Chap 2

Newton’s Laws: a critical survey
Coordinate Systems
Mechanics Oscillations and Waves

(MEOW!)
R I S H I K E S H V A I D Y A
[email protected]
Office: 3265
Physics Department, BITS-Pilani, Pilani.
Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

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Everything should be made as

simple as possible, but not
simpler.
Albert Einstein

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The Course
Mechanics: (∼ 20 lectures)
Text: Introduction to Mechanics by Kleppner and Kolenkow
Oscillations and Waves: (∼ 20 lectures)
Text: Vibrations and Waves by A.P.French

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The Course
Mechanics: (∼ 20 lectures)
Text: Introduction to Mechanics by Kleppner and Kolenkow
Oscillations and Waves: (∼ 20 lectures)
Text: Vibrations and Waves by A.P.French

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Two simple questions
(1). What is the physical content of Newton’s laws?

What do they buy us? Are there any assumptions? What are
their limitations?

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(1). What is the physical content of Newton’s laws?

What do they buy us? Are there any assumptions? What are
their limitations?

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(2). I push this duster and it displaces in the direction of the

force. Simple and intuitive. Why is then a circular motion so
defiant? Why the earth doesn’t collapse on to the Sun?
Simple answer: Force is proportional to acceleration and not
displacement. But then why are the displacement and
acceleration aligned in the rectilinear motion and orthogonal in
circular motion? The simplicity of mathematical answers is
always deceptive.

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always deceptive.

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always deceptive.

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The Problem of Mechanics
Consider a set of bodies mi

(i = 1, 2, 3, ...N), interacting with each
other as well as the environment.
At t = 0, we know their locations

~ri (t = 0) and velocities ~vi (t = 0). Predict
their future course of evolution (~ri (t)).
Newton’s laws provide an answer to this question when the

bodies in the system of interest are of macroscopic size that we
see around and are moving with speeds much smaller than
velocity of light.

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velocity of light.

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velocity of light.

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What good is first law?
Two not so illuminating perspectives.

First law is at best a tautology
Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in
a straight line, except in so far as it doesn’t.
– Sir Arthur Eddington (British Astrophysicist)
A special case of second law?

~ = 0 = d ~p implying
In the absence of any force 2nd law says: F dt
~p = constant.
Let us accept this tautology and move on until we are
compelled to revisit the first law.

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~p = constant.

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~p = constant.

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The Second Law
Law of Causality
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to
the (net) force acting on it and takes place in the direction of
straight line along which the force acts.
~ = d ~p (= m~a when m = constant).

F
dt
Net force is obtained from law of parallelogram of vector

addition.

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The Second Law
Law of Causality
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to
the (net) force acting on it and takes place in the direction of
straight line along which the force acts.
~ = d ~p (= m~a when m = constant).

F
dt
Net force is obtained from law of parallelogram of vector

addition.

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Several questions
Why is the rate of change of momentum (or velocity when

m is constant) an absolute measure of change?
How do we quantify motion before we quantify change in
motion?
What is the measure of no-change? How do we measure
change?
What is the role of mass here?
What are the assumptions about the nature and role of
space and time?
What is an ideal measurement?

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Several questions

motion?
change?
space and time?

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Several questions

motion?
change?
space and time?

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Several questions

motion?
change?
space and time?

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Several questions

motion?
change?
space and time?

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Several questions

motion?
change?
space and time?

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Before we go full throttle!
It is a commonplace experience for passengers standing in a

moving bus to suddenly find themselves in the lap of a sitting
passenger, as the bus navigates a turn.
We have all experienced this change (the fall!) with no

causative agent lurking in the sight.
Before we quantify signatures of change, we must know the

signatures of no-change. Revisit the first law.

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2nd law stands on the crutches of 1st law!
The connection between cause and effect quantified in 2nd

law applies only to a specific class of reference frames
called inertial frames.
First law quantifies the state of no change and its signature
— a body free from the influence of causative agents
(forces) maintains its state of rest or that of a uniform
rectilinear motion.
A valid or inertial reference frame is that in which this tell
tale of signature of freedom from forces, that is a state of
rest or of uniform rectilinear motion is observed.

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rectilinear motion.

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rectilinear motion.

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A million dollar question
Is there an attribute by virtue of which any body resists crazy

spontaneous changes without being compelled by external
forces?
Inertia is that attribute which mandates application of force for

effecting change.

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This inertia is nothing but the quantity of matter and is the only
player possible in the equation between cause (force) and
effect (acceleration). When written in terms of rate of change of
momentum, inertia goes in the definition of momentum, that is
quantity of motion (~p) is equal to the product of quantity of
inertia (m) and velocity (~v ).

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Nothing is free. Even to exert inertia it costs you mass! In fact

mass is inertia, or is it?

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Three simple yet profound lessons
1 state of rest = state of uniform motion

2 Force as a causative agent for absolute change
3 Inertia is the attribute by which any body resists
spontaneous change (in absence of force)
The first law is thus, in part a definition of valid (inertial)
reference frames and in part an assertion that they exist.

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It takes two to tango

In the absence of more than one body there is no such thing as
body of interest. A lonesome isolated body is hardly interesting
for it does nothing for eternity (never say never though –
modern understanding of particle physics revises the notion of
free isolated particle which can spontaneously decay).
Consider a body of interest that suffers a change when
acted upon by a force that originates in an external agency.
However, this division of Universe in to “body of interest”
and the rest of the Universe where forces “reside” is
artificial and arbitrary.
According to the third law, the causal connection is
bi-directional. If body 1 is acted upon by a body 2 with a
force F~ 12 , then the body 2 also suffers an equal and
opposite force F ~ 12 due to body 1.
~ 21 = −F

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~ 21 = −F

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~ 21 = −F

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~ 21 = −F

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It takes two to tango!
Third law is a profound prescription of going from the effect on

‘the body of interest’ to mutual interaction of many bodies.

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So inertial mass is a source of massive inertia – no

tautology right?
Well, a little detail here. There are two kinds of masses –
literally, figuratively, physically as well as politically. There are
masses that resist change (inertial) and there are masses that
(easily) gravitate! Talking of physics,
Inertial mass mi : Measure of how much a body hates to
accelerate
Gravitational massmg : Measure of how much a body can
gravitate
A priori there is no reason why mi = mg just as electric
charge q is not a measure of inertia.
Equality mi = mg follows from a profound law – Einstein’s
principle of equivalence. More in chap. 8.

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tautology right?
accelerate
gravitate

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tautology right?
accelerate
gravitate

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How do we verify Newton’s second law?
Measure LHS and RHS of the law separately and see if

LHS = RHS
Equipped with inertial frames, you can measure ~a.
How do you measure m? Balance ? Thats mg . Take your
balance to outer space and a mouse will balance an
elephant. Doesn’t help.
F
m= a ? That’s circular argument
We can compare two inertial masses if we apply same
force on them and then compare their accelerations. How
do you ensure F is same?

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LHS = RHS
F

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LHS = RHS
F

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LHS = RHS
F

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LHS = RHS
F

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LHS = RHS
F

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LHS = RHS
F

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LHS = RHS
F

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3rd law to the rescue of 2nd law
If we isolate two bodies then the only force they feel is the force
of mutual interaction. Following the 3rd law:
~ 12 + F
F ~ 21 = 0
d ~ ~ 2) = 0
(P1 + P
d
Total momentum of a closed system is conserved.

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If we examine the collision of two masses m1 and m2

comprising a closed system then from the conservation of
momentum:
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v10 + m2 v20 (1)

m1 v20 − v2
=
m2 v1 − v10
Since you can measure the RHS, it fixes the ratio of masses.
Taking one of them to be unit test mass, you can now determine
any mass. Now the second law defines the force for you.

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If we examine the collision of two masses m1 and m2

comprising a closed system then from the conservation of
momentum:
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v10 + m2 v20 (1)

m1 v20 − v2
=
m2 v1 − v10
Since you can measure the RHS, it fixes the ratio of masses.
Taking one of them to be unit test mass, you can now determine
any mass. Now the second law defines the force for you.

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~ = m~a vs. F
~ = d ~p
F dt
~ = d ~p
F dt is a more general and powerful formulation.
It applies to mass varying systems including the relativistic
increase in mass with velocity
In so formulating his second law he defined a very
important notion of momentum and paved way for powerful
conservation laws. Conservation laws in turn have deep
connections with the fundamental properties of space and
time, namely space is homogeneous and isotropic and
time is homogeneous.

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~ = m~a vs. F
~ = d ~p
F dt
~ = d ~p

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~ = m~a vs. F
~ = d ~p
F dt
~ = d ~p

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So.....
Three laws of Newton together form a logically complete and

consistent system of laws to answer the fundamental problem
of mechanics. Have they stood the test of time?
For a theory to become a solid science logical consistency is

not enough. Experimental vindication is the ultimate arbiter.

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So.....
Three laws of Newton together form a logically complete and

consistent system of laws to answer the fundamental problem
of mechanics. Have they stood the test of time?
For a theory to become a solid science logical consistency is

not enough. Experimental vindication is the ultimate arbiter.

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Questionable assumptions
Space and time are independent of each other and

absolute
Truth: according to special Relativity space and time are
inter-mixed and relative
Space and time are non-participatory in dynamics and the
geometry of space is flat(euclidean)
Truth: according to general relativity geometry of
space-time is determined by the matter and
energy-density. What we called gravitation is nothing but
the geometry of space-time.

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absolute

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absolute

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absolute

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Space and time are continuous

According to one of the modern theories for gravity space
may be granular. But this is only one among few alternate
quantum theory for gravity and we do not know if this is
really true.
Instantaneous action at a distance
Truth: According to special relativity forces are
communicated with a finite speed that is equal to the
speed of light c which is a universal constant independent
of the velocity of source.

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really true.

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really true.

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really true.

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Non destructive ideal measurements are possible.

Truth: According to quantum mechanics ideal
non-destructive measurements are inherently not possible.
However, for the physics of the macroscopic everyday
objects, the errors incurred are negligible.
No limit to the accuracy of measurement
Truth: According to uncertainty principle there are certain
pairs of conjugate variables which cannot be
simultaneously determined with arbitrary precision.

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An advertisement for theoretical physics
Are there other formulations of mechanics?
Yes, there are more powerful and elegant formulations of

mechanics due to Lagrange and Hamilton. Newton’s
formulation is based on the primacy of vectorial force.
Lagrange and Hamilton’s formulation are based on the primacy
of energy which is a scalar.

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An advertisement for theoretical physics
Are there other formulations of mechanics?
Yes, there are more powerful and elegant formulations of

mechanics due to Lagrange and Hamilton. Newton’s
formulation is based on the primacy of vectorial force.
Lagrange and Hamilton’s formulation are based on the primacy
of energy which is a scalar.

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Question 2
Why does the duster move in the direction of force but motion
of earth is orthogonal to the direction of force?
Some remarks:
(a) Acceleration (~a) is sometimes in the same direction as
~ /dt) but can sometimes be orthogonal to it.
velocity (dr
(b) Very specific initial conditions are implicit in this question.
The duster is at rest whereas earth is already orbiting the Sun.
If Earth and Sun stood still in isolation, they would unabashedly
crash into each other along the line joining their center of mass
and not revolve around common center of mass.
~ /dt, we must investigate the meaning of the
(c) Since ~a = dv
derivative of a vector and what are the different ways in which a
vector can change. How different can a derivative of a vector be
from the derivative of a scalar?

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Question 2
Some remarks:
velocity (dr
(c) Since ~a = dv

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Question 2
Some remarks:
velocity (dr
(c) Since ~a = dv

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Question 2
Some remarks:
velocity (dr
(c) Since ~a = dv

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Upshot of the blackboard work is

A vector can change in two independent ways
1 Pure scaling: change purely in magnitude without
changing direction
2 Pure rotation: change purely in direction without changing
magnitude
This sounds interesting. Does there exist a coordinate system
to which such a resolution is native? If yes, how different would
things look in such a system? Would it simplify or complicate
things?
It is all about choosing horses for courses.
The choice of coordinate system is guided by the geometry of

the problem.
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Upshot of the blackboard work is

A vector can change in two independent ways
1 Pure scaling: change purely in magnitude without
changing direction
2 Pure rotation: change purely in direction without changing
magnitude
This sounds interesting. Does there exist a coordinate system
to which such a resolution is native? If yes, how different would
things look in such a system? Would it simplify or complicate
things?
It is all about choosing horses for courses.
The choice of coordinate system is guided by the geometry of

the problem.
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Arial shot of Downtown Chicago
Rectangular geometry of the roads lends itself very naturally to

cartesian coordinate system.
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Arial shot of Cannought Place New Delhi
Circular/radial geometry of the roads lends itself naturally to the

plane polar coordinate system.
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Cartesian vs. Polar coordinates
You need two numbers to specify a

location in 2-D plane.
Cartesian: (x, y )
Polar: (r , θ)
r is distance from the origin and theta is
the angle from the reference direction
(x-axis).

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The Grid
The cartesian grid

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The Grid
The plane-polar grid

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So what is the difference?
Cartesian coordinates: Unit vectors are

constant vectors (constant in magnitude
as well as direction).
Polar coordinates Unit vectors are

constant in magnitude (after all unit
magnitude) but point in different
directions at every location.

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Block on String (no gravity)

Example 2.5 Find the force on the whirling mass m in the
absence of gravity.
Figure: Mass m whirls at constant speed v at the end of string of

length R

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Block on String (now with gravity!)

Example 2.6 Find the force on the whirling mass m in the
vertical plane in gravity.
Figure: Now the forces are: Weight (Mg) downwards and Tension (T )
radially inwards.

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Bead on the frictionless rod
Prob. 2.33 A particle of mass m is free to slide on a thin rod.

The rod rotates in a plane about one end with a constant
velocity ω. Show that the motion is given by r = Ae−αt + Be+αt ,
where α is a constant which you must find and A and B are
arbitrary constant. Neglect gravity.
Show that for a particular choice of initial conditions (that is

r (t = 0) and v (t = 0), it is possible to obtain a solution such
that r decreases continually in time, but for any other choice r
will eventually increase

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Bead on the frictionless rod
Prob. 2.33 A particle of mass m is free to slide on a thin rod.

The rod rotates in a plane about one end with a constant
velocity ω. Show that the motion is given by r = Ae−αt + Be+αt ,
where α is a constant which you must find and A and B are
arbitrary constant. Neglect gravity.
Show that for a particular choice of initial conditions (that is

r (t = 0) and v (t = 0), it is possible to obtain a solution such
that r decreases continually in time, but for any other choice r
will eventually increase

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Figure for problem 2.33

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Lessons you learn from 2.33
Formulate problems in polar coordinates

A generic solution will have two abitrary constants and they
are fixed by specific initial conditions.
How to reset a mercury thermometer or drain clean a
standard garden hose.
How do you explain r̈ 6= 0 despite Fr = 0.

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Pull radially and yet accelerate tangentially!
Prob. 2.34 A mass m whirls around on a string which passes

through a ring as shown. Neglect gravity. Initially the mass is at
a distance r0 from the center and is revolving at an angular
speed of ω0 . The string is pulled with a constant velocity V
starting at t = 0 so that the radial distance to the mass
decreases. Draw a force diagram and obtain a differential
equation for ω. Find (a) ω(t) (b) The force needed to pull the
string.

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Newton’s Laws: a critical survey

Mechanics Oscillations and Waves

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

Everything should be made as

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

Two simple questions

(1). What is the physical content of Newton’s laws?

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

Two simple questions

(1). What is the physical content of Newton’s laws?

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

Two simple questions

(2). I push this duster and it displaces in the direction of the

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

Two simple questions

(2). I push this duster and it displaces in the direction of the

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

Two simple questions

(2). I push this duster and it displaces in the direction of the

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

The Problem of Mechanics

Consider a set of bodies mi

At t = 0, we know their locations

Newton’s laws provide an answer to this question when the

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

The Problem of Mechanics

Consider a set of bodies mi

At t = 0, we know their locations

Newton’s laws provide an answer to this question when the

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

The Problem of Mechanics

Consider a set of bodies mi

At t = 0, we know their locations

Newton’s laws provide an answer to this question when the

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

What good is first law?

Two not so illuminating perspectives.

A special case of second law?

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

What good is first law?

Two not so illuminating perspectives.

A special case of second law?

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

What good is first law?

Two not so illuminating perspectives.

A special case of second law?

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

The Second Law

~ = d ~p (= m~a when m = constant).

Net force is obtained from law of parallelogram of vector

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

The Second Law

~ = d ~p (= m~a when m = constant).

Net force is obtained from law of parallelogram of vector

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW

Why is the rate of change of momentum (or velocity when

Rishikesh Vaidya MEOW