Solving, Velimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableKirchhoff’s Laws and Circuit Elements 17 Thus V = Regi + Veo (1.16) $ = — _RiR3 —~ 4 where Reg = R+ Rr = Ret Rt R, and Vi = RR V,. Voc is the voltage across XX when it is open-circuited on its right. Representation shown in Fig. 1.10(b) is the relation given in Eq, (1.16). The meaning of Req and Vo, are given later. Example 1.12 Obtain the vi relation at XX for the circuit of Fig, E1.10. Fig. E110 Circuit for Ex. 1.12 Solution: Connect a voltage source v across XX’ and determine the current i drawn. To solve the problem, assume V; as voltage at node B. KCL at node B gives (1.17) KCL at X gives Using Eq. (1.17), = -09 (1.18) or v = 12.51 + 11.25 (1.19)image not availableimage not availableimage not availableKirchhoff’s Laws and Circuit Elements 24 el; (a) i! (t) 8 te N ‘s) é th) oc o =-\/+ o Ww Fig. 1.12 Proof of Thevenin’s theorems Norton’s Theorem Any linear two-terminal network branch of a circuit with resistors and sources can be represented by a current source J, in parallel with a resistorimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableKirchhoff's Laws and Circuit Elements 25 Table 1.1 Quantities and SI Units Quantity Symbol Stunit Symbol for Voltage v volt v Current t ampere A Resistance R ohm a Inductance L henry H Capacitance c farad F Charge Q coulomb c Flux linkage 4 weber we Time t second s Angular frequency radians/second rad/s Frequency f hertz Hz Power P watt w Reactive Power voltampere reactive VAR Voltage ratio 20 log (Vi/¥o) decibel dB In(VilVo) —_neper N Values occurring in practice are handled by prefixes attached to the SI units, denoting fractions or multiples of the unit. Useful prefixes are given in Table 1.2. Table 1.2 Prefixes to Units Giving Factors Prefix Factor Symbol pico 10-" Pp micro 10-« # milli 10-> m kilo 10 K mega or meg 10° M Examples of this usage are: megachm (MQ), kiloohm (kg), milliheary (mH), microfarad (uF) and picofarad (pF). Dimensions From the relation R = V/J, the dimension of R is volt/ampere. From theimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableKirchhoff’s Laws and Circuit Elements 29 P1.10 In Fig. P1.9, the voltage rises are marked by arrows on numbered branches. Given that Vi = Va— Vo =-V= Vs=1V, using KVL, deter- mine the other voltages. Now pick from these nine voltages, five independent voltages and deter- mine the other voltages. After marking the letters a, b,c, d, cand f separately, corresponding to points in the figure, connect lines relating to only Vi, Vs, Vs, Vs and Vs. On another diagram, similarly, connect the voltages you have identified as independent. Comment on the nature of the two diagrams. Fig. PLO LIL (a) Determine Js in Fig. P1.10(a). (b) Determine Vs in Fig. P1.10(b). Ans. (a) Is=1, (bd) Ve =I/2. 45 2 741, (a) (b) Fig. P1.10 Pl.12_ In Fig. PI.11, find R so that / through R is 2. Ans. R=2 Fig. P1.11 P1.13. Find the voltage across /, and current through V, in Fig. P1.12. Hint. Apply superposition.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableKirchhoff's Laws and Circuit Elements 33 P1.22 For the circuit in Fig. P1.21, P1.23 P1224 (a) Given £, = 8, determine /s so that i = 0. (b) Given £, = 8 and é = 1, find 1. 2 A 5 8B o Oo OFS ?" Fig, P4121 (c) Obtain Thevenin's equivalent to the circuit to the left of A and also to the right of B. Hence obtain an expression for i in terms of E, and J,. Hence obtain a relation between E, and /, so that i = 0. Ans. (a) 1,=2, (b) = —2, (c) Foria 0, E.= 4h. (a) Obtain the r-i relation for the circuit of Fig. P1.22. (b) Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent for the circuit to the left of XX. Ans. Eoo=10, Req = 1. 1118 Fig, P1.22 The ei relation of N; of Fig. P1.23 is Vi= hi +2. Obtain fi for the circuit shown, Hint. Use Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Ans. I= 1. 7.5 ty ©) %y Fig. P1.23image not availableimage not availableimage not available2 The Differential Equation Approach Circuits consisting of an inductor or a capacitor along with resistors are analysed here. Linear differential equations, their properties and solutions facilitate the analysis. The study of first-order circuits with one L or one C is followed by a study of an RLC circuit connected in series or parallel as an example of a second-order circuit. The differential equation approach is basic. It leads to important concepts like natural frequencies and natura: response. 24 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Consider the circuits shown in Fig. 2.1. Both have only one storage ele- ment L or C. In addition there is a resistor and a source of excitation. (4) (a) i Fig. 2.1, First-order circuits In Fig. 2.1(a), the voltage v has to be determined. By KVL, v is the vol- tage across both the elements R and C. Using v-i relations, the currents through R and C can be written down. By KCL, dv wv | Cat aaimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableThe Differential Equation Approach 41 2.2, LINEARITY AND LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS A linear operation is defined as follows. Let an operation T on x give y, where y = 7(x), so that yy = T(x;) and", = T(x2). The operation 7 is linear, if Tax, + bx) = T(x1) + bT(2) Sart byr (2.14) The operation T is characterized by (i) magnification and (ii) additivity (also called superposition). Magnification Given y = T(x). then T(ax) = a7T(x) = ay. Additivity Given y; = 7(x)) and y2 = 7(x2), then Tem + 2) = T(x) + T02) Hunt Example 2.1 Show that y = ax + 5 is not linear. Solution: Consider y; = ax, +6 and y,=axn.+6 Adding, Yat yo = ala + 2) + 26 # Ax, + ¥2) + y = ax + 6 is not lincar, basically because when x = 0, y # 0 (y = 6). Example 2.2 Prove that v = Ldi/dt is linear. Solution: Consider an excitation ai, + biz. di, dt = av, + bv2 dt, dg L Flair + bis) = al + OLimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableThe Differential Equation Approach 45 u_i(t — T;) is a unit step function starting at tf = 7; as shown in Fig. 2.4 and is defined as ui(t—T)=0 fortT In general, multiplication by w_,(¢). of a function f(1), makes the function vanish for ¢ << 0 and have the value S(t) for t > 0. oO Ty —>t Fig. 2.4 Delayed unit step w-a(t — T,) uyt-T) Differential of Unit Step Function We define d wl) =F wo) (2.20) Since u_,(t) = 0 (a constant) fort <0 =1(aconstant) forr>0 in both the ranges its differential is zero, i.e. uo(t) = 0 for t < 0 and for 1 > 0. To evaluate uo(t) in the interval 0- < t < 0+, we integrate Eq. (2.20) fi inn ate = wate fo. mote ae = 1 since the change in value of u_,(t) in this time range is unity. Note that the value of uo(t) is specified by the value of its integral. uo(t) is called an impulse function and its integral is the unit step function. Uo(t) has a value only at ¢ = 0 and is zero in the interval t< O andt>0 Hence, In particular, Slt) X wol#) = (0) wol') since uo(t) = 0 for all values of ¢ except ¢ = 0. A practical situation of an impulse is now given. Concept of Impulse Consider a cylinder of cross-section A with water in it to a height of Ho as shown in Fig, 2.5. The cylinder is filled by a water tap, water flowing at the rate of volume V per unit time; 4, Ho and V are a consistent set of units. Initial height of water = Ho Initial volume of water, Qo = A Hy Water added in time ¢ = Vr