WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

 Throughout history, in nearly all climates and cultures, the designer’s major concern about water was
how to keep it out of the building.
 Only since the end of the 19th century has water supply within a building become commonplace in
the industrialized countries.
 In the rest of the world today, running water is still not available within most buildings.
 Water’s potential contribution to lifestyle and architecture are as numerous and varied as are
appropriate design responses to the supply, use, and return of such a versatile commodity.
NOURISHMENT
 Much of the human body is water, the most abundant chemical in our bodies as well as in our diet.
 The amount of really “pure” (potable) water that we need for drinking and cooking is very small -
only about 3 gallons per capita per day (11.4 liters per capita per day) in the United States.
CLEANSING AND HYGIENE
 Water is a nearly ideal medium for the dissolution and transport of organic waste, and its high heat-
storage capacity easily attains comfortable temperatures for bathing.
 Much larger quantities of water are used for cleaning than for nourishment: in the average U.S.
home, about 14 gallons per capita per day (53 liters per capita per day) is used for clothes washing
and dishwashing and another 21 gallons per capita per day (79.5 liters per capita per day) is used for
bathing and personal hygiene.
CEREMONIAL USES
 Largely through its associations with cleaning, water acquired a ceremonial significance that remains
particularly evident in religious services.
 The opportunities for aesthetic expression are particularly rich in ceremonial applications.
TRANSPORTATION USES
 In stark contrast to its uses in nourishing, cleansing, and celebrating, water is used in our buildings
principally to transport organic waste.
 There is perhaps no more flagrant example of a mismatch in architecture than the high-grade
resource of pure water being used for the low-grade task of carrying away waste.
 The typical U.S. home uses 32 gallons per capita per day (121 liters per capita per day) just to flush
toilets.
 As water supplies were developed, water’s advantages over the foul smell and inconvenience of these
methods became irresistible.
 As the human waste disposal place became a room within the building, design issues grew more
complex.
 Physically, there was a need for running water, and for large-diameter pipes that sloped downward
continuously from the toilet to a sewer or septic tank.
COOLING
 Water has a remarkable cooling potential: it stores heat readily, removes large quantities of heat
when it evaporates, and vaporize readily at temperatures commonly found at human skin surface.
 In hot-dry climates, designers can place water surfaces (or sprays) upwind from the place to be
cooled, or resort to evaporative coolers.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

1
 Cooling towers are familiar components of large-building cooling systems.
 Because all of us have experienced the physical cooling of the skin by water, we all carry
psychological associations between water and cooling that can enhance our comfort on hot days.
 The sight of sunlight reflected on a water surface, with its characteristic “dancing” quality, connotes
coolness, as does the sound of running or splashing water.
 Thus, even when water does not physically cool people, it can make an important psychological
contribution to human comfort.
ORNAMENTAL USES
 In almost any landscaping application, indoors or out, water becomes a center of interest.
 Our association of water with nourishing, cleansing, and cooling make water a very powerful design
element – a fact recognized by landscape designers.
 In arid regions, water is often used sparingly, in small, tightly controlled channels and at a lower flow
rates. Where water is more plentiful, it has been used lavishly.
PROTECTIVE USES
 Every designer dreads water’s ability of penetrate a roof and damage a building and its content.
 However, we all depend on water as the best fire protection available in most buildings.
 The vast quantities of water potentially required for firefighting must be delivered quickly; the result
is pipes of enormous diameter regulated by very large valves.
 Because this system’s distribution tree must be immediately obvious to firefighters, some degree of
exposure is prudent.
 Despite its size and guarantee of at least partial exposure in public places, a fire protection water
supply system is rarely treated as a visually integral design element.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

2
 There is a finite quantity of water in the earth and its atmosphere.
 The process whereby this water constantly circulates, powered by about one-fourth of earth’s solar
energy, is called the hydrologic cycle.
 More than 99% of this water is “inaccessible” – either because it is saltwater or because it is frozen in
glaciers on polar ice caps.
 The most accessible sources of water are precipitation and runoff.
 Precipitation has the advantage of relative purity, although acid rain is a growing threat in many parts
of the world.
 Precipitation is defined as any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that is pulled
down by gravity and deposited on the Earth's surface.
 Like solar energy, precipitation is a very large but very thinly spread resource; its capture is therefore
likely to take place on an individual basis.
 Runoff enjoys the advantage of a concentrated flow of water, which permits easy capture of large
quantities.
 Runoff is the water flow that occurs when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess water from
rain, meltwater, or other sources flows over the land.
 Its most serious disadvantage is the possibility of pollution – organic, chemical, and radioactive –
depending on what is upstream from the point of capture.
 That part of daily precipitation which neither evaporates nor joins the runoff becomes part of soil
moisture.
 As water works downward below the root zone of plants, it eventually reaches a zone of saturation,
where all voids in the earth’s material are filled with water.
 This zone of saturation is called groundwater; the upper surface of groundwater is called the water
table.
 Wells are commonly sunk to a point well below the water table, so that the latter’s seasonal
fluctuations will not interrupt the well’s access to groundwater.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
An abundant supply of water is vital to prosperous economy and is considered as one of the most basic
human needs. More essential on a short term basis than food. Basically, water may be classified as:
 potable water - this refers to the quality of water fit for human consumption. This water must
be supplied or be available for drinking and cooking.
 nonpotable water – not suitable for human consumption. Water is used food production like
irrigating farms, watering livestock, used in flushing water closets (toilets), and for many uses
other than drinking and cooking.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

3
 Table 1: Water Use and Quality in Buildings
Use Desired Quality
A. Consumed
1. Drinking and cooking Potable
2. Bathing Potable
3. Laundering Soft
4. Irrigation and watering of Unpolluted
livestock
5. Industrial processes As required
6. Vapor to increase the
relative humidity of air

B. Circulated
1. Hot water for reheating
2. Chilled water for cooling
3. Condenser cooling water Note: Make-up water should be soft or neutral and,
4. Swimming pool water for swimming, potable
5. Steam for heating, later
condensed

C. Generally static
1. Water stored for fire
protection
No special requirement
2. Water in fire standpipes
3. Water in sprinkler piping

D. Controlled
1. Vapor condensed to reduced
relative humidity of air

WATER SOURCES
TYPES WELLS
 Dug Wells
 Dug wells were excavated by hand shovel to below the water table until incoming water
exceeded the digger's bailing rate. The well was lined with stones, brick, tile, or other material to
prevent collapse, and was covered with a cap of wood, stone, or concrete.
 Have a large diameter and expose a large area to the aquifer. These wells are able to obtain
water from less-permeable materials such as very fine sand, silt, or clay.
 Some disadvantages of this type of well are that they are shallow and lack continuous casing,
making them subject to contamination from nearby surface sources, and they go dry during
periods of drought if the water table drops below the well bottom.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

4
 Bored Wells
 Are usually dug with an earth auger rotated, by hand or power, bores the hole and carries the
earth to the surface.
 Depth of well: usually less than 100 ft (30 m) deep.
 Usually dug when the earth to be bored through is boulder-free and will not cave-in.
 Bore hole diameter ranges from 2 to 30 inches.
 Casing is usually steel, concrete, vitrified tile, or plastic pipe.
 Driven-Point Wells
 Relatively simple and economical to construct.
 Constructed by driving assembled lengths of pipe into the ground with percussion equipment or
by hand.
 Normally 2 inches or less in diameter and less than 50 feet deep.
 Can only be installed in areas having relatively loose soils, such as sand or gravel. Usually a
screened well point is attached to the bottom of the casing before driving.
 Easily contaminated from nearby surface sources.
 Jetted Wells
 Require a source of water and a pressure pump.
 A washing well point is supplied with water under pressure and this loosens the earth and allows
the point and pipe to penetrate.
 Drilled Wells
 Require more elaborate equipment of several types, depending on the geology of the site where
the well is to be constructed.
 Percussion (or cable-tool) Method:
 Involves the raising and dropping of a heavy drill bit and stem.
 This breaks the rock formations into fragments which are periodically flushed to the
surface.
 With this method, the casing is installed as the hole is being drilled, following the bit
closely to keep the bore hole open.
 Rotary Method (either pneumatic or hydraulic):
 Utilize a cutting bit at the lower end of the drill pipe; a drilling fluid (or a pressurized air)
is constantly pumped to the cutting bit to aid in the removal of particles of earth, which
are then brought to the surface.
 After the drill pipe is withdrawn, a casing is lowered into position.
 They can be drilled more than 1,000 feet deep.
 To prevent contamination by water draining from the surface downward around the outside of
the casing, the space around the casing must be sealed.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

5
  The two common types of drilled wells are:

WATER QUALITY
Theoretical conditions for the attainment of complete water quality control.
 The water is completely stable in its compositional and physical attributes.
 It is biologically sterile.
 The conveyance system and accessory structures are relatively inert to the water being
conveyed.
 The conveyance system is sealed off from contaminating intrusion.
I. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Water from surface sources (roof runoff, streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, etc.) is particularly subject to
pollutants.
 Turbidity
 Easy to see, thus a likely source of dissatisfaction to the would-be consumer.
 It is caused by the presence of colloidal or larger suspended materials such as clay, silt, other
inorganic material or other finely divided organic material.
 Even those materials that do not adversely affect health are usually aesthetically
objectionable.
 Color
 Another visible alteration, is often caused by dissolved organic matter, such as from decaying
vegetation.
 Some inorganic materials also color water, as do growths of microorganisms.
 Like turbidity, such color changes usually do not threaten health but are psychologically
undesirable.
 Taste and Odor
 Can be caused by organic compounds, inorganic salts, or dissolved gases.
 This condition may be treated only after a chemical analysis has identified which source is
responsible.
 Temperature
 Another characteristics of psychological importance – people expect their drinking water to
be cool.
 In general, water supplied between 50 to 60F (10 to 16C) is preferred.
 Foamability
 Usually caused by concentrations of detergents.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
6
  The foam itself does not pose serious health threat, but it may indicate that other, more
dangerous pollutants associated with domestic waste are also present.
 Because of increased foaming in water in the 1960s, today’s detergents must be
biodegradable linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS), which biodegrades rapidly – except in the
absence of oxygen.
 Because this lack of oxygen is characteristic of some septic tank drainage fields, foam in
drinking water should be investigated promptly.
II. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Groundwater is particularly subject to chemical alteration because as it moves downward from the
surface it slowly dissolves some minerals contained in rocks and soils. A chemical analysis is usually
necessary for individual water supply sources. These analyses may indicate
1. the possible presence of harmful or objectionable substances
2. the potential for corrosion within the water supply system
3. the tendency for the water to stain fixtures and clothing
Concentrations are expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which is essentially equivalent to parts per
million (ppm).
 Alkalinity
 Caused by bicarbonate, carbonate, or hydroxide components.
 Testing of these components of water’s alkalinity is a key to determining which treatments to
use.
 Hardness
 “Hard” water inhibits the cleaning action of soaps and detergents, and it deposits scale on
the inside of hot water pipes and cooking utensils, thus wasting heating fuel and making
utensils unusable.
 Hardness, which is caused by calcium and magnesium salts, can be classified as temporary
(carbonate) or permanent (noncarbonate).
 Temporary hardness is largely removed when the water is heated – it forms scale.
 Permanent hardness cannot be removed by simple heating.
 pH
 A measure of the water’s hydrogen ion concentration, as well as its relative acidity or
alkalinity.
 A pH of 7 is neutral.
 Measurements below 7 indicate increasing acidity (and corrosiveness); water in its natural
state can have a pH as low as 5.5, with 0 as the ultimate acidity.
 Measurements higher than 7 indicate increasing alkalinity; a pH as high as 9 can be found in
water in its natural state, with 14 as the ultimate alkalinity.
 The pH value is the starting point for determining treatment for corrosion control, chemical
dosages, and disinfection.
 Toxic Substances
 Occasionally present in water supply. Local health authorities can provide information about
acceptable concentrations of such substances as arsenic (As), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd),
chromium (Cr6+), cyanides (CN), fluorides (F), lead (Pb), selenium (Se), and silver (Ag).
 Although limited amounts of fluorides are frequently added to water supplies to help prevent
tooth decay, fluorides in excess of such “optimum concentrations” can produce mottling of
teeth.
 Lead poses a dangerous threat, even in relative small amounts, because it is a cumulative
poison.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

7
  Lead in water usually comes from lead piping (in older buildings and cities) or corrosive water
on lead-painted roofs.
 A maximum recommended concentration is 0.05 mg/L.
 Chlorides
 Can enter water as it passes through geologic deposits formed by marine sediment, or
because of pollution from seawater, brine, or industrial or domestic wastes.
 A noticeable taste results from chlorine in excess of 250 mg/L.
 Copper
 Can enter water from natural copper deposits or from copper piping that contains corrosive
water.
 Concentrations of copper in excess of 1.0 mg/L can result in an undesirable taste.
 Iron
 Frequently present in groundwater.
 Corrosive water in iron pipes will also add iron to water.
 At concentrations above 0.3 mg/L, iron can lend a brownish color in washed clothes and can
affect the taste of the water.
 Manganese
 Can both pose a physiological threat (it is a natural laxative) and produce color and taste
effects similar to those produced by iron.
 The recommended limit is 0.05 mg/L.
 Nitrates
 In high concentrations pose a threat to infants, in whom it can cause “blue baby” disease.
 In shallow wells, nitrate concentrations can indicate seepage from deposits of livestock
manure.
 Pesticides
 A growing threat to water supplies, are particularly common in wells near homes that have
been treated for termite control.
 Avoid using pesticides near wells.
 Sodium
 Primarily dangerous for people with heart, kidney, or circulatory ailments.
 For low-sodium diet, the sodium in drinking water should not exceed 20 mg/L.
 Salts spread in roadways for ice control can leach into the soil and enter groundwater.
 Note that some “water softeners” can raise sodium concentrations in water.
 Sulfates
 Have laxative effects, can enter groundwater from natural deposits of Epsom salts
(magnesium sulfate) or Glauber’s salt (sodium sulfate).
 Concentrations should not exceed 250 mg/L.
 Zinc
 Sometimes enters groundwater in areas where it is found in abundance.
 Although not a health threat, it can cause an undesirable taste at concentrations above 5
mg/L.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

8
III. BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Potable water should be kept as free as possible from disease-producing organisms – bacteria,
protozoa, and viruses.
 These organisms are not easily identified; a thorough biological water test is complex and time-
consuming.
 For this reason, the standard test is for one kind of bacteria – the coliform group (escherichia coli
or E. coli), which is always present in the fecal wastes of humans (as well as those of many
animals and birds).
 The recommended maximum concentration for coliform bacteria is 0 organism per 100 mL water.
Standard Values for Bacteriological Quality

Standard value
Source and mode of supply Bacteria (No./100ml)
a. All drinking-water supply E. Coli or 0
under all circumstances Thermotolerant
(Level l, ll,lll, Bottled water (fecal) coliform
and Emergency Water bacteria
Supplies)

b. Treated water entering the E. Coli or 0

distribution system Thermotolerant
(fecal) coliform
bacteria
c. Treated water in the E. Coli or 0
distribution system. Thermotolerant
(fecal) coliform
bacteria

Total Coliforms must not be detectable in any

100 ml sample. In case of large
quantities where sufficient
samples are examined, it must
not be present in 95% of
samples taken throughout any
12-month period

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

9
 Standard Values for Biological Organisms
Constituent Permissible limit
Total count/ml 10
Standard Values for Physical and Chemical Quality: Health Significance
A. Inorganic Constituents
Constituent Maximum Level (mg/L)
Antimony 0.005
Arsenic 0.01
Barium 0.7
Boron 0.3
Cadmium 0.003
Chromium 0.05
Cyanide 0.07
Flouride 1.0
Lead 0.01
Mercury (total) 0.001
Nitrate as NO3- 50
Nitrite as NO 2- 3
Selenium 0.01

B. Organic Constituents (Pesticides)

Constituent Maximum Level (mg/L)
Aldrin & Dieldrin 0.03
Chlordane 0.2
DDT 2
Endrin 0.2
Heptachlor and 0.03
Heptachlor epoxide
Lindane 2
Methoxychlor 20
Petroleum oils & grease nil
Toxyphane 5
2,4 - D 30
2,4,5 - T 9

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

10
 Standard Values for Physical and Chemical Quality: Aesthetic Quality

Constituent or Characteristic Maximum Level (mg/L)

Taste Unobjectionable
Odor Unobjectionable
Color 5 TCU
Turbidity 5 TCU
Aluminum 0.2
Chloride 250
Copper 1
Hardness 300 (as CaCO3)*
Hydrogen Sulfide 0.05
Iron 1
Manganese 0.5
pH 6.5 - 8.5
Sodium 200*
Sulfate 250
Total Dissolved Solids 500
Zinc 5*

* Secondary standards; compliance with the standard and analysis are not obligatory.
References: WHO guidelines for DWQ, 1984; Revision of WHO guidelines for DWQ, 1993.

Standard Values for Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-Products

Constituents Maximum Level (mg/L)
a. Disinfectant
Chlorine (residual) 0.2 - 0.5
b. Disinfectant By-products
Bromate 0.025
Chlorite 0.2
Constituents Maximum Level (mg/L)
2,4,6 trichlorophenol 0.2
Formaldehyde 0.9
Phenolic substances 0.001
Bromoform 0.1
Dibromochloromethane 0.1
Bromodichloromethane 0.06
Chloroform 0.2

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

11
 Chemicals of No Health Significance at Concentrations
Normally Found in Drinking Water

In accordance with the findings of WHO, the Department of

Asbestos
Health does not prescribe any standard values for these
Silver
compounds since they are not hazardous to human health
Tin
at concentrations normally found in drinking-water.

Standard Values for Radiological Constituents

Constituents Activity Level (Bq/L)

gross alpha activity 0.1

gross beta activity 1

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

12
WATER TREATMENT
Water treatment objectives:
 Safe for human consumption
1. Bacteriologically
2. Chemically
 Appealing to consumer – potable
 Non-corrosive or encrusting
 Economical
Treatment Processes
A. Process of selection is dependent on:
1. Quality of source
2. Desired finished water quality
3. Costs
B. Conventional Treatment – Surface Water
1. Coagulation – Flocculation
2. Sedimentation
3. Filtration
4. Disinfection
C. Optional Additions to Conventional Treatment
1. Aeration
2. Softening
3. Demineralization
4. Pre-settling
5. Pre-chlorination
6. Taste and odor removal
7. pH adjustment
8. Fluoridation - Defluoridation
D. Processes used for Treating Groundwater
1. Iron and Manganese removal
2. Softening
3. Demineralization
4. pH adjustment
5. Fluoridation - Deflluoridation
6. Aeration
7. Disinfection
8. Sand removal
IV. Process Definition
 Coagulation – Flocculation
 The process by which small sediment particles, which do not settle well, combine into larger
particles which can be removed by sedimentation.
 Process can be described in three steps:
1. Rapid Mixing or Flash Mixing. A coagulant chemical, such as alum, is added to
the water and quickly and uniformly mixed.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

13
 2. Coagulation – the chemical process in which the coagulant reacts with the
sediment to make it capable of combining into larger particles.
This process removes suspended matters, along with some coloration.
A chemical such as alum (hydrated aluminum sulfate) is added to water made
turbulent by baffles or static mixers to distribute the chemicals evenly.
3. Flocculation – the physical processes in which the sediment particles collide with
each other and stick together.
The water is then held in a quiet condition, where the suspended particles will
combine with the alum to form floc.
These heavy particles then settle out, in a process similar to sedimentation.
 Overall objective of the process is to make the sedimentation basin and filters operate
efficiently.
 Sedimentation
 Process by which suspended solids are removed from the water by gravity settling and
deposition.
 Usually follows coagulation – flocculation.
 Objective is to remove most of the suspended solids and reducing the load of the filters.
 Slow Sand Filters
 These are common in small-scale water supply systems. However, these are not suitable for
water with high turbidity, they do not usually require coagulation/flocculation and may not
even require sedimentation.
 Water should not be chlorinated before entering this filter, because it will interfere with the
subsequent biological activity.
 These filters are able to remove up to 99.9% of Giardia cysts.
 These are low-maintenance, easily constructed devices that should be cleaned as often as
the turbidity of the water demands – from once a day to perhaps once a month.
 The approximate rate of flow is slow, requiring a rather large surface area: between 0.03 to
0.10 gpm per ft2 (0.02 to 0.07 L/s per m2) of filter bed surface.
 In other units, 40 and 140 gpd per square foot (1630 to 5720 liters per day per square
meter) of filter bed surface.
 Overall thickness is usually 30 to 48 inches of sand over 12 inches of gravel (900 to 1200 mm
of sand over 300 mm of gravel) with an underground system.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

14
  Diatomaceous Earth Filters
 is a naturally occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that is easily crumbled into a fine
white to off-white powder
 It has a particle size ranging from less than 1 micrometer to more than 1 millimeter, but
typically 10 to 200 micrometers
 It consists of fossilized remains of diatoms, a type of hard-shelled algae
 Also known as precoat or diatomite filtration, these can be either the vacuum or pressure
type
 They rely on a layer of diatomaceous earth, a minimum of 1/8-in. (3-mm) thick placed on a
septum or filter element [for Giardia removal, thickness should be increased to about 1/5-in.
(5 mm)]
 They are most suitable for water with low bacterial counts and low turbidity
 Simple to operate and effective in removing cysts, algae, and asbestos, they require periodic
attention to remain effective, including backwashing every 1 to 4 days
 Direct Filtration
 Intended for water supplies of high quality and seasonally consistent flow, these systems
omit sedimentation, but should include coagulation for most effective Giardia removal.
 Packaged filtration combines features such as chemical addition, flocculation, and
sedimentation, along with filtration, in one compact unit.
 Membrane Filtration
 Also called microfiltration or ultrafiltration, can remove bacteria, Gardia, and some viruses.
 It does not require coagulation as pretreatment.
 It is able to exclude particles greater than 0.2 microns from the water stream.
 It is best used in water supplies of low turbidity, because of the fouling of the fibers or
membranes.
 Cartridge Filtration
 Increasingly popular on lavatory faucets as well as on small supply systems, these are easy
to operate and maintain.
 They require water of low turbidity and last longer when some prefiltering is added
upstream.
 They exclude particles of 0.2 microns or even smaller.
 A disinfectant can prevent surface-fouling microbial growth on the cartridge filters
 Other Filters
 Activated carbon filters
 Porous stone, ceramic, or unglazed porcelain filters
DISINFECTION
 Is the most important health-related water treatment, because it destroys microorganisms that
can cause disease in humans.
 Disinfection is required of water systems that rely on surface water or underground water
sources under the influence of surface water.
 Primary disinfection achieves the desired level of microorganism kill (inactivation), then
secondary disinfection maintains a disinfectant residual in the treated water that prevents
microorganism regrowth.
 Chlorination has become the standard approach to removing harmful organisms from water.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

15
  Alternative methods of disinfection: nanofiltration, ultraviolet (UV) light (unsuitable for water with
high turbidity because the light cannot easily penetrate), bromine, iodine, ozone, and heat
treatment.
 Chlorine continues to disinfect after the initial application. It is this continuing secondary
disinfection that has made it so universally relied on, despite dangers such as that posed by
deadly chlorine gas.
 Although chlorine affects the taste and odor of water, it is also effective in removing less-
desirable tastes and odors.
 Unfortunately, chlorine can react with organic materials in water to form halogenated by-
products. It is easier to remove the organic materials before treatment, or to use another
disinfectant strategy, than to try to remove these halogenated by-products after chlorine
treatment.
V. CHLORINATION
Chlorination, in water supply language, can be defined as the introduction of a controlled amount of
chlorine to the water in order to attain a desired degree of disinfection.
Disinfection refers to the reduction of the bacterial population to a safe level, as contrasted to
sterilization, which refers to total destruction of the bacterial population.
The primary purpose of chlorination is for the effective disinfection of the water supply.
Chlorination has two-pronged uses:
- As an agent for disinfection
- As an agent for protection
Factors that affect chlorine’s ability to disinfect include
 Chlorine Concentration
 The higher the concentration, the faster and more complete the rate of disinfection.
 Contact Time
 The longer the chlorine contacts the organisms in water, the more complete the disinfection.
 At a minimum, 0.4 mg/L of chlorine should contact water 30 minutes before use.
 Water Temperature
 The higher the temperature during contact, the more complete the disinfection.
 pH
 The lower the pH, the more effective the disinfection.
 Methods of Chlorination:
A. Chlorine Gas

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

16
  Stored in cylinders as a liquid under high pressure and is released (as a gas) by a
regulator to an injector attached to a water pipe or tank.
 The injector passes highly pressurized water through a venturi orifice, creating vacuum
that draws the chlorine into the water steam.
B. Sodium Hypochlorite Solution
 Easier to handle than the deadly chlorine gas but is very corrosive and decomposes
rather quickly.
 It should be stored in a cool, dark, dry area for no more than a month.
 Hypochlorinators automatically pump (or inject) a sodium hypochlorite solution into
water. They are usually larger than the pumps used in small water systems.
C. Solid Calcium Hypochlorite
 Is a white solid containing 65% available chlorine that dissolves easily in water.
 It is corrosive, with strong odor, but very stable and can be stored for up to a year.
 However, it readily absorbs moisture, forming chlorine gas; also, reactions between
calcium hypochlorite and organic materials (wood, cloth, petroleum products) can
generate enough heat to cause a fire or explosion.
 Hypochlorinators are used to deliver the disinfectant to water.
VI. CHLORAMINE
 This is generated on-site by adding ammonia to water containing chlorine, or when water
containing ammonia is chlorinated.
 This is a weaker disinfectant against viruses or protozoa than the chlorination process but
produces fewer disinfection by-products.
 It is most often used as a secondary rather than primary disinfectant.
 Hypochlorinators are used to inject chlorine, after which ammonia is added.
VII. OZONATION
 This was first used in full-scale drinking water treatment in 1906.
 It is a powerful oxidizing and disinfecting agent, destroying most bacteria, viruses, and other
pathogenic organisms.
 It requires shorter contact time and dosage than chlorine and leaves no chlorine taste.
 Ozone is formed by passing a dry air (or pure oxygen) through a system of high voltage
electrodes; about 80% of the energy is converted into heat.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

17
  It is an unstable gas and must be generated on-site. When ozone reacts with an organic, it
produces oxygen and an oxidized form of the organic. Ozone not used in this process quickly
decays to oxygen.
 Ozone is commonly used in cooling water treatment, where it is effective against Legionella
pneumophila is especially appreciated, as well as its control of algae and scale that can greatly
reduce cooling efficiency.
 Ozone is also used in food processing, waste water cleanup, smoke removal, swimming pools
and spas, bottled water, and pulp and paper bleaching.
 Equipment includes an ozone generator, contactor, and destruction unit, plus instrumentation
and controls.
 Operation and maintenance are relatively complex; electricity is 26% to 43% of the operating
costs for small systems.
 Because it acts as a primary disinfectant, a secondary disinfectant (often chlorine) is usually
required.
VIII. ULTRAVIOLET (UV) LIGHT
 Special lamps are used within a reactor, whose light disrupts the genetic material of the cells of
organisms, making them unable to reproduce.
 Although effective against bacteria and viruses, UV radiation does not inactivate either Gardia or
Cryptosporidium cysts.
 It is otherwise as effective primary disinfectant system, requiring a short contact time, and
without halogenated by-products. A secondary disinfectant system is usually necessary.
 This system is not suitable for water that contains high levels of suspended solids, turbidity,
color, or soluble organic matter.
IX. NANOFILTRATION
 These membranes start with pore sizes of 0.2 to 0.3 microns, and are often dipped into a
polymer that leaves a thin film, decreasing the pore size to 1 nanometer.
 This removes bacteria, viruses, pesticides, and organic material.
 It also gives the membranes an affinity for calcium, contributing to water “softening.”
 It also means that the membranes need periodic acid cleaning to remove the calcium deposits.
 Adding phosphates to nanofiltered water reduces its capacity to dissolve lead.
 At such extremely small pore sizes, this process requires very high water pressures, in turn
requiring energy.
 Secondary disinfectant system is usually necessary.
X. OTHER WATER TREATMENTS
 Aeration (Oxidation)
 this simple process can improve the taste and color of water and help remove iron and
manganese
 in aeration, as much of the water’s surface as possible is exposed to air
 methods:
- spraying of water into air
- the fall of a turbulent stream of water over a spillway
- flowforms, sculptural waterfalls designed to carry water in a rhythmical, pulsating, figure-
eight pattern
 to guard against contamination, these processes are often enclosed
 if exposed, they must be kept clean
 for aeration within tanks, water is passed through a series of perforated plates in streams or
droplets
 aeration improves the flat taste of distilled water and cistern water by adding oxygen
 it also oxidizes iron or manganese, which then can more easily be removed by filtration
 it also removes odors caused by hydrogen sulfide and algae
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
18
  it should be avoided as a treatment when corrosion is a threat because aeration raises the
level of dissolved oxygen in water
 Corrosion Control
 it is important to control corrosion both to keep water systems operating freely and to
prevent corrosive water from increasing the concentration of hazardous materials (as from
copper pipes)
 corrosion also imparts a taste and/or odor to water that is objectionable
 corrosion is a slow degradation of a metal by a flow of electric current from the metal to its
surroundings
 some factors involved in corrosion control are:
- acidity - the more acid (low pH, less than 6.0), the more corrosive the water
- conductivity - as dissolved mineral salts increase the water’s conductivity, they
encourage the flow of the electrical current of corrosion
- oxygen content - dissolved oxygen destroys the thin protective hydrogen film on
immersed metals, thus promoting corrosion\
- carbon dioxide content - carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid, which attacks metal
surfaces
- water temperature - increased temperature increases corrosion
- lower flow rates - reduced turbulence means reduced erosion of the protective layers
that form on the inner surfaces of pipes
 the products of corrosion often contribute to scale formation
 scale then lines surfaces, eventually clogging openings
 acid neutralizers can be installed on water supplies with low pH
 neutralizing solutions are mixtures of lime, soda ash, and water
 pH adjustment should be made just before water delivery, after treatment processes such as
coagulation and disinfection
 corrosion inhibitors cause protective coatings to form on pipes
 inorganic phosphates, sodium silicates, and mixtures of phosphates and silicates are the
more commonly used additives
 other corrosion control strategies include commercial pipe coatings/linings, installing
dielectric or insulating unions (to avoid complications from dissimilar pipe metals), and
avoiding metal piping and fixtures altogether
 Softening
 water hardness is caused primarily by calcium and magnesium deposits; when they are
removed, water will be soft
 where water hardness produces scale in pipes and water-heating appliances, and cisterns are
not feasible, water-softening equipment is used
 demineralization of water is accomplished with one of three methods: ion exchange, reverse
osmosis, or electrodialysis
 ion exchange is popular for small systems, and is effective not only with hardness ions but
also with radionuclides
- “ion exchange”: as water flows through a bed of ion exchange material, undesirable ions
are removed and replaced with less objectionable ones
- on the exchange medium’s charged surface, one (contaminant) ion is exchanged for
another (regenerant) ion
 reverse osmosis (RO)
- a filtration method that removes many types of large molecules and ions from solutions
by applying pressure to the solution when it is on one side of a selective membrane
- the result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the
pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

19
 - RO is effective not only with hardness ions but also with radium, natural organic
substances, pesticides, and microbiological contaminants
- commercial RO units are available in sizes ranging from a 1 gpm (3.9 L/m) water delivery
rate (using two membranes and a 3-hp [2.2-kW] motor, requiring 4.5 gpm [17 L/m]
feedwater for a 22% recovery rate) to a water delivery rate of 12.5 gpm (47.3 L/m)
(using 12 membranes and a 15-hp [11.2-kW] motor, requiring 19.2 gpm [72.8 L/m] for a
65% recovery rate)
 Electrodialysis effectively removes fluoride and nitrate, and can also remove barium,
cadmium, and selenium
- used to transport salt ions from one solution through ion-exchange membranes to
another solution under the influence of an applied electric potential difference
- in this process, membranes adjacent to the inflowing stream are charged (either
positively or negatively), attracting counter-ions to these membranes
- membranes allow either positively or negatively charged ions to pass through; thus, the
ions leave the inflow stream and enter the waste streams (on the other side of each
membrane)
- high water pressure and a source of dc power are needed in this process
 Nuisance Control
 some organisms may not be injurious to health but can multiply so rapidly that piping or
filters become clogged, or the water’s appearance, odor, and taste are affected
 this situation is most common with surface water sources, and it is within surface reservoirs
that these treatments are most often applied
 algae growths, the most prevalent nuisance, can usually be controlled by applying copper
sulfate (blue stone or blue vitriol) to the water body
 cooling towers present an especially difficult water treatment problem
 Fluoridation
 the advantage of fluoridation is that children who drink fluoridated water during the most
active stages of tooth development have lower rates of tooth decay
 fluoride levels in the water supply must be carefully monitored
 amounts above those used in water treatment, fluoride is toxic and can cause mottled teeth
 Distillation
 a simple, low-technology approach to purification that produces the equivalent of bottled
water for drinking, cooking, and laboratory uses
 water is heated to encourage evaporation and as water turns to vapor, virtually all pollutants
are left behind
 when this vapor encounters a cooler surface, it condenses, and pure water (although flat in
taste) can be collected from this surface

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

20
 PUMPS
pumps primary functions:
 to add hydraulic energy to volume of fluids.
 accomplished when mechanical energy is imparted to the pump from a power source and is
transmitted to the fluid becoming hydraulic energy.
 the pump serves to transfer energy from a source to a fluid creating flow or creating greater
pressures on the fluid.
three (3) types of energy a pump can impart to any fluid:
1. head
2. pressure
3. velocity
three (3) common types of pumps used in well water supply:
1. positive Displacement
2. centrifugal
3. jet
 positive displacement pumps
two principal types:
1. reciprocating pumps
- a plunger moves back and forth within a cylinder equipped with check valves
- water enters the cylinder through an initial check valve
- as the plunger moves toward this check valve, the water is forced through the second
check valve, located within the plunger itself
- as the piston returns to its original position, the water is forced upward toward the
surface
2. rotary pumps
- has helical or spiral rotor – a turning vertical shaft within a rubber sleeve
- as the rotor turns, it traps water between it and the sleeve, thus forcing the water to the
upper end of the rotor
 centrifugal pumps
 this type of pump contains an impeller mounted on a rotating shaft
 the rotating impeller increases the velocity of water while forcing the water into a casing,
converting the water’s velocity into higher pressure
 each impeller and casing is called a stage, and many stages can be combined in a multistage
pump
 the number of stages depends on the pressure needed to operate the water supply system,
as well as the height to which the water must be raised

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

21
  the most common centrifugal pumps used in deep wells:
- turbine pump
 has vertical turbine located below groundwater levels and a driving motor located
higher up, usually over the well casing at grade
 a long shaft is thus required between the motor and the turbine
- submersible pump
 designed so that the motor can be submerged along with the turbine
 the lengthy pump shaft is eliminated
 jet (or ejector) pumps
 a venturi tube is added to the centrifugal pump
 a portion of the water that is discharged from a centrifugal pump at the well head is forced
down to a nozzle and venturi
 the lower pressure within the venturi tube induces well water to flow in, and the velocity of
water from the nozzle pushes it upward toward the centrifugal pump, which can then more
easily lift it by suction
 recommendations to reduce electric consumption:
1. design systems with lower capacity and total head requirements
2. avoid excessive capacity
- it is typically less expensive to add pumping capacity later on if needs increase
- operating a smaller pump nearer to its capacity saves energy compared to a larger pump
operating well under its capacity
3. select the most efficient pump type and size, even if its first cost is greater; life-cycle costs
are likely to be lower
4. use two or more smaller pumps instead of one larger one so that excess pump capacity can
be turned off
5. maintain pumps and system components in virtually new condition to avoid efficiency loss
 pump selection
 the two critical determinants in selecting pumps are
- the flow rate
- the total pressure
 the flow rate depends on the number of fixtures to be served
 the total pressure includes the suction lift, the static head, and the friction loss plus pressure
head

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

22
Pumps for Water Supply:

Practical Suction Usual Well-pumping Usual Pressure

Type of Pump Lift Depth Heads Advantages Disadvantages Remarks

Positive Displacement
1. Reciprocating 1. Positive action. 1. Pulsating discharge. 1. Best suited for
2. Discharge against 2. Subject to vibration capacities of 5 – 25
a. shallow well 22 – 25 ft 22 – 25 ft 100 – 200 ft variable heads. and noise. gpm against
3. Pumps water 3. Maintenance cost moderate to high
b. deepwell 22 – 25 ft Up to 600 ft Up to 600 ft above
containing sand and may be high. heads.
cylinder
silt. 4. May cause 2. Adaptable to hand
4. Especially adapted destructive pressure operation.
to low capacity and if operated against 3. Can be installed in
high lifts. closed valve. very small diameter
wells (2” casing).
4. Pump must be set
directly over the
well (deepwell
only).

2. Rotary
a. shallow well 22 ft 22 ft 50 – 250 ft 1. Positive action. 1. Subject to rapid
(gear type) 2. Discharge constant wear if water
against variable contains sand or
heads. silt.
3. Efficient operation 2. Wear of gears
reduces efficiency.

b. deepwell Usually submerged 50 – 500 ft 100 – 500 ft 1. Same as shallow 1. Same as shallow 1. A cutless rubber
(helical rotary well rotary. well rotary except stator increases life
type) 2. Only one moving no gear wear. of pump. Flexible
pump device in drive coupling has
well. been weak point in
pump. Best adapted
for low capacity and
high heads

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

23
 Practical Suction Usual Well-pumping Usual Pressure
Type of Pump Lift Depth Heads Advantages Disadvantages Remarks

Centrifugal
1. Shallow well
a. Straight 20 ft max. 10 – 20 ft 100 – 150 ft 1. Smooth, even flow. 1. Loses prime easily. 1. Very efficient pump
centrifugal (single 2. Pumps water 2. Efficiency depends for capacities above
stage) containing sand on operating under 60 gpm and heads
and silt. design heads and up to about 150 ft.
3. Pressure on system speed.
is even and free
from shock.
4. Low-starting
torque.
5. Usually reliable and
good service life.

b. Regenerative 28 ft max. 28 ft 100 – 200 ft 1. Same as straight 1. Same as straight 1. Reduction in

vane turbine type centrifugal except centrifugal except pressure with
(single impeller) not suitable for maintains priming increased capacity
pumping water easily. not as severe as
containing sand or straight centrifugal.
silt.
2. They are self-
priming.
2. Deepwell
a. Vertical line shaft Impellers submerged 50 – 300 ft 100 – 800 ft 1. Same as shallow 1. Efficiency depends
turbine well turbine. on operating under
(multistage) 2. All electrical design head and
components are speed.
accessible, above 2. Requires straight
ground. well large enough
for turbine bowls
and housing.
3. Lubrication and
alignment of shaft
critical.
4. Abrasion form sand.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

24
 Practical Suction Usual Well-pumping Usual Pressure
Type of Pump Lift Depth Heads Advantages Disadvantages Remarks

b. Submersible Impellers submerged 50 – 400 ft 50 – 400 ft 1. Same as shallow 1. Repair to motor or 1. 3,500 RPM models,
turbine well turbine. pump requires although popular
(multistage) 2. Easy to frost-proof pulling from well. because of smaller
installation. 2. Scaling of electrical diameters or
3. Short pump shaft to equipment from greater capacities,
motor. water vapor critical. are more
4. Quiet operation. 3. Abrasion from sand. vulnerable to wear
5. Well straightness and failure from
not critical. sand and other
causes.
Jet
1. Shallow well 15- 20 ft below ejector Up to 15 – 20 ft below 80 – 150 ft 1. High capacity at 1. Capacity reduces as
ejector low heads. lift increases.
2. Simple in operation. 2. Air in suction or
3. Does not have to return line will stop
be installed over pumping.
the well.
4. No moving parts in
the well.

2. Deepwell 15- 20 ft below ejector 15 – 20 ft 80 – 150 ft 1. Same as shallow 1. Same as shallow 1. The amount of
well jet. well jet. water returned to
200 ft max 2. Lower capacity, ejector increases
2. Well straightness
not critical. especially at greater with increased lift –
lifts. 50% of total water
pumped to 50-ft lift
and 75% at 100-ft
lift.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

25
 PRESSURE TANKS

 The functions of a pressure tank are to:

1. protect and prolong the life of the pump by preventing rapid cycling of the pump motor
2. provide water under pressure for delivery between pump cycles
3. provide additional water storage under pressure to assist the pump in meeting the total demands
of a system if the pump or well is incapable of supplying the required capacity
 frequently used to
 maintain a constant pressure on a pump-supplied water system
 allow for temporary peaks in water supply rates that exceed the pump capacity
 often housed in outbuildings, together with the pump and any water treatment equipment
 capacity is usually small in comparison to the daily total water consumption
 provision for short-term responses to peak flow demands
 General Rule: pressure tank should be sized to deliver about 10 times the pump capacity in GPM
(LPM)
 selecting a pressure tank
 information must be known:
 system demand
 pump capacity
 well capacity
 The system demand is a function of water usage and location.
 The fixture method determines the system demand by totaling the number of fixtures.
 The peak demand method determines system demand considering that more than one fixture will be
in use under peak demand.
 Typical residence: allow 10 to 15 gallons (38 to 57 liters) tank capacity per person served
 For larger installations:

m
1
1
2
where: Q = tank volume, gallons
Qm = 15 minutes of storage at peak usage rate, gallons
P1 = minimum allowable operating pressure, psi + atmospheric pressure
P2 = maximum allowable operating pressure, psi + atmospheric pressure

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

26
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
27
 WATER DISTRIBUTION

 smaller buildings may be served simply by pressure available in water mains (or pressure tanks fed
by pumped wells).
 this approach is called upfeed distribution.
 water rises directly from mains to plumbing fixtures
 for taller buildings, several options available:
 pumped upfeed – pumps supply the additional pressure needed
 hydropneumatic pumps – pumps force water into sealed tanks, compressing the air within and
providing the needed pressure
 downfeed – pumps raise the water to storage tanks at the top of the building and water then
drops down to the plumbing fixtures
 municipal water supply systems distribute water through street mains at pressures from 50 psi to 70
psi (about 350 kPa to about 480 kPa)
 these pressures are adequate for low rise buildings (3 stories and below).
 overcome static pressure in vertical piping and friction losses up to the point of delivery
 required pressure at fixture: 5 to 20 psi (depending on the type of fixture)
Static Pressure
 The pressure exerted at the bottom of a stationary head of water is related directly to its height
 Pressure required at fixture and pressure losses due to friction must also be considered in the
design.
Upfeed Distribution
 Best and typically used in low rise buildings
 Pressure at the fixtures is usually more than required.
 If inconvenient, provide a flow restrictor
 Process:
 Service entry pipe – carries water from water main to water meter.
 House shut-off controls – usually located at the main, in the curb and in the house
 Water meters – measure the amount of water used for billing purposes
 Water continues, under pressure, past the by-pass shut off valve and on to
 Supply make up water to the boiler
 Supply cold water mains and branches
 Supply to domestic hot water system and storage tank
 Water hammer – when faucets are shut off abruptly, the force exerted by the decelerated flowing
water shakes and rattles the pipes
 Air – filled expansion chamber – absorb and reduce the shock of water hammer. In hot water
lines, the chamber allows for the expansion of hot water with increasing temperatures
 Vacuum breaks – prevent backflow of polluted water into pipes carrying potable water
 located on dishwashers, clothes washers, boilers, etc.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
28
Downfeed Distribution
 Water pumped from the street main or from a basement suction tank filled by gravity from the main,
is lifted to a roof storage tank
 Pressure increases with increased distance tank water level
Tall Building Downfeed Distribution
 Separate floors into zones to control water pressures
 Usual limit is 150 feet (about 45 meters) due to the static pressure relationship
 Top of zone (35 ft below storage) minimum pressure is 15 psi (103 kPa)
 At the bottom of the zone, the maximum pressure is 80 psi (552 kPa).
 Pressures above this can damage to pipes and fixtures
 Installing pressure reducing valves at lower floors can help to reduce this

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

29
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
30
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
31
Pumped Upfeed Distribution
 Often used in medium sized buildings that are too tall to rely on street pressure but not tall enough
to demand roof storage
 Pumps in basement are automatically set to provide proper pressures throughout the building
 When a very small demand occurs, the smallest or “jockey” pump starts
 The jockey pump continues to run until it has reached its maximum delivery rate, at which time
the first of the larger pump cut in, joined by the other larger pump when required.
 Problem with this set up – can put a suction demand on the street main that could seriously
reduce the available water pressure in the street main
 Surge tank filled by the street main is required as reservoir when building demand is in
excess of 400 gpm

 Advantages:
− eliminates the installation of a house tank
− eliminates the heavy structure that transmit its weight down to the footings
− eliminates the necessary periodic cleaning of the tank
 Disadvantage: lack of reserve storage during electrical power failure
 Can be remedied by installing an internal combustion engine or other independent standby motor
to drive one of the pumps

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

32
 PIPING, TUBING, FITTINGS, AND CONTROLS
Piping, Tubing, and Fittings
 The system of water supply piping or tubing should efficiently fulfill its purpose, be easily maintained,
and interfere as little as possible with architectural form and function
 Except in basements, in utility rooms, and at points of access to controls, the piping system is usually
concealed
 In concrete or masonry buildings, vertical and horizontal furred spaces must often be provided
 Water supply piping is subject to corrosion over time. When pipe materials corrode, they first lose
some carrying capacity (due to increased wall roughness and perhaps buildup of materials) and
ultimately fail
 Sediment from corrosion can adversely impact plumbing fixtures as well
 Steel piping is particularly subject to corrosion
 In the nonferrous group, red brass and copper tubing are effective in providing corrosion resistance.
 Copper tubing is less expensive than brass, assembles more easily, and is not subject to
dezincification (attack by acids on the zinc in brass)
 For use in handling aggressive waters, plastic is often a good choice
 Connections used:
 ferrous pipes and “iron pipe size” brass – threaded connections
 copper tubes – solder–joint connection (depending on capillary attraction that draws the solder
into a cylinder of clearance between the mating surfaces of tube and fitting)
 large ferrous pipes –welded or connected by bolted flanges
Plastic Pipe
 Most of the plastic pipes and fittings now produced are synthetic resins derived from such materials
as coal and petroleum
 These corrosion-resistant materials are widely used in water supply piping, fittings, and drainage
systems
 Most of the materials used for piping are thermoplastics and will repeatedly soften under the
application of heat.
 PVDC (polyvinylidene chloride) material can carry water at 180ºF (82ºC), but plastic pipe should not
be subjected to temperatures higher than this.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

33
Methods of Connecting Pipes and Fittings, and Tubes and Fittings
 Threaded: for ferrous pipe and fittings and for iron pipe size brass

 Soldered: for copper tubing and fittings

 Union

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

34
Valves and Controls
 It is usually desirable to valve every riser, the branches that serve bathrooms or kitchens, and the
runouts to individual fixtures
 This facilitates repairs at any location with a minimum of shutdown within a system
 Pumps and other devices that may need repair should be able to be disconnected by unions after
valves are closed.
 A gate valve with a retractable leaf machined to seal tightly against two sloping metal surfaces when
closed, offers the least resistance to water flow when open

 Compression-type globe valve is usually used for the closing or throttling of flow near a point of
occasional use

 Faucets are usually of the compression type, as are drain valves and hose connections
 Angle valve.

 When it is necessary to prevent flow in a direction opposite to that which is planned, a check valve is
introduced. The hinged leaf swings to permit flow in the direction of the arrow but closes against flow
in the other direction.

SIZING OF WATER PIPES

 There must be sufficient pressure at fixtures to assure the user of a prompt and adequate flow
of water
 These convenience and sanitation objectives result in prescribed pressures that must be
maintained at the various fixtures to ensure the proper flow rates listed in Table 21.14.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

35
 Minimum fixture pressures vary from 4 to 20 psi (28 to 138 kPa) for fixtures other than hose bibbs.
 Because the pressure in street mains is usually about 50 psi (345 kPa), it is possible to ensure the
minimum fixture pressure, provided that the water does not have to be lifted to too great a height
and not too much pressure is lost by friction in distribution piping.
 Excessive friction results from piping that is too long in developed length (actual distance of water
flow) or that interposes too many fittings (such as elbows and tees), or is too small in diameter.
 Upfeed system (pressure losses) served by street main pressure are as follows:
Minimum fixture flow pressure A
Pressure lost because of height +B
Pressure lost by friction in piping +C
Pressure lost by flow through meter +D
Total required street main pressure =E
 During design, items A, B, and E are known and are reasonably constant
 A value for A can be found in Table 21.14
 Street main pressure, E, is a characteristic of the local water supply and is obtained from the water
utility
 Item B, the pressure lost due to height, can be found by multiplying the height in feet by 0.433
(height in meters by 10)
 Item D, the pressure lost in flow through the water meter, depends upon flow and pipe size
 Pipe size is based upon Fig. 21.64
 To select a pipe size, one needs to know the probable flow and the unit-friction loss in the pipe and
fittings
 The noise created by water flow also must be considered
 Flow above 10 fps (3.1 m/s) is usually too noisy; flow above 6 fps (1.8 m/s) may be too noisy in
acoustical-critical locations
 Estimating the domestic water load:
 The purpose with a domestic water supply system is to provide the consumers with enough hot
and cold water
 Water demand for plumbing facilities depends on the number and type of fixtures actually
installed
 Each plumbing fixture is assigned a water supply fixture unit (wsfu) rating
 The wsfu rating represents the relative water demand for its intended operating functions
 The amount of water required is referred to as water load
 The step-by-step approach:
 List the plumbing fixtures required on the project
 The demand for each fixture will be listed. This demand is measured in wsfu (use Table 21-
15, Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 11e, Stein & Reynolds)
 Calculate the total wsfu of the project

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

36
  Determine the total water demand (use Figure 10-65, p. 660, Mechanical and Electrical
Equipment for Buildings, 9e, Stein & Reynolds)
 Fixture/Equipment Pressure
 Every plumbing fixture or connection that uses water must have the proper pressure to
maintain the required flow
 The minimum flow pressures required at standard plumbing fixtures are listed in Table 21-14
(Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 11e, Stein & Reynolds)
 Flow pressure – the pressure at the fixture or equipment while water is flowing at the
required flow rate

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

37