NUKLEONIKA 2005;50(Supplement 3):S41−S52 PROCEEDINGS

Nuclear fusion – energy for future Marek J. Sadowski

Abstract This invited paper has been written on the 50th anniversary of the Institute of Nuclear Research (IBJ). The
introduction describes basic nuclear fusion reactions and the appearance of high-temperature plasma, as well as different
methods of the plasma generation and containment. The first part of the paper contains a concise description of the
present status of research on controlled fusion and the construction of a thermonuclear reactor. The most important
results of experiments oriented on magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) or inertial confinement fusion (ICF) are
characterized. The second part of the paper presents a story of high-temperature plasma research carried out at IBJ
(and now continued at IPJ) at Świerk. The main experimental facilities and scientific results, as obtained with those, are
described. The most important achievements of IBJ (IPJ) researchers in the field of plasma physics and technology
are indicated, and in particular: invention and development of the so-called RPI facilities producing intense plasma-ion
streams, discovery and experimental study of a new configuration of a magnetic trap called the spherical multipole
(SM) configuration, development of various plasma diagnostic techniques, and the optimization of different plasma-
focus (PF) facilities.

Key words fusion reaction • magnetic confinement • inertial confinement • RPI facility • SM magnetic trap

Introduction

Nuclear energy can be released not only by the fission

of heavy nuclei (i.e. of uranium or plutonium), but also
by the fusion of light nuclei into heavier ones [5, 20,
38]. An example of the fusion reaction might be joining
four protons into a helium nucleus, but probability of
such a process is very small. This process can be realized
through a series of intermediate reactions (in the p-p
cycle), e.g. inside the Sun and other stars with internal
temperatures below 15 millions K. The whole p-p cycle
releases energy of 26 MeV. Hence, 1 g of hydrogen can
deliver 6 × 105 MJ. The described fusion reactions run
inside the Sun very slowly, but (due to gigantic dimen-
sions of our daily star) they deliver enough energy to
keep very high temperature and to make it possible life
upon the Earth. Other nuclear fusion reactions can
occur inside very hot stars, e.g. reactions 13C + 4He →
16
M. J. Sadowski O + n occur at temperatures above 100 millions K.
The Andrzej Sołtan Institute for Nuclear Studies (IPJ), The free neutrons can then be absorbed by heavy nuclei
Department of Plasma Physics & Technology (P-V), and produce still heavier elements. Since the described
05-400 Otwock-Świerk, Poland, nuclear fusion reactions occur at very high temperatures
Tel.: +48 22-718 0536, Fax: +48 22-779 3481, usually in the thermodynamic equilibrium state, they
E-mail: [email protected] are called the thermonuclear reactions.
Aiming at the mastering of nuclear fusion, physicists
Received: 16 June 2005 have been looking for reactions possible in the laboratory
Accepted: 5 July 2005 conditions [5, 20, 38, 40]. It has been found that one
S42 M. J. Sadowski

can relatively easily realize the fusion of deuterons and TNT, and 1 kg of D-T mixture can deliver energy of
tritons through several reactions: 80 kilotons of TNT.
In the early 50s of the XX century, simultaneously
(1) D + 2D → 3T + p + 4.0 MeV
2
with military oriented tests, a research was undertaken
(2) 2
D + 2D → 3He + n + 3.2 MeV to realize controlled fusion and to construct a thermo-
(3) 2
D + 3T → 4He + n + 17.6 MeV nuclear reactor. Taking into account that the fossil fuels
(4) 2
D + 3He → 4He + p + 18.4 MeV can be exhausted, and the conventional nuclear (fission-
based) reactors produce radioactive wastes, the fusion
These fusion reactions are possible if the interacting research was strongly motivated by search for new
nuclei have energy high enough to overcome the re- energy sources. It was estimated that the deuterium
pulsion of their positive charges (so-called the Coulomb resources in water upon the Earth are about 1017 kg,
barrier). In analogy to the chemical burning process one equivalent to about 1024 kWh, while the present power
can say that it is necessary to achieve the nuclear consumption amounts to about 5 × 109 kW.
“ignition temperature”. At very high temperatures the In order to achieve the positive energy balance in
matter is in the plasma state, which constitutes a mixture the thermonuclear reactor, high-temperature plasma
of free electrons and positive ions or atomic nuclei. Hot must have an appropriate concentration and lifetime,
plasma can lose energy by an intense electromagnetic i.e. at the lower density (n), the confinement time (τ)
emission. Weakly ionized plasma emits different spectral must be longer [38]. This condition is determined by
lines of ions, but at higher temperatures fully-ionized the so-called Lawson criterion: for the D-D, fusion one
plasma can emit the continuous spectrum from must obtain nτ > 1016 s/cm3, and for D-T fusion, this
recombination (of ions and electrons) and electron product should be > 3 × 1014 s/cm3. Considering the
bremsstrahlung. With an increase in the temperature dependence on the plasma temperature (T), it is more
the efficiency of nuclear fusion increases faster, and the reasonable to use the so-called triple product TneτE,
“ignition temperature” is achieved when energy released where τE is the energy confinement time (taking into
from fusion reactions is higher than radiation losses. It account losses due to electromagnetic and corpuscular
amounts to about 350 millions K for pure deuterium radiation, particle diffusion, thermal conductivity,
plasma, and about 45 millions K for a deuterium-tritium convection, etc.).
mixture. The fusion reactions can also be realized by
acceleration of deuterons or tritons and the bombardment
of targets containing deuterium or tritium, but such Progress in nuclear fusion research
processes occur without thermodynamic equilibrium
and they cannot be called thermonuclear reactions. In From the very beginning of fusion studies, it was known
high-temperature plasma the energy distribution of that the most simple method to produce hot plasma is
electrons is often different from that of ions, but (in spite the application of high-current electrical discharges.
of a lack of the equilibrium) the use is made of such Taking into account that fully ionized plasma consists
parameters as electron temperature (Te) and ion tem- of charged particles (ions and electrons), physicists tried
perature (Ti). These parameters are usually expressed to contain it by means of magnetic fields. Different types
in electron-volts (eV), keeping in mind that 1 eV of such magnetic traps are presented in Fig. 1.
corresponds to about 11,400 K. Unfortunately, field lines in the magnetic traps of
Aiming to the mastering of new energy sources, Mirror- or Cusp-type are not closed inside the plasma
physicists undertook tests to perform thermonuclear volume, and charged particles can partially escape
reaction on the Earth. In the early 50s of the last century through the so-called loss cones. Using various methods
there were performed tests with the so-called enriched of the plasma generation and heating, e.g. by means of
atomic bombs, which contained 235U and some amounts current pulses and injection of high-energy ions, in such
of deuterium and tritium [20]. The first fully thermo- systems it was possible to obtain the plasma concentra-
nuclear explosion, which was equivalent to 10 megatons tion of 1013−1014 cm−3 and confinement times of the
of TNT, was performed by the US army in 1952. About order of 10−3−10−1 s only. Therefore, the next step was
10 months later the Soviet Union army realized the first the use of quasi-toroidal traps with closed magnetic field
thermonuclear explosion with the use of lithium lines: Stellarators (developed in the USA) and
reactions: Tokamaks (developed in the Soviet Union). In
Stellarators, additionally to coils generating a toroidal
(5) Li + n → 4He + 3T + 4.8 MeV
6
field (Bz) there were used special windings producing
(6) 6
Li + p → 4He + 3He + 3.9 MeV the so-called poloidal field (BΘ), which caused some
(7) 6
Li + 2D → 2 4He + 22.3 MeV twisting of the magnetic field lines and improved plasma
stability. To heat plasma in Stellarators, the use was
In the modern 3F-type (fission-fusion-fission) bombs usually made of electromagnetic waves of frequencies
the fission of 235U or 239Pu triggers the thermonuclear ensuring the cyclotron resonance of electrons or ions.
fusion reactions of the material containing lithium and In the late 60s of the XX century, particular attention
deuterium, while the emitted neutrons induce the was paid to Tokamaks, in which the poloidal magnetic
fission of an outer shield made of 238U. It should be field was produced by a strong current flowing induced
reminded that the fission of 1 kg of uranium releases in plasma ring by mean of a large transformer [38]. Very
energy equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT, while the good results obtained within the T-10 facility (at the
fusion of 1 kg of 6LiD releases energy of 68 kilotons of Kurchatov Institute in Moscow) changed directions of
Nuclear fusion – energy for future S43

Fig. 1. Various types of plasma

plasma current flow in plasma
current flow external coil magnetic traps. In the upper row
in external coil – open-ended magnetic traps of
the Mirror-type (on the left) and
Spindle Cusp-type (on the right).
In the lower row – the Stellarator
and Tokamak traps.
magnetic field direction of
magnetic field lines lines particle loss

transformer yoke

coils for toroidal

field BT
coils producing toroidal field BT

poloidal
magnetic field

toroidal magnetic
plasma current resultant field
windings producing field BΘ flow magnetic
field

fusion research considerably. Numerous different toka-

maks were built and investigated all over the world. The
most famous is the large JET (Joint European Torus)
facility constructed by the European Community in
Culham, UK. It still remains the largest tokamak in the
world. The vacuum chamber of JET is shown in Fig. 2.
The large toroidal chamber of JET consists of many
segments and it has complicated structure, because walls
must be protected against high-temperature plasma and
it is necessary to arrange an appropriate number of
heating antennas and diagnostic ports. There is also an
internal limiter (of the plasma surface) and the so-called
divertor region, where a special configuration of
magnetic field lines enables some impurity ions to be
collected.
Other examples of the large tokamaks were the Fig. 2. Large experimental chamber of the JET (Joint
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) facility operated European Tokamak) facility. There are shown the central
at PPPL in the USA (but shut down a few years ago) column (containing a yoke of the large transformer used for
and the JT-60 facility in Japan (still in use). A inducing the main discharge current), some equipment
comparison of the main parameters of these devices is (microwave antennas) for additional plasma heating, diag-
given in Table 1. nostic ports upon the external wall and the divertor region (at
Extensive studies of different tokamaks, which were the bottom).
run in many laboratories, ensured a considerable
improvement in plasma parameters, as shown in Fig. 3. Three years later the JET was able to produce pulses
In 1991, using a D-T mixture, the JET team obtained lasting about 6 s and releasing about 4 MW. In 1997,
from fusion 1.8 MW during about 1 second. In 1994, there was also achieved a record power of 16 MW in
the TFTR facility delivered about 10 MW in 0.7-s pulses. pulses lasting about 2 s [15]. It should, however, be noted

Table 1. Parameters of the large Tokamak facilities

JET (Europe) JT-60 (Japan) TFTR (USA)

Minor radius, m 2.10/1.25 0.95 0.85

Larger radius, m 2.96 3.0 2.48
Toroidal magnetic field, T 3.45 4.5 5.0
Plasma current, MA 7.0 2.7 3.0
Pulse length, s 30 5−10 2
Additional heating, MW 44 54 27
Working gas D-D H D-D or D-T
S44 M. J. Sadowski

1000 Year
Fusion product, niτE, Ti (×1020 m−3 s, MoC)

100
1990

10

1980
1

0.1
1970

1965 Fig. 4. Artistic view of the future ITER facility, which shows
1 10 100 1000 the size of the main experimental chamber and magnetic coils.
Central ion temperature Ti (MoC) The large radius of the chamber should be 6 meters, and the
overall ITER dimensions should be about 30 m × 30 m. The
Fig. 3. Results of the largest tokamak-type experiments, which facility should produce 500 MW in repetitive pulses lasting
show the progress in fusion research. Values of the so-called 100 s each.
fusion product (niTiτE) include the highest values of the ion
concentration (ni), ion temperature (Ti) and energy confine-
ment time (τE). on the inertial confinement (ICF). In that case the main
aim was to produce very dense and hot plasma, in which
(in spite of its very short lifetime) one could achieve
that the plasma heating in those experiments consumed a large number of fusion reactions. The simplest method
22 MW in energetic neutral particles (NBI) and about was based on the use of ultrahigh-current linear
3 MW in microwaves (ICRH). Nevertheless, these good discharges (so-called Z-pinch experiments) which
results accelerated the design of a large ITER (Interna- produce their own magnetic fields for the plasma
tional Tokamak Experimental Reactor) facility. Four confinement. Many Z-pinch experiments have demon-
large teams of scientists (from EC, Japan, USA and strated that such facilities might be sources of very
Russia) were engaged in various tokamak studies intense X-ray pulses [40], as shown in Fig. 5.
and the detailed project of ITER. Some crisis appeared Another method of the generation of very dense
in 1996, when two theoreticians (W. Dorland and magnetized plasma was based on the use of two coaxial
M. Kotschenreuther) from Texas University presented electrodes [4, 25]. A high-current pulse discharge
a theoretical model describing the development of between such electrodes can form a dense plasma layer
strong turbulences inside high-temperature plasma (current sheath), which (after its acceleration along the
under conditions assumed for ITER. The US govern- electrode) can collapse at the z-axis and form a dense
ment shut down the financing of several laboratories plasma region (plasma focus).
and decided to withdraw from the ITER project. Design Due to the described processes, it is possible to
studies have, however, been continued by EC and produce dense and high-temperature plasma of a con-
Japanese teams, as shown in Fig. 4. centration of 1017−1019 cm−3, temperatures ranging from
Some stoppage of tokamak research (in the mid several hundred eV to several keV and lifetimes of the
1990s) accelerated studies of other options. Germany order of 100−200 ns. It should be noted that studies of
and Japan continued intense research on advanced such plasma discharges have been carried out in Poland
Stellarator systems. After a series of successful experi- for many years. Several PF-type facilities have been
ments with several Wendelstein facilities, which showed constructed and investigated at IBJ (and continued by
good agreement with theoretical predictions, the German IPJ) at Świerk, and later on at the Military Academy of
government undertook decision to finance the construc- Technology (WAT) and IPPLM in Warsaw. On the
tion of a large Stellerator Wendelstein 7-X in a new basis of those studies a new mega-joule PF-1000 facility
research centre in Greifswald [39]. A considerable [26, 35], which is the largest Mather-type machine in
progress has also been achieved with helical facilities the world, has been designed and constructed, as shown
investigated in Japan. New Japanese experiments and in Fig. 6.
the Wendelstein 7-X machine (probably available in Progress in the pulse power technique made it also
several years) should enable to verify the scaling laws possible a revival of Z-pinch experiments [40]. A new
and to make next step towards the construction of a technology enables the generation of current pulses of
fusion reactor based on these complicated magnetic intensities ranging many MA. Experiments with the
configurations. generation of intense electron- or proton-beams (in
Simultaneously with studies of different magnetic PBFA and ANGARA machines) have been shut down,
confinement fusion (MCF) concepts, in some military mainly because of the difficulties with the focusing of
research centres, there was carried out intense research such beams upon nuclear micro-targets. Fusion-
Nuclear fusion – energy for future S45

2 million Volts

1 million Amps

argon K-shell yield [kJ/cm]

100 nanoseconds peak current [MA]

Fig. 5. High-speed camera pictures of Z-pinch type discharges (on the left) and the X-ray emission yield vs. the discharge
current, as measured in several Z-pinch experiments carried out in the USA.

oriented research based on the use of high-energy heavy consisting of 480 very thin tungsten wires there were
ions has never been started on a reasonable scale. produced record X-ray yields of the total power of
Nevertheless, the rising interest in extremely high- 290 TW. Such X-ray pulses could be used for ICF
current discharges induced the design and construction purposes, but recent computer simulations have shown
of many Z-pinch facilities, particularly in the USA and that one needs X-ray pulses of power ranging 1000 TW
Russia. The modular construction of those facilities and energy of about 16 MJ. For these purposes, the
enabled record discharge power of 1014−1016 W to Sandia Laboratories has started to build a new X-1
be achieved, but fusion neutron yields appeared to be Machine. Due to rapid development of laser technology,
moderate. A simplified scheme of a powerful SATURN the ICF research has been oriented on the use of diffe-
facility is presented in Fig. 7. rent powerful lasers. Initially the use was made of
This system was used for numerous Z-pinch type Nd-glass lasers (λ = 1.05 µm), and micro-targets in the
experiments with the implosion of thin cylindrical form of miniature glass spheres filled up with a D-T
targets composed of many (from several dozens to mixture. In the USA, in the 1970s, there were built several
several hundreds) very thin metal (usually W) wires. powerful laser systems, e.g. JANUS (0.2−0.4 TW),
The experiments with the implosion of 12.5-mm-i.d. ARGUS (2−4 TW) and SHIVA (25−30 TW). In the
cylinders (consisted of 70 tungsten wires of 7.5 µm in 1980s, there were put into operation new systems:
diameter) generated X-ray pulses of energy equal to SHIVA-II (100−200 TW) and SHIVA-NOVA
450−800 kJ. After some modernization, the SATURN (200−300 TW). Large laser facilities were also built in
machine was converted into the Z-Machine in which France (PHEBUS and LULI), in Japan (from
one can generate current pulses of intensity reaching GEKKO-II to GEKKO-XII), in GB (VULCAN and
27 MA. In the experiments with cylindrical targets HELEN) and in the Soviet Union (DELFIN and other).

Fig. 6. Experimental chamber of the mega-joule PF-1000

facility, which was designed at IPJ at Świerk, Poland, and Fig. 7. Scheme of the large Z-pinch experiment SATURN,
assembled at the IPPLM in Warsaw. It is now used by the which was designed and constructed at the Sandia
International Centre for Dense Magnetized Plasma operated Laboratories, USA. The size of the facility can be estimated
under UNESCO auspices. by a comparison with people figures (shown inside).
S46 M. J. Sadowski

Fig. 8. Scheme of the fusion experiment with a triple Hohlraum-type target and a micro-target placed in the centre. Intense
X-ray pulses, which are to be generated by high-current Z-pinch discharges through thin wire sets (placed at the both ends),
have to ionize the micro-target and to induce the nuclear fusion ignition.

When it was proved that the short-wavelength radiation

is better absorbed by micro-targets some studies have
been oriented on the use of the 3rd harmonics. Consider-
able improvements have also been made in the construc- laser
laser beams
tion of the micro-targets and in uniformity of their irra-
diation. Using the modified micro-targets, the
GEKKO-XII experiment (with 12 laser beams of the
total power of 50 TW) generated 1012 neutrons per shot.
In order to improve the plasma compression, there
were developed new micro-targets with so-called lenses
lenses
indirect drive. In such systems, the laser beams are
introduced into a metal mini-target (Hohlraum), where
they are converted into intense X-rays which heat and
compress a micro-target placed in the centre. A simplified
scheme of such an experiment is shown in Fig. 8.
Experiments performed in the large NOVA facility
with different micro-targets and computer simulations
have demonstrated that for ICF one should generate
laser pulses of power above 500 TW and the length of
about 4 ns, i.e. about 2 MJ. Therefore, it was decided
to build a very large laser facility called the NIF vacuum chamber pellet
(National Ignition Facility). A scheme of a multi-beam
laser fusion experiment and a picture of the NIF 20 m
chamber are shown in Fig. 9.
It should be addend that the laser technology
develops very quickly, and very high laser beams become
available. A new concept of the so-called fast ignition
has been proposed [37], in which the first powerful laser
pulse ensures the preliminary formation and compression
of hot plasma, and the second (even more powerful,
e.g. 1015 W) laser pulse drills a small hole in such
a plasma target, inducing the fast triggering of fusion
reactions. There are constructed new powerful CO2 and
KrF gas lasers. In the recent years, a considerable progress
in the construction of diode-pumped solid-state lasers
(DPSSL) has been achieved. Such lasers are character-
ized by high efficiency and very high repetition. Several
large laboratories (particularly ILE in Japan and LLNL
in the USA) have started to design the DPSSL systems
for controlled fusion purposes.
Coming back to estimates of prospects of fusion- Fig. 9. Scheme of the multi-beam laser fusion experiment
based power stations, one should pay attention to and a picture of the bottom part of the NIF (National Ignition
political and financial decisions on support of tokamak- Facility) designed for mega-joule laser experiments at the
based research [7, 20]. The progress in this field is LLNL, USA. The picture was taken before the first light-shots
unquestionable. The recent increase in activities of with 32 laser beams in 2003.
Nuclear fusion – energy for future S47

many groups engaged in tokamak research has led to High-temperature plasma research at IPJ (previously
the revival of the ITER project. Six partners (EC, China, IBJ) at Świerk
Japan, Russia, South Korea and the USA again) have
agreed to consider different options and to support the Experimental and theoretical studies of high-tempera-
construction of ITER. After many discussions the EC ture plasmas were initiated at the IBJ (now IPJ) in the
authorities have chosen the CEA centre in Cadarache, mid 1950s. The first studies concerned a theoretical
France, as the optimal site for ITER. Japan, South analysis of fusion chain reactions, which are of particular
Korea and USA have preferred another location in importance for astrophysics [8]. The first experimental
Rookasho, Japan. The final decision about the location studies were devoted to observations of hot plasma
of ITER at Cadarache was undertaken in June 2005. generated by a special coaxial injector designed by
A new step towards the construction of thermonuclear M. Gryzinski et al. [10]. On the contrary to the conven-
reactors will be made if the ITER facility is built in about tional coaxial injectors, the system was equipped with
ten or dozen years. Therefore, many experts are two coaxial electrodes consisted of many (2−3 dozens)
engaged in detailed technical projects of future fusion- thin metal rods distributed symmetrically around the
power stations. A simplified scheme of such an energetic electrode periphery. It made the electrodes penetrable
system is presented in Fig. 10. for charged particles produced by a high-current pulse
The most important parts of such a system will be discharge within the inter-electrode region. A scheme of
internal- and external-shields, which must ensure the a multi-rod plasma injector (RPI) system and a picture
energy transfer from fast fusion-produced neutrons of one of the first experimental setups are shown
(about 2.5 MeV from D-D reactions and 14 MeV from in Fig. 11.
D-T fusion). The other fusion products as helium and In the 1950s, experimental studies were carried out
tritium should be captured by appropriate physical by a team headed initially by Prof. A. Sołtan, and
and chemical processes in the shielding layers. The
recovered tritium gas might then be used as the fusion
fuel again. The whole system must of course be equipped
with appropriate heat exchangers, gas turbines and elec-
tric current generators. During the designing and
construction of future fusion power stations, particular
attention must be paid to a proper choice of construc-
tional materials and modular structures, in order to
enable full robotics service inside the fusion chamber.
Some technological solutions have already been tested
in large tokamaks (like JET and TFTR), but extensive
material studies must still be performed under radiation
and thermal loads similar to those expected for future
thermonuclear reactors.

superconducting magnets

high-temperature plasma

D+T
supply of D
neutron shield
containing Li for
T and He production

outer shielding
T
separated T
4
T+ He

mixture of T
and He

4
vacuum He
chamber
hellium outlet

electric network

heat exchanger
turbine and generator

Fig. 11. Scheme of the RPI-type system, which presents the

electrode configuration and ion trajectories for two different
Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of a future electric power station operational modes, and the RPI-15 device (of nominal energy
based on the plasma confinement within a toroidal magnetic equal to 15 kJ) used for studies of intense plasma-ion streams
trap of the tokamak-type. in the mid 1970s.
S48 M. J. Sadowski

successively by Prof. Z. Wilhelmi and Dr M. Gryzinski.

The studies included optical observations with high-
speed cameras and detailed measurements of plasma
by means of different probes and optical-spectroscopy
tools, e.g. spectrometers and mono-chromators. The
theoretical studies concerned motion of accelerated
ions, mostly by means of a single-particle model. Results
of those experimental and theoretical studies were
summarized in a series of IBJ reports, which were later
on published in “Nukleonika” [9, 10, 30]. The most
important result was the determination of different
operational modes of RPI systems and the main
parameters of the produced plasma-ion streams, i.e.
their dimensions and dynamics, concentration and
temperature distributions etc. These results became the
basis for the design and construction of new experi-
mental facilities of the RPI-type. It was demonstrated
that the RPI facilities can generate high-temperature
plasmas of parameters interesting for basic research on
controlled nuclear fusion. In the RPI discharges
performed with the pure deuterium puffing, there were
observed fusion-produced neutrons, although their yield
was not very high. In order to optimize the RPI
discharges, particular attention was paid to develop-
ment of different diagnostic techniques. X-ray pinhole
cameras and various analyzers of charged particles were
designed and applied in experimental studies. Results
of those investigations were presented at different Fig. 12. Model of the SM magnetic configuration, which shows
conferences and published in a series of papers [1, 3, the magnetic field lines distribution (in 3 symmetry planes),
31, 32]. and the KAKTUS facility filled up with plasma from 6 plasma
It should be noted that almost simultaneously with injectors located symmetrically and powered simultaneously.
the development of RPI research some efforts were
undertaken to investigate the magnetic confinement of with laser-produced plasma were performed, but due
high-temperature plasmas. An original concept of the to organizational and financial limitations that research
so-called spherical multipole (SM) magnetic trap was was stopped in the 1970s. Nevertheless, the concept of
developed by M. Sadowski [22], and a new experimental the SM configuration has later been adopted by other
system was designed [23]. The main idea of that experi- researchers for the construction of multi-dipole Q-ma-
ment was to contain plasma within the minimum-B chines [17]. This idea is still exploited for the confine-
configuration formed by 32 magnetic dipoles (in practice ment of plasma in sources of intense ion beams [18].
– small coils), which were distributed around a spherical In the late 1960s, the IBJ team became involved in
vacuum chamber and oriented in the radial direction new plasma experiments organized by Prof. S. Kaliski
(see Fig. 12). It was shown that such a SM-configuration at the Military Academy of Technology (WAT) in
ensures the magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) stability Warsaw. The IBJ team was responsible for the design
and simultaneously it enables plasma losses to be and construction of the so-called plasma-focus (PF)
reduced, due to the elimination of the so-called facilities and the development appropriate diagnostic
magnetic slits and the formation of narrow “loss-cones” techniques, e.g. a laser interferometry for measure-
only. In the first SM-type experimental facility (called ments of the dense plasma concentration. The first
the KAKTUS machine) high-temperature plasma was PF-20 and PF-150 devices (of energy ranging from 20 kJ
produced by 6 coaxial injectors distributed symmetri- to 150 kJ) were constructed at Świerk, and after tests
cally around the trap, as shown in Fig. 12. they were transferred to WAT. When the plasma
The most important result of the KAKTUS experi- physics group was established at WAT, the main
ment was the demonstration that the charged particle research activities became concentrated on studies of
losses have considerably been reduced and the confine- laser-produced plasmas and PF-type discharges.
ment time has been increased [24]. In 1968, the author Experimental studies of PF discharges within the PF-20
of this concept (M. Sadowski) received a fellowship and PF-150 facilities were carried out by joint teams
from the Kosciuszko Foundation to study plasma from IBJ and WAT. The most important results of those
confinement problems at the Princeton Plasma Physics studies were presented at different conferences [2, 6].
Laboratory, USA. After his come back to Świerk in In particular the results of the PF-150 experiment, as
1969, experimental investigations of the SM configur- performed with the additional plasma heating by means
ation were continued and a second KAKTUS-II device of a 100-J CO2 laser beam, were presented at the
was constructed. The KAKTUS-II machine was designed international conference in Lausanne in 1975 [14]. That
especially to be filled up with clean plasma produced experiment, in which an increase in the fusion-neutron
by an intense laser beam. Some preliminary experiments yield was achieved, became the basis for a large mega-
Nuclear fusion – energy for future S49

Fig. 13. General view of the PF-360 experimental chamber,

as constructed at Świerk, and some diagnostic equipment used
for studies of X-rays, fast ion beams and fusion-produced
neutrons from D-D reactions.

joule project. The IPJ plasma team was asked to design

and construct the mega-joule PF-facility and HV supply
units for a more powerful laser. In the late 1970s a larger
PF-360 device, which constituted a prototype module
for the PF-1000 facility, was constructed and put into
operation at Świerk, as shown in Fig. 13.
Experimental studies of plasma phenomena within Fig. 15. General view of the IONOTRON-SW30 machine
the PF-360 facility were carried out by joint teams from equipped with the RPI-type plasma accelerator of the vertical
IBJ (IPJ) and WAT (later on IPPLM). The most axis and a carousel holder of samples (below), capacitor banks
(behind and on the right), and an electronic control unit (on
important results were reported at numerous interna-
the left).
tional conferences and published in different journals,
e.g. [11, 33]. Particular attention was paid to the studies
of the plasma dynamics and neutron yields. shown that the plasma streams, containing special
Simultaneously with research on PF phenomena, admixtures introduced by gas puffing, can be used for
extensive studies of RPI discharges were continued at modifications of different materials, e.g. for the produc-
Świerk and a new larger RPI-type facility (so-called tion of solar cells [19]. In order to deliver laboratory
SOWA-400 machine) as well as two smaller devices. equipment to other research institutes, a special RPI-
IBIS and MAJA facilities of about 150 kJ each were type facility (so-called IONOTRON-SW30) was
designed and constructed. The SOWA-400 facility is designed and constructed, as shown in Fig. 15.
shown in Fig. 14. Results obtained with the different RPI facilities
The most important results of measurements, as (mentioned above) were reported at international
performed within IBIS and MAJA facilities, were mass- conferences and published in several journals [27, 36].
and energy-spectra of ions delivered by the pulsed On the basis of an optimistic scaling, assuming an
plasma streams produced in these devices. It was also effective interaction of two counter-streaming discharges,
a new project of a mega-joule SOWA-1000 facility was
launched. Due to financial limitations it was realized
very slowly, and it became completely stopped in the
1980s, but the large experimental hall and some parts
of equipment have been used for other purposes. On
the contrary to the SOWA-400 and SOWA-1000
facilities, which have not been completed, a smaller
MAJA device (after its use for RPI studies) was
converted into the modernized MAJA-PF facility,
which has been exploited mainly for research on the
formation of “hot-spots” and polarization of selected
X-ray lines, as shown in Fig. 16.
Several series of experiments within the MAJA-PF
delivered important information that X-ray spectral
lines, particularly those emitted from “hot-spots”, have
evidently different polarization [12]. It appeared to be
Fig. 14. General view of the SOWA-400 facility and some the experimental evidence that some electron beams
diagnostic equipment during tests carried out at IBJ in the (inside the pinch column) move also in the radial
early 1970s. direction [13]. During recent ten years particular
S50 M. J. Sadowski

Fig. 17. UHV stand equipped with the linear (cylindrical)

Fig. 16. General view of the MAJA-PF facility and some arc plasma source and laser trigger system, built in the frame
diagnostic equipment used for studies of the corpuscular of the European Community-Research Infrastructure Activity
emission and the polarization of X-rays. under the FP6 “Structuring of the European Research Area”
program (CARE, contract number RII3-CT-2003-506395).
attention was paid to the optimization of different PF
facilities. As mentioned above, the PF-1000 device Association EURATOM-IPPL on January 1, 2005, the
(designed at IPJ at Świerk) was assembled at IPPLM Dept. P-V of IPJ became an active member of this
in Warsaw. It was put into the operation at a lower energy association. Two experimental groups have undertaken
level in 1994. The experimental investigations were responsibility for the realization of different tasks. The
carried out in the frame of the bilateral scientific first task concerns the elaboration of special Cerenkov-
collaboration of IPJ and IPPLM [28, 29]. Some studies type detectors applicable for measurements of fast
were also performed in the frame of the international electrons escaping from tokamak-type facilities, e.g.
collaboration with the Czech Technical University in TORE-SUPRA in Cadarache, France. The second task
Prague, the IPF in Stuttgart, the Physico-Technical concerns the application of solid-state nuclear track
Institute in Kharkov, as well as the Kurchatov Institute detectors (SSNTD) for measurements of fast protons
and Lebedev Institute (both in Moscow). Many joint and other fusion products emitted from tokamak-type
papers have been presented at different international facilities, e.g. TEXTOR in Juelich, Germany. It means
conferences and published in various journals [28, 29, 34]. that the IPJ plasma teams have been involved in an
Plasma studies at the IPJ at Świerk have been run active participation in large-scale plasma experiments
mainly in the Department of Plasma Physics and at foreign laboratories within the frame of the
Technology P-V (headed by Prof. M. J. Sadowski), EURATOM fusion program.
divided into several experimental and theoretical
groups, as described in the World Survey of Activities
in Controlled Fusion Research. At the moment, this Summary and conclusions
Department employs about 30 persons (including 17
scientists and engineers). Selected theoretical studies, This invited paper can be summarized as follows:
in particular those on solitons and strong non-linear − Resources of natural fuels undergo destruction and
phenomena, have been performed by a plasma theory might be exhausted, and the conventional fission
group (5 persons, headed by Prof. E. Infeld) in the reactors have difficulties with radioactive wastes.
Department of Nuclear Theory P-VIII. Some techno- Therefore, the mastering of fusion is of great
logical studies, and in particular those on material importance for many nations all over the world.
engineering with plasma discharges, have been carried − Future fusion power stations will eliminate many
out within the cooperation with an experimental team wastes and they will be safe in the operation as well
(5 persons) in the Department of Material Studies as from the point of view of the proliferation of
P-IX (headed by Prof. J. Piekoszewski and Prof. Z. nuclear materials.
Werner). − Fusion power stations will not be larger than the
In recent years, activities of Dept. P-V in the field large conventional energetic systems, and they will
of plasma technology have been concentrated upon the not undergo influences of weather or season. Safe
application of ultrahigh-vacuum (UHV) arc-discharges thermonuclear reactors might be located near large
for the deposition of thin superconducting (pure industrial or human concentrations in order to
niobium) layers upon internal surfaces of RF cavities reduce expensive and complicated systems of the
for particle accelerators [16]. A special UHV facility power transfer.
has been designed by the team headed by Dr J. Langner. The important achievements of IBJ (IPJ) in high-
That facility has been assembled and put into operation, temperature plasma research are as follows:
as shown in Fig. 17. − Invention and development of the so-called RPI-
Coming back to fusion-oriented plasma research, it type facilities applicable for studies of intense plasma-
should be noted that after the establishment of the ion streams and technology-oriented research.
Nuclear fusion – energy for future S51

− Discovery and experimental study of a new-type SM In: 7th European Conf on Controlled Fusion and Plasma
configuration of a plasma magnetic trap, which is Physics, Lausanne, Switzerland II:281−285
still widely used in many ion sources. 15. Keilhacker M, Watkins M (and the JET Team) (1998)
− Development of plasma diagnostic techniques, e.g. JET experiments in deuterium-tritium. Europhysics News
29;6:230−231
charged-particle analyzers, laser interferometers,
16. Langner J, Sadowski MJ, Tazzari S (2005) Research
Cerenkov-type detectors, solid-state nuclear track activities within a frame of the CARE-JRA1 thin film
detectors (SSNTD) and time-resolved optical cavity production work-package. Elektronika 2-3:76−77
spectroscopy. 17. Limpacher R, MacKenzie KR (1973) Magnetic multipole
− Optimization of different PF-type facilities, and, in containment of large uniform collision-less quiescent
particular, the determination of the emission plasmas. Rev Sci Instrum 44;6:726−731
characteristics of X-rays, fast electrons, accelerated 18. Pelletier J (1995) Distributed ECR plasma sources. In:
ions, fusion-produced neutrons, and changes in Popov OA (ed.) High density plasma sources: design,
optical spectra of the visible radiation. physics and performance. Noyes Publications, Park
It should be added that the active participation of the Ridge, NJ, part I, pp 380−425
19. Piekoszewski J, Werner Z, Langner J et al. (1993)
IPJ plasma groups in the EURATOM fusion programme
Implanted and plasma pulse annealed solar Wells in
opens new possibilities. novel, modified Bridgman grown polycrystalline silicon.
Electron Techn 26;2-3:119−127
20. Rhodes R (1995) Dark Sun: the making of the hydrogen
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